Cytokines in cancer immunotherapy

The quantity, function and anti-tumor effect of Mucosal associated invariant T cells in patients with bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

Bladder cancer (BC), a prevalent malignancy in the urinary system, often poses challenges for effective treatment. Immunotherapy, harnessing the immune system, has exhibited promise in early-stage clinical trials. Mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, a subset of immune cells implicated in various diseases, including certain cancer, have yet to be explored in BC patients. We aimed to investigate the quantity, function, and anti-tumor effects of MAIT cells in BC patients.

METHODS

A total of 75 newly diagnosed BC patients and 183 healthy volunteers were included. Blood samples were collected and analyzed to evaluate the quantity and function of MAIT cells. Surgical resection provided BC tissues for further analysis, and the clinical features of BC tumors were collected and their relationship with MAIT cells was explored.

RESULTS

MAIT cells were identified in both healthy individuals and BC patients. The proportion of MAIT cells in the peripheral blood of BC patients did not significantly differ from that of healthy controls. However, the study revealed a correlation between the proportion of IFN-γ producing MAIT cells and tumor number and invasion in BC patients. Furthermore, MAIT cells exhibited cytotoxic effects on BC cells in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the role of MAIT cells in BC. While the quantity of MAIT cells showed no significant change in BC patients, their functional attributes and association with tumor characteristics suggest their potential as an immunotherapy target in BC treatment.

Exploring the detailed role of interleukins in cancer: A comprehensive review of literature

The cancer cells that are not normal can grow into tumors, invade surrounding tissues, and travel to other parts of the body via the lymphatic or circulatory systems. Interleukins, a vital class of signaling proteins, facilitate cell-to-cell contact within the immune system. A type of non-coding RNA known as lncRNAs mediates its actions by regulating miRNA-mRNA roles (Interleukins). Because of their dual function in controlling the growth of tumors and altering the immune system's response to cancer cells, interleukins have been extensively studied concerning cancer. Understanding the complex relationships between interleukins, the immune system, the tumor microenvironment, and the components of interleukin signaling pathways that impact the miRNA-mRNA axis, including lncRNAs, has advanced significantly in cancer research. Due to the significant and all-encompassing influence of interleukins on the immune system and the development and advancement of cancers, lncRNAs play a crucial role in cancer research by modulating interleukins. Their diverse effects on immune system regulation, tumor growth encouragement, and tumor inhibition make them appealing candidates for potential cancer treatments and diagnostics. A deeper understanding of the relationship between the biology of interleukin and lncRNAs will likely result in more effective immunotherapy strategies and individualized cancer treatments.

Synthetic biology approaches for improving the specificity and efficacy of cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has shown robust efficacy in treating a broad spectrum of hematological and solid cancers. Despite the transformative impact of immunotherapy on cancer treatment, several outstanding challenges remain. These challenges include on-target off-tumor toxicity, systemic toxicity, and the complexity of achieving potent and sustainable therapeutic efficacy. Synthetic biology has emerged as a promising approach to overcome these obstacles, offering innovative tools for engineering living cells with customized functions. This review provides an overview of the current landscape and future prospects of cancer immunotherapy, particularly emphasizing the role of synthetic biology in augmenting its specificity, controllability, and efficacy. We delineate and discuss two principal synthetic biology strategies: those targeting tumor surface antigens with engineered immune cells and those detecting intratumoral disease signatures with engineered gene circuits. This review concludes with a forward-looking perspective on the enduring challenges in cancer immunotherapy and the potential breakthroughs that synthetic biology may contribute to the field.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as an Ideal Platform for Cancer Immunotherapy: Recent Advances and Future Directions

Cancer immunotherapy recently transforms the traditional approaches against various cancer malignancies. Immunotherapy includes systemic and local treatments to enhance immune responses against cancer and involves strategies such as immune checkpoints, cancer vaccines, immune modulatory agents, mimetic antigen-presenting cells, and adoptive cell therapy. Despite promising results, these approaches still suffer from several limitations including lack of precise delivery of immune-modulatory agents to the target cells and off-target toxicity, among others, that can be overcome using nanotechnology. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are investigated to improve various aspects of cancer immunotherapy attributed to the advantageous structural features of this nanomaterial. MSNs can be engineered to alter their properties such as size, shape, porosity, surface functionality, and adjuvanticity. This review explores the immunological properties of MSNs and the use of MSNs as delivery vehicles for immune-adjuvants, vaccines, and mimetic antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The review also details the current strategies to remodel the tumor microenvironment to positively reciprocate toward the anti-tumor immune cells and the use of MSNs for immunotherapy in combination with other anti-tumor therapies including photodynamic/thermal therapies to enhance the therapeutic effect against cancer. Last, the present demands and future scenarios for the use of MSNs for cancer immunotherapy are discussed.

The Role of Estrogen and Estrogen Receptors in Head and Neck Tumors

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the most common histological form of head and neck tumors (HNTs), which originate from the epithelium of the lips and oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, salivary glands, nasal cavity, and sinuses. The main risk factors include consumption of tobacco in all forms and alcohol, as well as infections with high-risk human papillomaviruses or the Epstein-Barr virus. Regardless of the etiological agent, the risk of developing different types of HNTs is from two to more than six times higher in males than in females. The reason for such disparities probably lies in a combination of both biological and psychosocial factors. Therefore, it is hypothesized that exposure to female sex hormones, primarily estrogen, provides women with protection against the formation and metastasis of HNTs. In this review, we synthesized available knowledge on the role of estrogen and estrogen receptors (ERs) in the development and progression of HNTs, with special emphasis on membrane ERs, which are much less studied. We can summarize that in addition to epidemiologic studies unequivocally pointing to the protective effect of estrogen in women, an increased expression of both nuclear ERs, ERα, and ERβ, and membrane ERs, ERα36, GPER1, and NaV1.2, was present in different types of HNSCC, for which anti-estrogens could be used as an effective therapeutic approach.

Biomimetic nanotechnology for cancer immunotherapy: State of the art and future perspective

Cancer continues to be a significant worldwide cause of mortality. This underscores the urgent need for novel strategies to complement and overcome the limitations of conventional therapies, such as imprecise targeting and drug resistance. Cancer Immunotherapy utilizes the body's immune system to target malignant cells, reducing harm to healthy tissue. Nevertheless, the efficacy of immunotherapy exhibits variation across individuals and has the potential to induce autoimmune responses. Biomimetic nanoparticles (bNPs) have transformative potential in cancer immunotherapy, promising improved accurate targeting, immune system activation, and resistance mechanisms, while also reducing the occurrence of systemic autoimmune side effects. This integration offers opportunities for personalized medicine and better therapeutic outcomes. Despite considerable potential, bNPs face barriers like insufficient targeting, restricted biological stability, and interactions within the tumor microenvironment. The resolution of these concerns is crucial in order to expedite the integration of bNPs from the research setting into clinical therapeutic uses. In addition, optimizing manufacturing processes and reducing bNP-related costs are essential for practical implementation. The present research introduces comprehensive classifications of bNPs as well as recent achievements in their application in cancer immunotherapies, emphasizing the need to address barriers for swift clinical integration.

The cytokines in tumor microenvironment: from cancer initiation-elongation-progression to metastatic outgrowth

It is a well-known fact that cancer can be augmented by infections and inflammation. In fact, chronic inflammation establishes a tumor-supporting-microenvironment (TME), which contributes to neoplastic progression. Presently, extensive research is going on to establish the interrelationship between infection, inflammation, immune response, and cancer. Cytokines are the most essential components in this linkage, which are secreted by immune cells and stromal cells of TME. Cytokines have potential involvement in tumor initiation, elongation, progression, metastatic outgrowth, angiogenesis, and development of therapeutic resistance. They are also linked with increased cancer symptoms along with reduced quality of life in advanced cancer patients. The cancer patients experience multiple symptoms including pain, asthenia, fatigue, anorexia, cachexia, and neurodegenerative disorders etc. Anti-cancer therapeutics can be developed by targeting cytokines along with TME to reduce the immunocompromised state and also modulate the TME. This review article depicts the composition and function of different inflammatory cells within the TME, more precisely the role of cytokines in cancer initiation, elongation, and progression as well as the clinical effects in advanced cancer patients. It also provides an overview of different natural compounds, nanoparticles, and chemotherapeutic agents that can target cytokines along with TME, which finally pave the way for cytokines-targeted anti-cancer therapeutics.

An Updated Review of Interleukin-2 Therapy in Cancer and Autoimmune Diseases

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a cytokine that acts in dual and paradoxical ways in the immunotherapy of cancers and autoimmune diseases. Numerous clinical trial studies have shown that the use of different doses of this cytokine in various autoimmune diseases, transplantations, and cancers has resulted in therapeutic success. However, side effects of varying severity have been observed in patients. In recent years, to prevent these side effects, IL-2 has been engineered to bind more specifically to its receptors on the cell surface, decreasing IL-2 toxicities in patients. In this review article, we focus on some recent clinical trial studies and analyze them to determine the appropriate dose of IL-2 drug with the least toxicities. In addition, we discuss the engineering performed on IL-2, which shows that engineered IL-2 increases the specificity function of IL-2 and decreases its adverse effects.

Knockout cancer by nano-delivered immunotherapy using perfusion-aided scaffold-based tumor-on-a-chip

Cancer is a multifactorial disease produced by mutations in the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and resistance to cell death. Cancer progresses due to the escape of altered cells from immune monitoring, which is facilitated by the tumor's mutual interaction with its microenvironment. Understanding the mechanisms involved in immune surveillance evasion and the significance of the tumor microenvironment might thus aid in developing improved therapies. Although in vivo models are commonly utilized, they could be better for time, cost, and ethical concerns. As a result, it is critical to replicate an in vivo model and recreate the cellular and tissue-level functionalities. A 3D cell culture, which gives a 3D architecture similar to that found in vivo, is an appropriate model. Furthermore, numerous cell types can be cocultured, establishing cellular interactions between TME and tumor cells. Moreover, microfluidics perfusion can provide precision flow rates, thus simulating tissue/organ function. Immunotherapy can be used with the perfused 3D cell culture technique to help develop successful therapeutics. Immunotherapy employing nano delivery can target the spot and silence the responsible genes, ensuring treatment effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This study focuses on the importance of 3D cell culture in understanding the pathophysiology of 3D tumors and TME, the function of TME in drug resistance, tumor progression, and the development of advanced anticancer therapies for high-throughput drug screening.

Revolutionizing lymph node metastasis imaging: the role of drug delivery systems and future perspectives

The deployment of imaging examinations has evolved into a robust approach for the diagnosis of lymph node metastasis (LNM). The advancement of technology, coupled with the introduction of innovative imaging drugs, has led to the incorporation of an increasingly diverse array of imaging techniques into clinical practice. Nonetheless, conventional methods of administering imaging agents persist in presenting certain drawbacks and side effects. The employment of controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs) as a conduit for transporting imaging agents offers a promising solution to ameliorate these limitations intrinsic to metastatic lymph node (LN) imaging, thereby augmenting diagnostic precision. Within the scope of this review, we elucidate the historical context of LN imaging and encapsulate the frequently employed DDSs in conjunction with a variety of imaging techniques, specifically for metastatic LN imaging. Moreover, we engage in a discourse on the conceptualization and practical application of fusing diagnosis and treatment by employing DDSs. Finally, we venture into prospective applications of DDSs in the realm of LNM imaging and share our perspective on the potential trajectory of DDS development.

Enhanced Postsurgical Cancer Treatment Using Methacrylated Glycol Chitosan Hydrogel for Sustained DNA/Doxorubicin Delivery and Immunotherapy

Background: Cancer recurrence and metastasis are major contributors to treatment failure following tumor resection surgery. We developed a novel implantable drug delivery system utilizing glycol chitosan to address these issues. Glycol chitosan is a natural adjuvant, inducing dendritic cell activation to promote T helper 1 cell immune responses, macrophage activation, and cytokine production. Effective antigen production by dendritic cells initiates T-cell-mediated immune responses, aiding tumor growth control. Methods: In this study, we fabricated multifunctional methacrylated glycol chitosan (MGC) hydrogels with extended release of DNA/doxorubicin (DOX) complex for cancer immunotherapy. We constructed the resection model of breast cancer to verify the anticancer effects of MGC hydrogel with DNA/DOX complex. Results: This study demonstrated the potential of MGC hydrogel with extended release of DNA/DOX complex for local and efficient cancer therapy. The MGC hydrogel was implanted directly into the surgical site after tumor resection, activating tumor-related immune cells both locally and over a prolonged period of time through immune-reactive molecules. Conclusions: The MGC hydrogel effectively suppressed tumor recurrence and metastasis while enhancing immunotherapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects. This biomaterial-based drug delivery system, combined with cancer immunotherapy, can substantial improve treatment outcomes and patient prognosis.

Vaginal Microbiota and HPV in Latin America: A Narrative Review

With the expansion of human microbiome studies in the last 15 years, we have realized the immense implications of microbes in human health. The human holobiont is now accepted, given the commensal relationships with bacteria, fungi, parasites, viruses, and human cells. The cervicovaginal microbiota is a specific case within the human microbiome where diversity is lower to maintain a chemical barrier of protection against infections. This narrative review focuses on the vaginal microbiome. It summarizes key findings on how native bacteria protect women from disease or predispose them to damaging inflammatory processes with an emphasis on the role of HPV infections in Latin America, one of the world's regions with the highest cervical cancer prevalence.

Engineering immune response to regulate cardiovascular disease and cancer

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer are major contributors to global morbidity and mortality. This book chapter delves into the intricate relationship between the immune system and the pathogenesis of both cardiovascular and cancer diseases, exploring the roles of innate and adaptive immunities, immune regulation, and immunotherapy in these complex conditions. The innate immune system acts as the first line of defense against tissue damage and infection, with a significant impact on the initiation and progression of CVD and cancer. Endothelial dysfunction, a hallmark in CVD, shares commonalities with the tumor microenvironment in cancer, emphasizing the parallel involvement of the immune system in both conditions. The adaptive immune system, particularly T cells, contributes to prolonged inflammation in both CVD and cancer. Regulatory T cells and the intricate balance between different T cell subtypes influence disease progression, wound healing, and the outcomes of ischemic injury and cancer immunosurveillance. Dysregulation of immune homeostasis can lead to chronic inflammation, contributing to the development and progression of both CVD and cancer. Thus, immunotherapy emerged as a promising avenue for preventing and managing these diseases, with strategies targeting immune cell modulation, cytokine manipulation, immune checkpoint blockade, and tolerance induction. The impact of gut microbiota on CVD and cancer too is explored in this chapter, highlighting the role of gut leakiness, microbial metabolites, and the potential for microbiome-based interventions in cardiovascular and cancer immunotherapies. In conclusion, immunomodulatory strategies and immunotherapy hold promise in reshaping the landscape of cardiovascular and cancer health. Additionally, harnessing the gut microbiota for immune modulation presents a novel approach to prevent and manage these complex diseases, emphasizing the importance of personalized and precision medicine in healthcare. Ongoing research and clinical trials are expected to further elucidate the complex immunological underpinnings of CVD and cancer thereby refining these innovative approaches.

Structure-Guided Discovery of PD-1/PD-L1 Interaction Inhibitors: Peptide Design, Screening, and Optimization via Computation-Aided Phage Display Engineering

Cancer immunotherapy harnesses the immune system to combat tumors and has emerged as a major cancer treatment modality. The PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint modulates interactions between tumor cells and T cells and has been extensively targeted in cancer immunotherapy. However, the monoclonal antibodies known to target this immune checkpoint have considerable side effects, and novel PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors are therefore required. Herein, a peptide inhibitor to disrupt PD-1/PD-L1 interactions was designed through structure-driven phage display engineering coupled to computational modification and optimization. BetaPb, a novel peptide library constructed by using the known structure of PD-1/PD-L, was used to develop inhibitors against the immune checkpoint, and specific peptides with high affinity toward PD-1 were screened through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence, and biolayer interferometry. A potential inhibitor, B8, was preliminarily screened through biopanning. The binding affinity of B8 toward PD-1 was confirmed through computation-aided optimization. Assessment of B8 variants (B8.1, B8.2, B8.3, B8.4, and B8.5) demonstrated their attenuation of PD-1/PD-L1 interactions. B8.4 exhibited the strongest attenuation efficiency at a half-maximal effective concentration of 0.1 μM and the strongest binding affinity to PD-1 (equilibrium dissociation constant = 0.1 μM). B8.4 outperformed the known PD-1/PD-L1 interaction inhibitor PL120131 in disrupting PD-1/PD-L1 interactions, revealing that B8.4 has remarkable potential for modification to yield an antitumor agent. This study provides valuable information for the future development of peptide-based drugs, therapeutics, and immunotherapies for cancer.

A comprehensive review on lipid nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment: fabrication, future prospects and clinical trials

Over the last few decades, cancer has been considered a clinical challenge, being among the leading causes of mortality all over the world. Although many treatment approaches have been developed for cancer, chemotherapy is still the most utilized in the clinical setting. However, the available chemotherapeutics-based treatments have several caveats including their lack of specificity, adverse effects as well as cancer relapse and metastasis which mainly explains the low survival rate of patients. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been utilized as promising nanocarrier systems for chemotherapeutics to overcome the challenges of the currently applied therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Loading chemotherapeutic agent(s) into LNPs improves drug delivery at different aspects including specific targeting of tumours, and enhancing the bioavailability of drugs at the tumour site through selective release of their payload, thus reducing their undesired side effects on healthy cells. This review article delineates an overview of the clinical challenges in many cancer treatments as well as depicts the role of LNPs in achieving optimal therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, the review contains a comprehensive description of the many LNPs categories used as nanocarriers in cancer treatment to date, as well as the potential of LNPs for future applications in other areas of medicine and research.

The paradoxical role of cytokines and chemokines at the tumor microenvironment: a comprehensive review

Tumor progression and eradication have long piqued the scientific community's interest. Recent discoveries about the role of chemokines and cytokines in these processes have fueled renewed interest in related research. These roles are frequently viewed as contentious due to their ability to both suppress and promote cancer progression. As a result, this review critically appraised existing literature to discuss the unique roles of cytokines and chemokines in the tumor microenvironment, as well as the existing challenges and future opportunities for exploiting these roles to develop novel and targeted treatments. While these modulatory molecules play an important role in tumor suppression via enhanced cancer-cell identification by cytotoxic effector cells and directly recruiting immunological effector cells and stromal cells in the TME, we observed that they also promote tumor proliferation. Many cytokines, including GM-CSF, IL-7, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, and IL-21, have entered clinical trials for people with advanced cancer, while the FDA has approved interferon-alpha and IL-2. Nonetheless, low efficacy and dose-limiting toxicity limit these agents' full potential. Conversely, Chemokines have tremendous potential for increasing cancer immune-cell penetration of the tumor microenvironment and promoting beneficial immunological interactions. When chemokines are combined with cytokines, they activate lymphocytes, producing IL-2, CD80, and IL-12, all of which have a strong anticancer effect. This phenomenon opens the door to the development of effective anticancer combination therapies, such as therapies that can reverse cancer escape, and chemotaxis of immunosuppressive cells like Tregs, MDSCs, and TAMs.

Delivery of Interferon β-Encoding Plasmid via Lipid Nanoparticle Restores Interferon β Expression to Enhance Antitumor Immunity in Colon Cancer

Type I interferon (IFN-I) plays a critical role in host cancer immunosurveillance, but its expression is often impaired in the tumor microenvironment. We aimed at testing the hypothesis that cationic lipid nanoparticle delivery of interferon β (IFNβ)-encoding plasmid to tumors is effective in restoring IFNβ expression to suppress tumor immune evasion. We determined that IFN-I function in tumor suppression depends on the host immune cells. IFN-I activates the expression of Cxcl9 and Cxcl10 to enhance T cell tumor infiltration. RNA-Seq detected a low level of IFNα13 and IFNβ in colon tumor tissue. scRNA-Seq revealed that IFNβ is expressed in immune cell subsets in non-neoplastic human tissues and to a lesser degree in human colon tumor tissues. Forced expression of IFNα13 and IFNβ in colon tumor cells up-regulates major histocompatibility complex I (MHC I) expression and suppresses colon tumor growth in vivo. In human cancer patients, IFNβ expression is positively correlated with human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression, and IFN-I signaling activation correlates with the patient response to PD-1 blockade immunotherapy. To translate this finding to colon cancer immunotherapy, we formulated a 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium propane (DOTAP)-cholesterol-encapsulated IFNβ-encoding plasmid (IFNBCOL01). IFNBCOL01 transfects colon tumor cells to express IFNβ to increase the level of MHC I expression. IFNBCOL01 therapy transfects tumor cells and tumor-infiltrating immune cells to produce IFNβ to activate MHC I and granzyme B expression and inhibits colon tumor growth in mice. Our data determine that lipid nanoparticle delivery of IFNβ-encoding plasmid DNA enhances tumor immunogenicity and T cell effector function to suppress colon tumor growth in vivo.

Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity of a PD-1-targeted IL-15 in cynomolgus monkeys

PF-07209960 is a novel bispecific fusion protein composed of an anti-PD-1 antibody and engineered IL-15 cytokine mutein with reduced binding affinity to its receptors. The pharmacokinetics (PK), pharmacodynamics (PD), and toxicity of PF-07209960 were evaluated following once every other week subcutaneous (SC) or intravenous (IV) administration to cynomolgus monkeys in a repeat-dose PKPD (0.01-0.3 mg/kg/dose) and GLP toxicity study (0.1-3 mg/kg/dose). PF-07209960 showed dose dependent pharmacokinetics with a terminal T1/2 of 8 and 13 hours following IV administration at 0.03 and 0.1 mg/kg, respectively. The clearance is faster than a typical IgG1 antibody. Slightly faster clearance was also observed following the second dose, likely due to increased target pool and formation of anti-drug antibodies (ADA). Despite a high incidence rate of ADA (92%) observed in GLP toxicity study, PD-1 receptor occupancy, IL-15 signaling (STAT5 phosphorylation) and T cell expansion were comparable following the first and second doses. Activation and proliferation of T cells were observed with largest increase in cell numbers found in gamma delta T cells, followed by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and then NK cells. Release of cytokines IL-6, IFNγ, and IL-10 were detected, which peaked at 72 hours postdose. There was PF-07209960-related mortality at ≥1 mg/kg. At scheduled necropsy, microscopic findings were generalized mononuclear infiltration in various tissues. Both the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) and the highest non severely toxic dose (HNSTD) were determined to be 0.3 mg/kg/dose, which corresponded to mean Cmax and AUC48 values of 1.15 μg/mL and 37.9 μg*h/mL, respectively.

Bioengineering strategies to enhance the interleukin-18 bioactivity in the modern toolbox of cancer immunotherapy

Cytokines are the first modern immunotherapeutic agents used for activation immunotherapy. Interleukin-18 (IL-18) has emerged as a potent anticancer immunostimulatory cytokine over the past three decades. IL-18, structurally is a stable protein with very low toxicity at biological doses. IL-18 promotes the process of antigen presentation and also enhances innate and acquired immune responses. It can induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines and increase tumor infiltration of effector immune cells to revert the immunosuppressive milieu of tumors. Furthermore, IL-18 can reduce tumorigenesis, suppress tumor angiogenesis, and induce tumor cell apoptosis. These characteristics present IL-18 as a promising option for cancer immunotherapy. Although several preclinical studies have reported the immunotherapeutic potential of IL-18, clinical trials using it as a monotherapy agent have reported disappointing results. These results may be due to some biological characteristics of IL-18. Several bioengineering approaches have been successfully used to correct its defects as a bioadjuvant. Currently, the challenge with this anticancer immunotherapeutic agent is mainly how to use its capabilities in a rational combinatorial therapy for clinical applications. The present study discussed the strengths and weaknesses of IL-18 as an immunotherapeutic agent, followed by comprehensive review of various promising bioengineering approaches that have been used to overcome its disadvantages. Finally, this study highlights the promising application of IL-18 in modern combinatorial therapies, such as chemotherapy, immune checkpoint blockade therapy, cell-based immunotherapy and cancer vaccines to guide future studies, circumventing the barriers to administration of IL-18 for clinical applications, and bring it to fruition as a potent immunotherapy agent in cancer treatment.

Immune-boosting effect of Yookgong-dan against cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in mice

Immune responses must be strictly regulated to prevent autoimmune and infectious diseases and to protect against infectious agents. As people age, their immunity wanes, leading to a decrease in lymphocyte production in bone marrow and thymus and a decline in the efficacy of mature lymphocytes in secondary lymphoid organs. This study explores the immune-boosting potential of Yookgong-dan (YGD) in enhancing the immune system by activating immune cells. In our in vitro experiments, cyclophosphamide (Cy) treatment led to a significant decrease in primary splenocyte viability. However, subsequent treatment with YGD significantly improved cell viability, with doses ranging between 1 and 25 μg/mL in Cy-treated splenocytes. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that the Cy group exhibited reduced positivity of CD3+ T cells and CD45+ leukocytes compared to the blank group. In contrast, treatment with YGD led to a notable, dose-responsive increase in these immune cell types. In our in vivo experiments, YGD was orally administered to Cy-induced immunosuppressed mice at 20 and 100 mg/kg doses for 10 days. The results indicated a dose-dependent elevation in immunoglobulin (Ig)G and IgM levels in the serum, emphasizing the immunostimulatory effect of YGD. Furthermore, the Cy-treated group showed decreased T cells, B (CD19+) cells, and leukocytes in the total splenocyte population. Yet, YGD treatment resulted in a dose-dependent reversal of this pattern, suggesting its ability to counter immunosuppression. Notably, YGD was found to effectively stimulate T (CD4+ and CD8+) lymphocyte subsets and natural killer cells, along with enhancing Th1/Th2 cytokines in immunosuppressed conditions. These outcomes correlated with the modulation of BCL-2 and BAX expression, which are critical for apoptosis. In conclusion, YGD has the potential to bolster immune functionality through the activation of immune cells, thereby enhancing the immune system's capacity to combat diseases and improve overall health and wellness.

Experimental and clinical evidence in favour of an effective immune stimulation in ER-positive, endocrine-dependent metastatic breast cancer

In ER+ breast cancer, usually seen as the low immunogenic type, the main mechanisms favouring the immune response or tumour growth and immune evasion in the tumour microenvironment (TME) have been examined. The principal implications of targeting the oestrogen-mediated pathways were also considered. Recent experimental findings point out that anti-oestrogens contribute to the reversion of the immunosuppressive TME. Moreover, some preliminary clinical data with the hormone-immunotherapy association in a metastatic setting support the notion that the reversion of immune suppression in TME is likely favoured by the G0-G1 state induced by anti-oestrogens. Following immune stimulation, the reverted immune suppression allows the boosting of the effector cells of the innate and adaptive immune response. This suggests that ER+ breast cancer is a molecular subtype where a successful active immune manipulation can be attained. If this is confirmed by a prospective multicentre trial, which is expected in light of the provided evidence, the proposed hormone immunotherapy can also be tested in the adjuvant setting. Furthermore, the different rationale suggests a synergistic activity of our proposed immunotherapy with the currently recommended regimen consisting of antioestrogens combined with cyclin kinase inhibitors. Overall, this lays the foundation for a shift in clinical practice within this most prevalent molecular subtype of breast cancer.

Current status and future prospective of breast cancer immunotherapy

The immune system is complicated, interconnected, and offers a powerful defense system that protects its host from foreign pathogens. Immunotherapy involves boosting the immune system to kill cancer cells, and nowadays, is a major emerging treatment for cancer. With the advances in our understanding of the immunology of cancer, there has been an explosion of studies to develop and evaluate therapies that engage the immune system in the fight against cancer. Nevertheless, conventional therapies have been effective in reducing tumor burden and prolonging patient life, but the overall efficacy of these treatment regimens has been somewhat mixed and often with severe side effects. A common reason for this is the activation of molecular mechanisms that lead to apoptosis of anti-tumor effector cells. The competency to block tumor escape entirely depends on our understanding of the cellular and molecular pathways which operate in the tumor microenvironment. Numerous strategies have been developed for activating the immune system to kill tumor cells. Breast cancer is one of the major causes of cancer death in women, and is characterized by complex molecular and cellular events that closely intertwine with the host immune system. In this regard, predictive biomarkers of immunotherapy, use of nanotechnology, personalized cancer vaccines, antibodies to checkpoint inhibitors, engineered chimeric antigen receptor-T cells, and the combination with other therapeutic modalities have transformed cancer therapy and optimized the therapeutic effect. In this chapter, we will offer a holistic view of the different therapeutic modalities and recent advances in immunotherapy. Additionally, we will summarize the recent advances and future prospective of breast cancer immunotherapies, as a case study.

Biological effects of IL-21 on immune cells and its potential for cancer treatment

Interleukin-21 (IL-21), a member of the IL-2 cytokine family, is one of the most important effector and messenger molecules in the immune system. Produced by various immune cells, IL-21 has pleiotropic effects on innate and adaptive immune responses via regulation of natural killer, T, and B cells. An anti-tumor role of IL-21 has also been reported in the literature, as it may support cell proliferation or on the contrary induce growth arrest or apoptosis of the tumor cell. Anti-tumor effect of IL-21 enhances when combined with other agents that target tumor cells, immune regulatory circuits, or other immune-enhancing molecules. Therefore, understanding the biology of IL-21 in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and reducing its systemic toxic and side effects is crucial to ensure the maximum benefits of anti-tumor treatment strategies. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview on the biological functions, roles in tumors, and the recent advances in preclinical and clinical research of IL-21 in tumor immunotherapy.

Targeted therapies of curcumin focus on its therapeutic benefits in cancers and human health: Molecular signaling pathway-based approaches and future perspectives

The curry powder spices turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), which contains curcumin (diferuloylmethane), an orange-yellow chemical. Polyphenols are the most commonly used sources of curcumin. It combats oxidative stress and inflammation in diseases, such as hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome, arthritis, and depression. Most of these benefits are due to their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Curcumin consumption leads to decreased bioavailability, resulting in limited absorption, quick metabolism, and quick excretion, which hinders health improvement. Numerous factors can increase its bioavailability. Piperine enhances bioavailability when combined with curcumin in a complex. When combined with other enhancing agents, curcumin has a wide spectrum of health benefits. This review evaluates the therapeutic potential of curcumin with a specific emphasis on its approach based on molecular signaling pathways. This study investigated its influence on the progression of cancer, inflammation, and many health-related mechanisms, such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis. Curcumin has a significant potential for the prevention and treatment of various diseases. Curcumin modulates several biochemical pathways and targets involved in cancer growth. Despite its limited tissue accumulation and bioavailability when administered orally, curcumin has proven useful. This review provides an in-depth analysis of curcumin's therapeutic applications, its molecular signaling pathway-based approach, and its potential for precision medicine in cancer and human health.

Immunogenic antitumor potential of Prakasine nanoparticles in zebrafish by gene expression stimulation

In this study, non-toxic mercury nanoparticle was synthesized as per "Prakash theory of metal drugs" and nanoparticle's characters has been demonstrated by employing several nanotechnological tools including XPS, XRD, EDAX. The size of the Prakasine nanoparticles (PRK-NP) ranged from 90-100 nm, confirmed using TEM, SEM, DLS and along with zeta potential of -29.5 mV before storage and -8.5 mV after storage. The FTIR provided information regarding the nanoparticle capping and functional groups. The study was further elaborated for determining PRK-NPs toxicity, genotoxicity, in-vivo toxicity, immunological anti-tumour activity, immunogenicity potential, gene expression profiling and confirmed by MTT and apoptosis assays, cancer zebrafish model studies and WBC proliferation assay. PRK-NPs revealed no cytotoxicity where cell viability was observed 99% in L6 mouse fibroblasts and 99% in MCF-7 cell lines. Also, the cell viability was to be 89.47% at a very high concentration of 320 µg/ml in HEK 293 cells. The PRK-NPs significantly reduced the tumour in zebrafish at dose of 90 μg/g by up regulating IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2-ITK, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α and IFN-γ, and down regulating IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and TGF-β compared to untreated controls without any adverse effects and toxicity. Thus, the current study beholds anticipation PRK-NPs may play a vital role in therapeutic.

Revitalizing Cytokine-Based Cancer Immunotherapy through Advanced Delivery Systems

Cytokines can coordinate robust immune responses, holding great promise as therapeutics against infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancers. In cancer treatment, numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines have displayed promising efficacy in preclinical studies. However, their clinical application is hindered by poor pharmacokinetics, significant toxicity and unsatisfactory anticancer efficacy. Thus, while IFN-α and IL-2 are approved for specific cancer treatments, other cytokines still remain subject of intense investigation. To accelerate the application of cytokines as cancer immunotherapeutics, strategies need to be directed to improve their safety and anticancer performance. In this regard, delivery systems could be used to generate innovative therapies by targeting the cytokines or nucleic acids, such as DNA and mRNA, encoding the cytokines to tumor tissues. This review centers on these innovative delivery strategies for cytokines, summarizing key approaches, such as gene delivery and protein delivery, and critically examining their potential and challenges for clinical translation.

Identification of cytokine-induced cell communications by pan-cancer meta-analysis

Cancer immune responses are complex cellular processes in which cytokine-receptor interactions play central roles in cancer development and response to therapy; dysregulated cytokine-receptor communication may lead to pathological processes, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and cytokine storm; however, our knowledge regarding cytokine-mediated cell-cell communication (CCI) in different cancers remains limited. The present study presents a single-cell and pan-cancer-level transcriptomics integration of 41,900 cells across 25 cancer types. We developed a single-cell method to actively express 62 cytokine-receptor pairs to reveal stable cytokine-mediated cell communications involving 84 cytokines and receptors. The correlation between the sample-based CCI profile and the interactome analysis indicates multiple cytokine-receptor modules including TGFB1, IL16ST, IL15, and the PDGF family. Some isolated cytokine interactions, such as FN1-IL17RC, displayed diverse functions within over ten single-cell transcriptomics datasets. Further functional enrichment analysis revealed that the constructed cytokine-receptor interaction map is associated with the positive regulation of multiple immune response pathways. Using public TCGA pan-cancer mutational data, co-mutational analysis of the cytokines and receptors provided significant co-occurrence features, implying the existence of cooperative mechanisms. Analysis of 10,967 samples from 32 TCGA cancer types revealed that the 84 cytokine and receptor genes are significantly associated with clinical survival time. Interestingly, the tumor samples with mutations in any of the 84 cytokines and receptors have a substantially higher mutational burden, offering insights into antitumor immune regulation and response. Clinical cancer stage information revealed that tumor samples with mutations in any of the 84 cytokines and receptors stratify into earlier tumor stages, with unique cellular compositions and clinical outcomes. This study provides a comprehensive cytokine-receptor atlas of the cellular architecture in multiple cancers at the single-cell level.

Novel immunotherapeutic options for BCG-unresponsive high-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

High-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (HR-NMIBC) presents a challenge to many physicians due to its ability to resist Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) intravesical therapy and the substantial rate of progression into muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). Patients who are BCG-unresponsive have worse prognosis and thus require further management including radical cystectomy (RC), which significantly impacts quality of life. Moreover, the ongoing worldwide shortage of BCG warrants the need for policies that prioritize drug use and utilize alternative treatment strategies. Hence, there is a significant unmet need for bladder preserving therapy in this subset of patients.

METHODS

To address this issue, we searched the relevant literature in PUBMED for articles published from 2019 through May of 2023 using appropriate keywords. All clinical trials of patients with HR-NMIBC treated with immune-related agents were retrieved from clinicaltrials.gov.

FINDINGS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Exploratory treatments for BCG-Unresponsive HR-NMIBC included immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI), oncolytic viral therapy, cytokine agonists, and other immunomodulators targeting TLR, EpCaM, FGFR, MetAP2, and IDO1. Some combination therapies have been found to work synergistically and are preferred therapeutically over monotherapy. Three drugs-pembrolizumab, valrubicin, and most recently, nadofaragene firadenovec-vncg-have been FDA approved for the treatment of BCG-unresponsive NMIBC in patients who are ineligible for or decline RC. However, all explored treatment options tend to postpone RC rather than provide long-term disease control. Additional combination strategies need to be studied to enhance the effects of immunotherapy. Despite the challenges faced in finding effective therapies, many potential treatments are currently under investigation. Addressing the landscape of biomarkers, mechanisms of progression, BCG resistance, and trial design challenges in HR-NMIBC is essential for the discovery of new targets and the development of effective treatments.

Natural killer cells for pancreatic cancer immunotherapy: Role of nanoparticles

Advanced pancreatic cancer patients have a dismal prognosis despite advances in integrative therapy. The field of tumor immunology has witnessed significant advancements for cancer treatment. However, immunotherapy for pancreatic cancer is not very effective due to its highly complex tumor microenvironment (TME). Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes that play an important role in the innate immune system. NK cells do not require antigen pre-sensitization, nor are they confined by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). NK cells have the potential to eliminate cancer cells through CAR-dependent and CAR-independent pathways, demonstrating reduced levels of systemic toxicity in the process. The availability of several potential sources of NK cells is an additional benefit that contributes to meeting the therapeutic criteria. Adding nanotechnology to enhance the functions of effector NK cells is also an appealing strategy. This article primarily discusses various approaches recently been utilized to enhance the NK functions for the treatment of pancreatic cancer. In addition, new advances in boosting NK cell therapeutic efficacy by nanoparticle mediation are presented, with a focus on pancreatic cancer.

Cytokine Profile in Lung Cancer Patients: Anti-Tumor and Oncogenic Cytokines

Lung cancer is currently the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. In recent years, checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy (ICI) has emerged as a new treatment. A better understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TMJ) or the immune system surrounding the tumor is needed. Cytokines are small proteins that carry messages between cells and are known to play an important role in the body's response to inflammation and infection. Cytokines are important for immunity in lung cancer. They promote tumor growth (oncogenic cytokines) or inhibit tumor growth (anti-tumour cytokines) by controlling signaling pathways for growth, proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis. The immune system relies heavily on cytokines. They can also be produced in the laboratory for therapeutic use. Cytokine therapy helps the immune system to stop the growth or kill cancer cells. Interleukins and interferons are the two types of cytokines used to treat cancer. This article begins by addressing the role of the TMJ and its components in lung cancer. This review also highlights the functions of various cytokines such as interleukins (IL), transforming growth factor (TGF), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF).

High expression of CDKN2A is associated with poor prognosis in colorectal cancer and may guide PD-1-mediated immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. Immunotherapy targeting the programmed death protein 1(PD-1) and its ligand (PD-L1), is a promising treatment option for many cancers, but has exhibited poor therapeutic efficacy in CRC. This study aimed to identify and validate the prognostic value of immune-related genes and PD-1-associated genes for immunotherapy treatment of CRC.

METHODS

An extensive analysis of prognostic immune-related DEGs and PD-1-related genes has highlighted CDKN2A as a vital overlapping gene. To further explore its expression in CRC and its prognostic value, we conducted qRT-PCR, Western blot experiments, and consulted various databases. Subsequently, we conducted gene expression analysis, survival and prognostic analysis, enrichment analysis, immune infiltration assessment, and TIDE analysis to assess the significance of CDKN2A.

RESULTS

In CRC, CDKN2A was highly expressed compared to normal tissue. It was found that CDKN2A expression was related to clinicopathological features such as inflammation and tumor stage. Furthermore, a significant correlation was identified between CDKN2A and immune infiltration, specifically involving CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and macrophages. The analysis of the GSEA of CRC samples with high CDKN2A expression identified enrichment of genes involved in MYC target-v2 and metabolism pathways. Furthermore, UBE2I, CDK4, CDK6, TP53, and CCND1 were found to be significantly coexpressed with CDKN2A, suggesting a potential role that these gene play in CRC and immunotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that high CDKN2A expression in CRC is a potentially valuable prognostic biomarker, which may guide PD-1-mediated immunotherapy.

A dual-role for IL-10: From leukemogenesis to the tumor progression in acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common pediatric cancer in the world, and accounts for 25% of all childhood cancers among children under 15 years of age. Longitudinal studies have shown that children with ALL are born with a deregulated immune response that, together with postnatal environmental exposures, favor the onset of the disease. In this context, IL-10, a key cytokine in the regulation of the immune response, presents itself as a paradoxical mediator, initially influencing the development of ALL through the regulation of inflammatory processes and later on the progression of malignancy, with the increase of this molecule in the leukemia microenvironment. According to the literature, this cytokine plays a critical role in the natural history of the disease and plays an important role in two different though complex scenarios. Thus, in this review, we explore the dual role of IL-10 in ALL, and describe its biological characteristics, immunological mechanisms and genetics, as well as its impact on the leukemia microenvironment and its clinical implications.

Build-a-bug workshop: Using microbial-host interactions and synthetic biology tools to create cancer therapies

Many systemically administered cancer therapies exhibit dose-limiting toxicities that reduce their effectiveness. To increase efficacy, bacterial delivery platforms have been developed that improve safety and prolong treatment. Bacteria are a unique class of therapy that selectively colonizes most solid tumors. As delivery vehicles, bacteria have been genetically modified to express a range of therapies that match multiple cancer indications. In this review, we describe a modular "build-a-bug" method that focuses on five design characteristics: bacterial strain (chassis), therapeutic compound, delivery method, immune-modulating features, and genetic control circuits. We emphasize how fundamental research into gut microbe pathogenesis has created safe bacterial therapies, some of which have entered clinical trials. The genomes of gut microbes are fertile grounds for discovery of components to improve delivery and modulate host immune responses. Future work coupling these delivery vehicles with insights from gut microbes could lead to the next generation of microbial cancer therapy.

Peptide Hydrogels as Immunomaterials and Their Use in Cancer Immunotherapy Delivery

Peptide-based hydrogel biomaterials have emerged as an excellent strategy for immune system modulation. Peptide-based hydrogels are supramolecular materials that self-assemble into various nanostructures through various interactive forces (i.e., hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions) and respond to microenvironmental stimuli (i.e., pH, temperature). While they have been reported in numerous biomedical applications, they have recently been deemed promising candidates to improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapies and treatments. Immunotherapies seek to harness the body's immune system to preemptively protect against and treat various diseases, such as cancer. However, their low efficacy rates result in limited patient responses to treatment. Here, the immunomaterial's potential to improve these efficacy rates by either functioning as immune stimulators through direct immune system interactions and/or delivering a range of immune agents is highlighted. The chemical and physical properties of these peptide-based materials that lead to immuno modulation and how one may design a system to achieve desired immune responses in a controllable manner are discussed. Works in the literature that reports peptide hydrogels as adjuvant systems and for the delivery of immunotherapies are highlighted. Finally, the future trends and possible developments based on peptide hydrogels for cancer immunotherapy applications are discussed.

Predictors and Consequences of Cancer and Non-Cancer-Related Pain in Those Diagnosed with Primary and Metastatic Cancers

OBJECTIVES

The aims of the study were to (1) describe types of pain in cancer patients, (2) examine the predictors and consequences of pain, (3) investigate the association between type of pain and survival, and (4) examine potential biological mediators of pain and survival.

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis of baseline data from patients diagnosed with cancer. Patients answered questionnaires that assessed sociodemographic characteristics, pain, depression, sleep, and fatigue. Blood was collected and cytokine assays were performed. Analysis of variance, Kaplan-Meier, and Cox regression survival analyses were used to test the aims.

RESULTS

Of the 779 patients diagnosed with cancer, the mean age was 63.5 years, 57.8% male, and 90.6% White. Of those who reported pain (total 70.3%), 46.5% stated their pain was cancer-related while 53.5% stated their pain was non-cancer-related. While both cancer and non-cancer-related pain was associated with depressive symptoms, fatigue, and sleep duration, those with cancer-related pain had significantly higher rates of depressive symptoms (F(1,516) = 21.217, p < 0.001) and fatigue (F(1,516) = 30.973, p < 0.001) but not poorer sleep (F(1,497) = 0.597, p = 0.440). After adjusting for sociodemographic, disease-related characteristics, depression, sleep duration, and morphine milligram equivalent, patient reports of cancer-related pain were significantly associated with poorer survival (HR = 0.646, 95% CI = 0.459-0.910, p = 0.012) compared to those with non-cancer-related pain, which was not associated with survival (HR = 1.022, 95% CI = 0.737-1.418, p = 0.896). Cytokines did not significantly mediate the link between pain and survival.

CONCLUSION

While nearly half of the pain reported was cancer-related, both types of pain resulted in greater symptom burden, but only cancer-related pain was associated with survival.

Cytokines and their role as immunotherapeutics and vaccine Adjuvants: The emerging concepts

Cytokines are a protein family comprising interleukins, lymphokines, chemokines, monokines and interferons. They are significant constituents of the immune system, and they act in accordance with specific cytokine inhibiting compounds and receptors for the regulation of immune responses. Cytokine studies have resulted in the establishment of newer therapies which are being utilized for the treatment of several malignant diseases. The advancement of these therapies has occurred from two distinct strategies. The first strategy involves administrating the recombinant and purified cytokines, and the second strategy involves administrating the therapeutics which inhibits harmful effects of endogenous and overexpressed cytokines. Colony stimulating factors and interferons are two exemplary therapeutics of cytokines. An important effect of cytokine receptor antagonist is that they can serve as anti-inflammatory agents by altering the treatments of inflammation disorder, therefore inhibiting the effects of tumour necrosis factor. In this article, we have highlighted the research behind the establishment of cytokines as therapeutics and vaccine adjuvants, their role of immunotolerance, and their limitations.

Immunotherapy during the Immediate Perioperative Period: A Promising Approach against Metastatic Disease

Tumor excision is a necessary life-saving procedure in most solid cancers. However, surgery and the days before and following it, known as the immediate perioperative period (IPP), entail numerous prometastatic processes, including the suppression of antimetastatic immunity and direct stimulation of minimal residual disease (MRD). Thus, the IPP is pivotal in determining long-term cancer outcomes, presenting a short window of opportunity to circumvent perioperative risk factors by employing several therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy. Nevertheless, immunotherapy is rarely examined or implemented during this short timeframe, due to both established and hypothetical contraindications to surgery. Herein, we analyze how various aspects of the IPP promote immunosuppression and progression of MRD, and how potential IPP application of immunotherapy may interact with these deleterious processes. We discuss the feasibility and safety of different immunotherapies during the IPP with a focus on the latest approaches of immune checkpoint inhibition. Last, we address the few past and ongoing clinical trials that exploit the IPP timeframe for anticancer immunotherapy. Accordingly, we suggest that several specific immunotherapies can be safely and successfully applied during the IPP, alone or with supporting interventions, which may improve patients' resistance to MRD and overall survival.

Nanoengineered drug delivery in cancer immunotherapy for overcoming immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

Almost like a living being in and of itself, tumors actively interact with and modify their environment to escape immune responses. Owing to the pre-formation of cancer-favorable microenvironment prior to anti-cancer treatment, the numerous attempts that followed propose limited efficacy in oncology. Immunogenicity by activation of immune cells within the tumor microenvironment or recruitment of immune cells from nearby lymph nodes is quickly offset as the immunosuppressive environment, rapidly converting immunogenic cells into immune suppressive cells, overriding the immune system. Tumor cells, as well as regulatory cells, namely M2 macrophages, Treg cells, and MDSCs, derived by the immunosuppressive environment, also cloak from potential anti-tumoral factors by directly or indirectly secreting cytokines, such as IL-10 and TGF-β, related to immune regulation. Enzymes and other metabolic or angiogenetic constituents - VEGF, IDO1, and iNOS - are also employed directed for anti-cancer immune cell malfunctioning. Therefore, the conversion of "cold" immunosuppressive environment into "hot" immune responsive environment is of paramount importance, bestowing the advances in the field of cancer immunotherapy the opportunity to wholly fulfill its intended purpose. This paper reviews the mechanisms by which tumors wield to exercise immune suppression and the nanoengineered delivery strategies being developed to overcome this suppression.

Evaluation of the association of chronic inflammation and cancer: Insights and implications

Among the most extensively researched processes in the development and treatment of cancer is inflammatory condition. Although acute inflammation is essential for the wound healing and reconstruction of tissues that have been damaged, chronic inflammation may contribute to the onset and growth of a number of diseases, including cancer. By disrupting the signaling processes of cells, which result in cancer induction, invasion, and development, a variety of inflammatory molecules are linked to the development of cancer. The microenvironment surrounding the tumor is greatly influenced by inflammatory cells and their subsequent secretions, which also contribute significantly to the tumor's growth, survivability, and potential migration. These inflammatory variables have been mentioned in several publications as prospective diagnostic tools for anticipating the onset of cancer. Targeting inflammation with various therapies can reduce the inflammatory response and potentially limit or block the proliferation of cancer cells. The scientific medical literature from the past three decades has been studied to determine how inflammatory chemicals and cell signaling pathways related to cancer invasion and metastasis are related. The current narrative review updates the relevant literature while highlighting the specifics of inflammatory signaling pathways in cancer and their possible therapeutic possibilities.

Hepatic Symbiotic Bacterium L. reuteri FLRE5K1 Inhibits the Development and Progression of Hepatocellular Carcinoma via Activating the IFN-γ/CXCL10/CXCR3 Pathway

Symbiotic bacteria participate in the formation of the structure and function of the tissues and organs in which they live, and play an essential role in maintaining the balance between health and disease. Lactobacillus reuteri FLRE5K1 was isolated from the liver of healthy mice and proved to be a probiotic with anti-melanoma activity in previous studies. The relationship between hepatic symbiotic probiotics and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has not been reported yet. In the present study, L. reuteri FLRE5K1 was initially confirmed to successfully enter the liver after being administered by gavage, and the efficacy of probiotic feeding on HCC and its potential mechanism of inhibiting tumor progression were investigated by an orthotopic liver cancer model established. The results showed that L. reuteri FLRE5K1 significantly reduced the tumor formation rate and inhibited tumor growth in mice. From the perspective of mechanism, activation of the IFN-γ/CXCL10/CXCR3 pathway, as well as its positive feedback on the secretion of IFN-γ, induced the polarization of Th0 cell to Th1 cells and inhibited the differentiation of Tregs, which played a key role in the inhibitory effect of L. reuteri FLRE5K1 on the development and progression of HCC.

Curcumin-reduced gold nanoparticles facilitate IL-12 delivery to a cervical cancer in vitro cell model

Aim: To synthesize curcumin-reduced gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the efficient delivery to and expression of the IL-12 gene in cervical cancer (HeLa) cells in vitro. Methods: Curcumin-reduced AuNPs were synthesized, stabilized with poly-L-lysine and PEG, conjugated to IL-12 DNA and physicochemically characterized. Cytotoxicity and IL-12 expression were accessed in vitro. Results & discussion: Stable, spherical AuNPs effectively compacted and protected the IL-12 DNA and tolerated well in vitro. Real-time quantitative PCR and ELISA confirmed the successful delivery and expression of the IL-12 gene in HeLa cells. Conclusion: The favorable attributes of this AuNP-delivery system and the significant IL-12 expression obtained augur well for cytokine-based therapy or immunotherapy in cervical cancer.

Emerging interleukin targets in the tumour microenvironment: implications for the treatment of gastrointestinal tumours

The effectiveness of antitumour immunity is dependent on intricate cytokine networks. Interleukins (ILs) are important mediators of complex interactions within the tumour microenvironment, including regulation of tumour-infiltrating lymphocyte proliferation, differentiation, migration and activation. Our evolving and increasingly nuanced understanding of the cell type-specific and heterogeneous effects of IL signalling has presented unique opportunities to fine-tune elaborate IL networks and engineer new targeted immunotherapeutics. In this review, we provide a primer for clinicians on the challenges and potential of IL-based treatment. We specifically detail the roles of IL-2, IL-10, IL-12 and IL-15 in shaping the tumour-immune landscape of gastrointestinal malignancies, paying particular attention to promising preclinical findings, early-stage clinical research and innovative therapeutic approaches that may properly place ILs to the forefront of immunotherapy regimens.

Implications of IL-21 in solid tumor therapy

Cancer, the most deadly disease, is known as a recent dilemma worldwide. Presently different treatments are used for curing cancers, especially solid cancers. Because of the immune-enhancing functions of cytokine, IL-21 as a cytokine may have new possibilities to manipulate the immune system in disease conditions, as it stimulates NK and CTL functions and drives IgG antibody production. Indeed, IL-21 has been revealed to elicit antitumor-immune responses in several tumor models. Combining IL-21 with other agents, which target tumor cells, immune-regulatory circuits, or other immune-enhancing molecules enhances this activity. The exciting breakthrough in the results obtained in pre-clinical situations has led to the early outset of present developing clinical trials in cancer patients. In the paper, we have reviewed the function of IL-21 in solid tumor immunotherapy.

Integrated Bioinformatics Analysis for the Identification of Key lncRNAs, mRNAs, and Potential Drugs in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinomas

Purpose

The overall survival of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is poor. Markers for early detection and progression could improve disease outcomes. This study aims to reveal the potential pathogenesis of ccRCC by integrative bioinformatics analysis and to further develop new therapeutic strategies.

Patients and Methods

RNA-seq data of 530 ccRCC cases in TCGA were downloaded, and a comprehensive analysis was carried out using bioinformatics tools. Another 14 tissue samples were included to verify the expression of selected lncRNAs by qRT-PCR. DGIdb database was used to screen out potential drugs, and molecular docking was used to explore the interaction and mechanism between candidate drugs and targets.

Results

A total of 58 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) and 660 differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) were identified in ccRCC. LINC02038, FAM242C, LINC01762, and PVT1 were identified as the optimal diagnostic lncRNAs, of which PVT1 was significantly correlated with the survival rate of ccRCC. GO analysis of cell components showed that DEmRNAs co-expressed with 4 DElncRNAs were mainly distributed in the extracellular area and the plasma membrane, involved in the transport of metal ions, the transport of proteins across membranes, and the binding of immunoglobulins. Immune infiltration analysis showed that MDSC was the most correlated immune cells with PVT1 and key mRNA SIGLEC8. Validation analysis showed that GABRD, SIGLEC8 and CDKN2A were significantly overexpressed, while ESRRB, ELF5 and UMOD were significantly down-regulated, which was consistent with the expression in our analysis. Furthermore, 84 potential drugs were screened by 6 key mRNAs, of which ABEMACICLIB and RIBOCICLIB were selected for molecular docking with CDKN2A, with stable binding affinity.

Conclusion

In summary, 4 key lncRNAs and key mRNAs of ccRCC were identified by integrative bioinformatics analysis. Potential drugs were screened for the treatment of ccRCC, providing a new perspective for disease diagnosis and treatment.

Uncoding the interdependency of tumor microenvironment and macrophage polarization: insights from a continuous network approach

The balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory immune system responses is crucial to preventing complex diseases like cancer. Macrophages are essential immune cells that contribute to this balance constrained by the local signaling profile of the tumor microenvironment. To understand how pro- and anti-inflammatory unbalance emerges in cancer, we developed a theoretical analysis of macrophage differentiation that is derived from activated monocytes circulating in the blood. Once recruited to the site of inflammation, monocytes can be polarized based on the specific interleukins and chemokines in the microenvironment. To quantify this process, we used a previous regulatory network reconstructed by our group and transformed Boolean Network attractors of macrophage polarization to an ODE scheme, it enables us to quantify the activation of their genes in a continuous fashion. The transformation was developed using the interaction rules with a fuzzy logic approach. By implementing this approach, we analyzed different aspects that cannot be visualized in the Boolean setting. For example, this approach allows us to explore the dynamic behavior at different concentrations of cytokines and transcription factors in the microenvironment. One important aspect to assess is the evaluation of the transitions between phenotypes, some of them characterized by an abrupt or a gradual transition depending on specific concentrations of exogenous cytokines in the tumor microenvironment. For instance, IL-10 can induce a hybrid state that transits between an M2c and an M2b macrophage. Interferon- γ can induce a hybrid between M1 and M1a macrophage. We further demonstrated the plasticity of macrophages based on a combination of cytokines and the existence of hybrid phenotypes or partial polarization. This mathematical model allows us to unravel the patterns of macrophage differentiation based on the competition of expression of transcriptional factors. Finally, we survey how macrophages may respond to a continuously changing immunological response in a tumor microenvironment.

Gene Expression Changes in Cytokine and Chemokine Receptors in Association with Melanoma Liver Metastasis

Cytokines and chemokines (chemotactic cytokines) are soluble extracellular proteins that bind to specific receptors and play an integral role in the cell-to-cell signaling network. In addition, they can promote the homing of cancer cells into different organs. We investigated the potential relationship between human hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells (HHSECs) and several melanoma cell lines for the expression of chemokine and cytokine ligands and receptor expression during the invasion of melanoma cells. In order to identify differences in gene expression related to invasion, we selected invasive and non-invasive subpopulations of cells after co-culturing with HHSECs and identified the gene expression patterns of 88 chemokine/cytokine receptors in all cell lines. Cell lines with stable invasiveness and cell lines with increased invasiveness displayed distinct profiles of receptor genes. Cell lines with increased invasive capacity after culturing with conditioned medium showed a set of receptor genes (CXCR1, IL1RL1, IL1RN, IL3RA, IL8RA, IL11RA, IL15RA, IL17RC, and IL17RD) with significantly different expressions. It is very important to emphasize that we detected significantly higher IL11RA gene expression in primary melanoma tissues with liver metastasis as well, compared to those without metastasis. In addition, we assessed protein expression in endothelial cells before and after co-culturing them with melanoma cell lines by applying chemokine and cytokine proteome arrays. This analysis revealed 15 differentially expressed proteins (including CD31, VCAM-1, ANGPT2, CXCL8, and CCL20) in the hepatic endothelial cells after co-culture with melanoma cells. Our results clearly indicate the interaction between liver endothelial and melanoma cells. Furthermore, we assume that overexpression of the IL11RA gene may play a key role in organ-specific metastasis of primary melanoma cells to the liver.

Therapeutic applications of nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, as a novel and more specialized branch of science, has provided a number of nanostructures such as nanoparticles, by utilizing the methods, techniques, and protocols of other branches of science. Due to the unique features and physiobiological characteristics, these nanostructures or nanocarriers have provided vast methods and therapeutic techniques, against microbial infections and cancers and for tissue regeneration, tissue engineering, and immunotherapies, and for gene therapies, through drug delivery systems. However, reduced carrying capacity, abrupt and non-targeted delivery, and solubility of therapeutic agents, can affect the therapeutic applications of these biotechnological products. In this article, we explored and discussed the prominent nanobiotechnological methods and products such as nanocarriers, highlighted the features and challenges associated with these products, and attempted to conclude if available nanostructures offer any scope of improvement or enhancement. We aimed to identify and emphasize the nanobiotechnological methods and products, with greater prospect and capacity for therapeutic improvements and enhancements. We found that novel nanocarriers and nanostructures, such as nanocomposites, micelles, hydrogels, microneedles, and artificial cells, can address the associated challenges and inherited drawbacks, with help of conjugations, sustained and stimuli-responsive release, ligand binding, and targeted delivery. We recommend that nanobiotechnology, despite having few challenges and drawbacks, offers immense opportunities that can be harnessed in delivering quality therapeutics with precision and prediction. We also recommend that, by exploring the branched domains more rigorously, bottlenecks and obstacles can also be addressed and resolved in return.

Correlation between salivary immunoglobulin A and interleukin-1beta in smokers with dental caries

Introduction. Dental caries is one of the most common infectious diseases of the oral cavity, and is an inflammatory disease caused by several factors. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a major mediator of acute inflammation and essential for the development of specific immune responses. The objective of this study was to assess the levels of secretory IgA (s-IgA) and IL-1β in the saliva of smokers with dental caries, and to discover the correlation between these parameters and dental caries. Methods. Saliva samples were collected from 30 smokers, age range 21-70 years, with dental caries, in addition to 18 healthy non-smoker volunteers, age range 21-65 years. s-IgA and IL-1β levels in the saliva samples were estimated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results. The mean saliva IgA levels between smokers with dental caries group and healthy subjects were not significantly different (p=0.077), while the saliva levels of IL-1β were higher in the smokers in dental caries group, with a significant difference of p<0.05. No significant associations were found between s-IgA and IL-1β levels, and other parameters such as age, sex, body mass index (BMI) and C-reactive protein (CRP) (p>0.05). There were highly positive associations and significant differences between IL-1β and CRP levels in the two groups under the study (p=0.006). Conclusions. Our study revealed a significant increase in IL-1β levels in saliva of smokers with dental caries, and a positive association between IL-1β levels and caries disease. There is no significant relationship between elevated IL-1β levels and s-IgA in smokers with dental caries.

Interleukins (Cytokines) as Biomarkers in Colorectal Cancer: Progression, Detection, and Monitoring

Cancer is the primary cause of death in economically developed countries and the second leading cause in developing countries. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Risk factors for CRC include obesity, a diet low in fruits and vegetables, physical inactivity, and smoking. CRC has a poor prognosis, and there is a critical need for new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers to reduce related deaths. Recently, studies have focused more on molecular testing to guide targeted treatments for CRC patients. The most crucial feature of activated immune cells is the production and release of growth factors and cytokines that modulate the inflammatory conditions in tumor tissues. The cytokine network is valuable for the prognosis and pathogenesis of colorectal cancer as they can aid in the cost-effective and non-invasive detection of cancer. A large number of interleukins (IL) released by the immune system at various stages of CRC can act as "biomarkers". They play diverse functions in colorectal cancer, and include IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-11, IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23, IL-33, TNF, TGF-β, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which are pro-tumorigenic genes. However, there are an inadequate number of studies in this area considering its correlation with cytokine profiles that are clinically useful in diagnosing cancer. A better understanding of cytokine levels to establish diagnostic pathways entails an understanding of cytokine interactions and the regulation of their various biochemical signaling pathways in healthy individuals. This review provides a comprehensive summary of some interleukins as immunological biomarkers of CRC.

IL-1β Is an Androgen-Responsive Target in Macrophages for Immunotherapy of Prostate Cancer

Great attention is paid to the role of androgen receptor (AR) as a central transcriptional factor in driving the growth of prostate cancer (PCa) epithelial cells. However, the understanding of the role of androgen in PCa-infiltrated immune cells and the impact of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), the first-line treatment for advanced PCa, on the PCa immune microenvironment remains limited. On the other hand, immune checkpoint blockade has revolutionized the treatment of certain cancer types, but fails to achieve any benefit in advanced PCa, due to an immune suppressive environment. In this study, it is reported that AR signaling pathway is evidently activated in tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) of PCa both in mice and humans. AR acts as a transcriptional repressor for IL1B in TAMs. ADT releases the restraint of AR on IL1B and therefore leads to an excessive expression and secretion of IL-1β in TAMs. IL-1β induces myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) accumulation that inhibits the activation of cytotoxic T cells, leading to the immune suppressive microenvironment. Critically, anti-IL-1β antibody coupled with ADT and the immune checkpoint inhibitor anti-PD-1 antibody exerts a stronger anticancer effect on PCa following castration. Together, IL-1β is an important androgen-responsive immunotherapeutic target for advanced PCa.