Toward a More Sustainable Trajectory for E-Waste Policy: A Review of a Decade of E-Waste Research in Accra, Ghana

Cross-shift changes in pulmonary function and occupational exposure to particulate matter among e-waste workers in Ghana

Introduction

Little is known on the association between cross-shift changes in pulmonary function and personal inhalation exposure to particulate matter (PM) among informal electronic-waste (e-waste) recovery workers who have substantial occupational exposure to airborne pollutants from burning e-waste.

Methods

Using a cross-shift design, pre- and post-shift pulmonary function assessments and accompanying personal inhalation exposure to PM (sizes <1, <2.5 μm, and the coarse fraction, 2.5-10 μm in aerodynamic diameter) were measured among e-waste workers (n = 142) at the Agbogbloshie e-waste site and a comparison population (n = 65) in Accra, Ghana during 2017 and 2018. Linear mixed models estimated associations between percent changes in pulmonary function and personal PM.

Results

Declines in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC) per hour were not significantly associated with increases in PM (all sizes) among either study population, despite breathing zone concentrations of PM (all sizes) that exceeded health-based guidelines in both populations. E-waste workers who worked "yesterday" did, however, have larger cross-shift declines in FVC [-2.4% (95%CI: -4.04%, -0.81%)] in comparison to those who did not work "yesterday," suggesting a possible role of cumulative exposure.

Discussion

Overall, short-term respiratory-related health effects related to PM exposure among e-waste workers were not seen in this sample. Selection bias due to the "healthy worker" effect, short shift duration, and inability to capture a true "pre-shift" pulmonary function test among workers who live at the worksite may explain results and suggest the need to adapt cross-shift studies for informal settings.

Spatial distribution of potentially toxic elements in e-waste contaminated site at Akwatia-Line, Kumasi, Ghana

E-waste processing sites abound with potentially toxic elements (PTE) that negatively affect the environment and human health. The study determined the presence of selected PTE (Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, and Al) and their spatial distribution in an e-waste processing site in a developing country setting. pH, moisture, organic matter/carbon, and particle size were determined in 30 soil samples. The spatial position of each sampling point was picked with a GPS device, and the area was mapped in a GIS environment. The concentrations of PTE were determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Findings from the study indicate that the soil is polluted with PTE, rich in organic carbon/matter but has low pH. The Geoaccumulation Indices ranged from unpolluted (Al) to strongly/extremely polluted (Cu). Pollution Load Index showed about 77 % of the samples as extremely/heavily polluted, 10 % as heavily polluted, and 13 % as moderately polluted. Contamination Factors of Zn, Pb, and Cu were very high but considerably low for Hg and Al. Regular monitoring and remediation are required for the soil to be restored and put into productive use.

Environmental Injustice and Electronic Waste in Ghana: Challenges and Recommendations

Electronic waste (e-waste) or discarded electronic devices that are unwanted, not working, or have reached their end of life pose significant threats to human and environmental health. This is a major concern in Africa, where the majority of e-waste is discarded. In the year 2021, an estimated 57.4 million metric tons of e-waste were generated worldwide. Globally, COVID-19 lockdowns have contributed to increased e-waste generation. Although Africa generates the least of this waste, the continent has been the dumping ground for e-waste from the developed world. The flow of hazardous waste from the prosperous 'Global North' to the impoverished 'Global South' is termed "toxic colonialism". Agbogbloshie, Ghana, an e-waste hub where about 39% of e-waste was treated, was listed among the top 10 most polluted places in the world. The discard of e-waste in Ghana presents an issue of environmental injustice, defined as the disproportionate exposure of communities of color and low-income communities to pollution, its associated health and environmental effects, and the unequal environmental protection provided through policies. Despite the economic benefits of e-waste, many civilians (low-income earners, settlers, children, and people with minimal education) are exposed to negative health effects due to poverty, lack of education, and weak regulations. We critically examine the existing literature to gather empirical information on e-waste and environmental injustice. Comprehensive policies and regulations are needed to manage e-waste locally and globally.

Ghana's recently introduced e-waste regulatory policy: A hope for a better e-waste sector?

Electronic waste (e-waste), often dominated by the informal sector, has had adverse effects on recipient developing countries' economies, health and physical environment. Ghana, over the years, has had support from international organisations to manage its e-waste crisis. Until 2016, there was no e-waste specific policy to guide the management of the sector. In 2016, Ghana passed a regulatory policy - Act 917 - to specifically deal with e-waste, supported by other frameworks such as a regulatory instrument (L.I. 2250), a technical guideline for environmentally sound e-waste management and an e-waste-specific policy, which is currently being developed. However, there is dearth of research on how effectively a regulatory policy such as Act 917 can help address an informally dominated sector whose crude recycling approaches have had great environmental and health impacts. Adapting the analytical framework and intervention theory, key stakeholders within the e-waste sector were interviewed on: the effectiveness of the Act, the challenges confronting them and their involvement in the design and implementation processes. The findings showed that stakeholders were represented at various stages of the process. Informal recyclers were provided with training programmes, health centres and an incentive scheme to minimise burning of electrical and electronic equipment. There however exist many challenges to the sound management of the sector, particularly, the lack of end-to-end recycling facilities, registering and formalising the sector and sequencing of the e-waste policy and regulatory framework. The research concludes by recommending areas for future studies.

A review of various strategies in e-waste management in line with circular economics

Waste management of electrical and electronic equipment has become a key challenge for electronics manufacturers due to globalization and the rapid expansion of information technology. As the volume of e-waste grows, legal departments lack the infrastructure, technology, and ability to collect and manage it environmentally soundly. Government laws, economic reasons, and social issues are important considerations in e-waste management. The circular economy concept is built on reusing and recycling goods and resources. A novel idea called the circular economy might prevent the negative consequences brought on by the exploitation and processing of natural resources while also having good effects such as lowering the demand for raw materials, cutting down on the use of fundamental resources, and creating jobs. To demonstrate the significance of policy implementation, the necessity for technology, and the need for societal awareness to build a sustainable and circular economy, the study intends to showcase international best practices in e-waste management. This study uses circular economy participatory implementation methods to provide a variety of possible approaches to assist decision-makers in e-waste management. The purpose of this article is to review the most accepted methods for e-waste management to emphasize the importance of implementing policies, technology requirements, and social awareness in creating a circular economy. To conclude, this paper highlights the necessity of a common legal framework, reform of the informal sector, the responsibility of different stakeholders, and entrepreneurial perspectives.

Informal E-waste recycling practices and environmental pollution in Africa: What is the way forward?

Globally, e-waste is the fastest growing and most valuable waste-stream. While countries worldwide are increasingly acknowledging the e-waste problem and introducing policies and regulations that deal with e-waste, large quantities of e-waste still go undocumented. Much of these global e-wastes are accumulating in open-dumpsites and landfills in African-countries where they are recycled informally resulting in significant environmental and public-health concerns. Although, there is a plethora of studies on e-waste management and disposal, only a few-studies have focused on African-countries who are major recipients of e-waste. Moreover, despite the attempts to mitigate the problem of e-waste in African-countries, e-waste has remained a major-concern and there are currently very limited workable solutions. This study examines informal e-waste recycling, environmental pollution and the extent of environmental and health impacts in major countries of concern including Ghana, Nigeria, Egypt, Kenya and South Africa. The global e-waste Waste Atlas Report, 2020 identified these countries as major recipients of e-waste. To achieve the aims of this research, previous studies from 2005 to 2022 are collected from various databases and analyzed. Accordingly, this study focuses on environmental pollution and public-health impacts resulting from e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices, illegal transboundary shipment of e-waste to the selected countries, and the interventions of governments and international organizations in reducing the impact of e-waste pollution and informal recycling practices in Africa. Based on the outcomes of this study, practical approaches on the way-forward are recommended. The findings of this study contribute to a growing-body of research on informal e-waste recycling practices in Africa to document that individuals working within e-waste sites and residents in nearby communities are exposed to a number of toxic-substances, some at potentially concerning levels.

Accumulation of heavy metals and human health risk assessment of vegetable consumption from a farm within the Korle lagoon catchment

The Korle lagoon is known to have high concentration of heavy metals. The use of land for agriculture and water for irrigation within the Korle Lagoon's catchment constitutes a potential health risk. Due to this, the study assessed the concentration of heavy metals in some vegetables (Amaranth, Spinach, Eggplant, Lettuce, Cauliflower, and Onion) and their corresponding soil from a farm within the Korle Lagoon's catchment. The estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), and lifetime cancer risk (LCR) was used to assess their health risks. Among the vegetables tested, heavy metals in lettuce exceeded their recommended guideline level. Additionally, the concentrations of Fe (265.94-3599.60 mg/kg) and Zn (76.77-294.70 mg/kg) in all vegetables were above the recommended guideline level. Also, Zn (227.30-534.57 mg/kg) and Pb (101.53-407.58 mg/kg), in soil were above the recommended guideline level for soil. The results also showed not only the severity of heavy metal pollution of soil in the study area, but also risks that were deemed carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic to both adults and children as a result of consumption of vegetables from the study area. The hazard index for adults (0.46-41.156) and children (3.880-384.122), were high for all vegetables tested and are associated with cancer risk due to high Cr and Pb levels. The risk assessment showed that children may suffer more carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic health risk than adults. The study concluded that vegetables grown within the Korle lagoon's catchment is not suitable for consumption due to the associated adverse health effect.

Circular Economy and the Changing Geography of International Trade in Plastic Waste

Plastic pollution has become a major environmental concern worldwide. As the circular economy is increasingly seen as a means for achieving sustainable development, it is imperative to promote the more efficient use of plastics worldwide. An integral part of the circular economy model, trade in waste, and the scrap for recovery is a part of the solution to achieve sustainability. This paper studies the changing geography of the international trade in plastic waste. It reveals increasingly complex patterns of the transboundary trade in plastic waste over more than two decades. The movement of plastic waste from high-income countries to developing nations has been the largest flow, but trade flows of other directions turn out to be significant. The findings of the paper debunk the North-South or core-periphery dichotomy that is embedded in the international environment justice tradition (including the ecologically unequal exchange theory) as well as in international environmental regulatory regimes such as the Basel Convention. The paper contributes to the discussions about value that are central in political economic approaches to global trade (e.g., the global value chain and global production network) by demonstrating the relative, spatial, and dynamic nature of the concept. As the transboundary trade in plastic waste has exacerbated pollution and marine litter in some major receiving countries, it needs to be better monitored and regulated to ensure it is conducted in a transparent and environmentally sound manner. The paper also explores several policy measures that could help tackle the plastic pollution crisis and achieve sustainable development.

Assessing data in the informal e-waste sector: The Agbogbloshie Scrapyard

The Old-Fadama-Scrapyard, better known as Agbogbloshie, is located in Accra, Ghana. Over the last 20 years, the area has developed into a large scrapyard, where the informal sector processes mainly electronic waste (e-waste) and scrap metals. However, unsafe treatment methods, such as the open burning of cables and foams, and the spilling of hazardous liquids onto the ground, cause environmental pollution and create health risks by releasing persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals. There is a recognized lack in literature of data on e-waste mass and material flows due to the lack of applicable methods to measure e-waste quantities in an informally managed treatment system. However, to establish sustainable e-waste management, e-waste mass and material flow data are crucial prerequisites. Therefore, the material flow analysis (MFA) methodology is proposed as a means for data collection within a limited time frame in the informal e-waste recycling context. In this case study, mass and material flows of e-waste processed at Agbogbloshie were estimated using two different approaches: Firstly, the kind, measures, constitution of load and number of loaded entering and exiting vehicles was observed and documented, and second, to validate the data collected, the mass and material flow of e-waste treatment processes on site were observed and documented. The resulting annual mass flows range between 13,090 t/a and 17,094 t/a of e-waste. Based on the data for Ghana from the Global E-waste Monitor, an average of 15,092 t/a (approximately 39% of the Ghanaian e-waste generation) is treated in Agbogbloshie.

E-waste it wisely: lessons from Africa

E-waste is the world’s fastest growing and most valuable domestic waste stream. The increasing production of e-waste is driving elevated levels of export from developed to developing countries. Although countries worldwide are actively recognising the issues around e-waste and introducing policies, legislation or regulations governing e-waste, a large fraction of e-waste, goes undocumented at its end-of-life. Much of the global e-waste is accumulating in open dumpsites in several African countries. Using available data, we calculate the total e-waste in Africa (locally produced plus imported e-waste) for 2019 to be between 5.8 and 3.4 metric tonnes (Mt). This is believed to be an underestimate, large data gaps exist, hindering more precise estimates. The data is further complicated by, sometimes intentional, differences in labelling and reporting between formal and intermittent informal importers. Based on the available data, the main African recipients of e-waste are Nigeria, Ghana, and Tanzania, with Kenya, Senegal and Egypt featuring as countries of concern. The lack of proper waste management in the recipient developing countries, leads to environmental contamination and human exposure. A coordinated, regional and global, approach is needed in tackling e-waste. Regulatory frameworks, together with monitoring and compliance mechanisms need to be developed, financed, and enforced.

Understanding the factors for increased informal electronic waste recycling in Kumasi, Ghana

The purpose of this paper is twofold: to explore the factors influencing the emergence and growth of informal e-waste activities and to examine workers' motivation for involvement in informal e-waste activities. Semi-structured interviews and observations among actors in the recently established Dagomba-Line e-waste site in Kumasi, Ghana were employed to gather relevant data. Emergence and growth of e-waste activities are largely influenced by spatial, political, socio-cultural and economic factors. The reuse and open disposal of e-waste are the common practices due to the cost of transportation to a final disposal site. Similar to findings at the well-established Agbogbloshie e-waste site, also in Ghana, scavengers are found at the bottom of the e-waste financial ladder. The major motivating factor for engaging in e-waste handling is poverty. Additionally, some respondents mentioned the lucrative nature of the activity, landlessness, and peer influence as a motivation. The results showed that younger workers (below 35 years) were more likely to be engaged in the activity for reasons of peer influence and poverty and major source of livelihood . The paper recommends that policy and planning should reflect ways of delivering and creating stable socio-economic conditions that promote an inclusive and sustainable development.

Occupational exposures to particulate matter and PM2.5-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at the Agbogbloshie waste recycling site in Ghana

Electronic waste (e-waste) disposal and recycling activities such as burning and smelting can emit particulate matter (PM), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other pollutants that expose workers and nearby communities. At informal e-waste recycling facilities, both emission controls and protective measures for workers are absent. This study characterizes personal exposures (breathing zone) of PM and PAHs of e-waste workers at the large Agbogbloshie e-waste site in Accra, Ghana. We collected gravimetric and optical measurements of PM2.5 and PM10 using shift samples for workers and for an age- and gender-matched reference population. PM2.5 filters were analyzed for 26 PAHs using gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy. Among e-waste workers, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were 99 ± 56 and 218 ± 158 µg/m3 (median ± interquartile range, optical measurements), respectively; these levels were 78 and 57% higher, respectively, than levels measured at a fixed site that was centrally located at the waste site. In the reference community, breathing zone PM2.5 and PM10 levels were lower, 49 ± 20 and 131 ± 108 µg/m3, respectively, and the fraction of coarse PM was larger. We detected all 26 target PAHs, of which naphthalene and phenanthrene were the most abundant. PAH concentrations were weakly correlated to PM levels, but PAH abundances, representing the fraction of PAH mass to the total PM2.5 mass collected, were strongly and inversely correlated to PM levels, suggesting multiple and different sources of PAHs and PM that affected exposures. Both PM and PAH levels were elevated for workers performing burning and dismantling, and both exceeded standards or risk-based guidelines, e.g., lifetime excess cancer risks for several PAHs were in the 10-4 to 10-6 range, indicating the need to reduce emissions as well as provide respiratory protection. The study emphasizes the importance of using personal and shift samples to accurately characterize worker exposure.

Personal exposure to particulate matter and heart rate variability among informal electronic waste workers at Agbogbloshie: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Informal electronic waste recycling activities are major contributors to ambient air pollution, yet studies assessing the effects or relationship between direct/continuous exposure of informal e-waste workers to particulate matter and cardiovascular function are rare.

METHODS

Repeated measurements of fractions of PM_2.5, PM_10-2.5, and PM₁₀ in personal air of informal e-waste workers, (n = 142) and a comparable group (n = 65) were taken over a period of 20 months (March 2017 to November, 2018). Concurrently, 5-min resting electrocardiogram was performed on each participant to assess resting heart rate variability indices. Linear mixed-effects models were used to assess the association between PM fractions and cardiac function.

RESULTS

SDNN, RMSSD, LF, HF and LH/HF ratio were all associated with PM. Significant associations were observed for PM_2.5 and Mean NN (p = 0.039), PM10 and SDNN (p = 0.035) and PM 10-2.5 and LH/HF (p = 0.039). A 10 μg/m³ increase in the concentrations of PM _2.5, PM_10-2.5, and PM₁₀ in personal air was associated with reduced HRV indices and increased resting HR. A 10 μg/m³ per interquartile (IQR) increase in PM_10-2.5 and PM₁₀, decreased SDNN by 11% [(95% CI: - 0.002- 0.000); (p = 0.187)] and 34% [(95% CI: - 0.002-0.001); (p = 0.035)] respectively. However, PM_2.5 increased SDNN by 34% (95% CI: - 1.32-0.64); (p = 0.493). Also, 10 μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5, PM_10-2.5 and PM₁₀ decreased RMSSD by 27% [(- 1.34-0.79); (p = 0.620)], 11% [(- 1.73, 0.95); (p = 0.846)] and 0.57% [(- 1.56-0.46); (p = 0.255%)].

CONCLUSION

Informal e-waste workers are at increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease from cardiac autonomic dysfunction as seen in reduced HRV and increased heart rate.

Enhancement of WEEE Management Practices in MTN Phone Village, Rumukurushi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Informal recycling has been a source of challenges to a mobile telephone network (MTN) phone village in Rumukurushi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, and several locations in developing countries. In order to bring a lasting solution to the menace of informal recycling in this location, the study proposed a new waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management system. The system comprises the application of two key concepts. The first concept includes limiting the activities of informal recyclers to WEEE collection only. This implies WEEE treatment, dismantling, etc., are carried out by government-approved agencies and experts. The second concept involves the application of the just-in-time (JIT) management concept for managing WEEE. The concept ensures that WEEE is only requested from the recycler or the individuals in possession of it and only on demand. The study adopted a qualitative research approach. Data collection and analysis were achieved via semi-structured phone interviews and thematic analysis, respectively. The outcome of the study limits the activities of the informal recyclers to WEEE collection. Informal recyclers gain revenue from collection. A reduction in the waiting time of workers and WEEE storage space is achieved. This offers safety, efficiency, and an increased productivity. This will help to revolutionise the WEEE management system in the location.

Characterization of top 100 researches on e-waste based on bibliometric analysis

With rapid development of energy, information, and communication technology, e-waste problem has become one of the global issues to be settled urgently. The main features on publication years, journals, countries and institutions, authors, keywords, and content types of the 100 most-cited articles on e-waste had been unfolded in this research. The direction and way forward were illustrated, the trends to date were demonstrated, and the terrain and pathways were evaluated on the research of e-waste. Bibliometric analysis method was applied to analyze various attributes on the 100 most-cited articles which were retrieved from WoSCC on May 25, 2021, by utilizing the software tools Microsoft Excel 2016 and VOS viewer 1.6.9. The publication year and citation number of the 100 articles ranged between 2003 and 2017 and from 83 to 925, respectively. Environmental Science & Technology (n=17) published the maximum articles. Waste Management, Journal of Hazardous Materials, and Environmental Science & Technology were the core journals on e-waste. One hundred twenty-three institutions and 25 countries were involved in publishing the 100 articles. Three hundred seventy authors contributed to the 100 articles in total. A total of 267 keywords occurred in the 100 articles. The keywords "e-waste" and "recycling" held the highest occurrences. The study content of the 100 articles could be classified into four types including the characteristic-and-property type, the environment-and-health type, the management-and-economic type, and the technique-and-processing type. Overall completeness and applicability of the evidence found in this study were verified sufficiently; the potential biases in the review process were also considered. The innovations of the research from the past bibliometric analysis work on e-waste were stated, and the implication for practice and research of this study were explained as well. 2007, 2008, and 2009 were a peak of the researches on e-waste, while the recent years were experiencing a valley. China and its institutions were most influential in this field on e-waste. India was becoming more and more influential on e-waste research in the world. Nigeria was the research center in Africa, and Brazil was the research center in Latin America. Wong Minghung was the most important expert on e-waste. The impact on environment and human being's health was the hot topic of researches on e-waste; the characteristic and property of e-waste were studied not enough. The researches of technique and processing would be the direction and way forward in the study field on e-waste. The characteristic and property on e-waste would need more attention to be researched. The researchers could develop new pathways based on and beyond the four types of content evaluated in this research.

Airborne volatile organic compounds at an e-waste site in Ghana: Source apportionment, exposure and health risks

Informal e-waste recycling processes emit various air pollutants. While there are a number of pollutants of concern, little information exists on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) releases at e-waste sites. To assess occupational exposures and estimate health risks, we measured VOC levels at the Agbogbloshie e-waste site in Ghana, the largest e-waste site in Africa, by collecting both fixed-site and personal samples for analyzing a wide range of VOCs. A total of 54 VOCs were detected, dominated by aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Mean and median concentrations of the total target VOCs were 46 and 37 μg/m³ at the fixed sites, and 485 and 162 μg/m³ for the personal samples. Mean and median hazard ratios were 2.1 and 1.4, respectively, and cancer risks were 4.6 × 10^-4 and 1.5 × 10^-4. These risks were predominantly driven by naphthalene and benzene; chloroform and formaldehyde were also high in some samples. Based on the VOC composition, the major sources were industry, fuel evaporation and combustion. The concentration gradient across sites and the similarity of VOC profiles indicated that the e-waste site emissions reached neighboring communities. Our results suggest the need to protect e-waste workers from VOC exposure, and to limit emissions that can expose nearby populations.

Biomonitoring of metals in blood and urine of electronic waste (E-waste) recyclers at Agbogbloshie, Ghana

There is growing evidence that e-waste recyclers may be exposed to potentially high levels of metals though associations between such exposures and specific work activities is not well established. In addition, studies have focused on metals traditionally biomonitored and there is no data on the exposure of recyclers to elements increasingly being used in new technologies. In the current study, levels of metals were measured in blood and urine of e-waste recyclers at Agbogbloshie (Ghana) and a control group. Blood and urine samples (from 100 e-waste recyclers and 51 controls) were analyzed for 17 elements (Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Ce, Cr, Eu, La, Mn, Nd, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Tb, Tl, Y) using the ICP-MS. Most e-waste recyclers reported performing at least 4 different tasks in decreasing order as e-waste dismantling (54%), trading/selling of e-waste (45%), burning wires only (40%), and collecting wires after burning (34%). Mean levels of blood Pb, Sr, Tl, and urinary Pb, Eu, La, Tb, and Tl were significantly higher in recyclers versus controls. In general, the collectors and sorters tended to have higher elemental levels than other work groups. Blood Pb levels (mean 92.4 μg/L) exceeded the U.S. CDC reference level in 84% of the e-waste recyclers. Likewise, blood Cd, Mn, and urinary As levels in recyclers and controls were higher than in reference populations elsewhere. E-waste recyclers are exposed to metals traditionally studied (e.g., Pb, Cd, As) and several other technology-critical and rare earth elements which previously have not been characterized through human biomonitoring.

E-Waste in Africa: A Serious Threat to the Health of Children

Waste electronic and electrical equipment (e-waste) consists of used and discarded electrical and electronic items ranging from refrigerators to cell phones and printed circuit boards. It is frequently moved from developed countries to developing countries where it is dismantled for valuable metals in informal settings, resulting in significant human exposure to toxic substances. E-waste is a major concern in Africa, with large sites in Ghana and Nigeria where imported e-waste is dismantled under unsafe conditions. However, as in many developing countries, used electronic and electrical devices are imported in large quantities because they are in great demand and are less expensive than new ones. Many of these used products are irreparable and are discarded with other solid waste to local landfills. These items are then often scavenged for the purpose of extracting valuable metals by heating and burning, incubating in acids and other methods. These activities pose significant health risks to workers and residents in communities near recycling sites. E-waste burning and dismantling activities are frequently undertaken at e-waste sites, often in or near homes. As a result, children and people living in the surrounding areas are exposed, even if they are not directly involved in the recycling. While toxic substances are dangerous to individuals at any age, children are more vulnerable as they are going through important developmental processes, and some adverse health impacts may have long-term impacts. We review the e-waste situation in Africa with a focus on threats to children's health.

Electronic Waste, an Environmental Problem Exported to Developing Countries: The GOOD, the BAD and the UGLY

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a rapidly developing environmental problem particularly for the most developed countries. There are technological solutions for processing it, but these are costly, and the cheaper option for most developed countries has been to export most of the waste to less developed countries. There are various laws and policies for regulating the processing of e-waste at different governance scales such as the international Basel Convention, the regional Bamoko Convention, and various national laws. However, many of the regulations are not fully implemented and there is substantial financial pressure to maintain the jobs created for processing e-waste. Mexico, Brazil, Ghana Nigeria, India, and China have been selected for a more detailed study of the transboundary movements of e-waste. This includes a systematic review of existing literature, the application of the Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) framework for analysing complex problems associated with social ecological systems, and the application of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for evaluating the environmental impact of electronic devices from their manufacture through to their final disposal. Japan, Italy, Switzerland, and Norway have been selected for the LCA to show how e-waste is diverted to developing countries, as there is not sufficient data available for the assessment from the selected developing countries. GOOD, BAD and UGLY outcomes have been identified from this study: the GOOD is the creation of jobs and the use of e-waste as a source of raw materials; the BAD is the exacerbation of the already poor environmental conditions in developing countries; the UGLY is the negative impact on the health of workers processing e-waste due to a wide range of toxic components in this waste. There are a number of management options that are available to reduce the impact of the BAD and the UGLY, such as adopting the concept of a circular economy, urban mining, reducing loopholes and improving existing policies and regulations, as well as reducing the disparity in income between the top and bottom of the management hierarchy for e-waste disposal. The overarching message is a request for developed countries to help developing countries in the fight against e-waste, rather than exporting their environmental problems to these poorer regions.

From inequitable to sustainable e-waste processing for reduction of impact on human health and the environment

Recycling of electric and electronic waste products (e-waste) which amounted to more than 50 million metric tonnes per year worldwide is a massive and global operation. Unfortunately, an estimated 70-80% of this waste has not been properly managed because the waste went from developed to low-income countries to be dumped into landfills or informally recycled. Such recycling has been carried out either directly on landfill sites or in small, often family-run recycling shops without much regulations or oversights. The process traditionally involved manual dismantling, cleaning with hazardous solvents, burning and melting on open fires, etc., which would generate a variety of toxic substances and exposure/hazards to applicators, family members, proximate residents and the environment. The situation clearly calls for global responsibility to reduce the impact on human health and the environment, especially in developing countries where poor residents have been shouldering the hazardous burden. On the other hand, formal e-waste recycling has been mainly conducted in small scales in industrialized countries. Whether the latter process would impose less risk to populations and environment has not been determined yet. Therefore, the main objectives of this review are: 1. to address current trends and emerging threats of not only informal but also formal e-waste management practices, and 2. to propose adequate measures and interventions. A major recommendation is to conduct independent surveillance of compliance with e-waste trading and processing according to the Basel Ban Amendment. The recycling industry needs to be carefully evaluated by joint effort from international agencies, producing industries and other stakeholders to develop better processes. Subsequent transition to more sustainable and equitable e-waste management solutions should result in more effective use of natural resources, and in prevention of adverse effects on health and the environment.

Musculoskeletal Disorder Symptoms among Workers at an Informal Electronic-Waste Recycling Site in Agbogbloshie, Ghana

Informal recycling of electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) has myriad environmental and occupational health consequences, though information about the chronic musculoskeletal health effects on workers is limited. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and intensity of self-reported musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) symptoms among e-waste workers at Agbogbloshie in Ghana-the largest informal e-waste dumpsite in West Africa-relative to workers not engaged in e-waste recycling. A standardized musculoskeletal discomfort questionnaire was administered to 176 e-waste workers (73 collectors, 82 dismantlers, and 21 burners) and 41 workers in a reference group. The number of body parts with musculoskeletal discomfort were 1.62 and 1.39 times higher for collectors and dismantlers than burners, respectively. A 1-week discomfort prevalence was highest for collectors (91.8%) followed by dismantlers (89%), burners (81%), and the reference group (70.7%). The discomfort prevalence for e-waste workers was highest in the lower back (65.9%), shoulders (37.5%), and knees (37.5%). Whole-body pain scores (mean ± SE) were higher for collectors (83.7 ± 10.6) than dismantlers (45.5 ± 7.6), burners (34.0 ± 9.1), and the reference group (26.4 ± 5.9). Differences in prevalence, location, and intensity of MSD symptoms by the e-waste job category suggest specific work-related morbidity. Symptom prevalence and intensity call attention to the high risk for MSDs and work disability among informal e-waste workers, particularly collectors and dismantlers.

Melanins as Sustainable Resources for Advanced Biotechnological Applications

Melanins are a class of biopolymers that are widespread in nature and have diverse origins, chemical compositions, and functions. Their chemical, electrical, optical, and paramagnetic properties offer opportunities for applications in materials science, particularly for medical and technical uses. This review focuses on the application of analytical techniques to study melanins in multidisciplinary contexts with a view to their use as sustainable resources for advanced biotechnological applications, and how these may facilitate the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Evaluating critical barriers and pathways to implementation of e-waste formalization management systems in Ghana: a hybrid BWM and fuzzy TOPSIS approach

The majority of developing countries are facing enormous challenges in implementing sustainable waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) management systems. Informal e-waste management practices in Ghana have become a critical challenge to the government and the various stakeholders owing to its environmental and health impacts. However, the effort to implement e-waste formalization management practices has been threatened with many barriers. This study aims to identify and evaluate barriers and pathways to the implementation of e-waste formalization management systems in Ghana. A three-phase methodology consisting of the Delphi method, the hybrid best-worst method and the fuzzy TOPSIS technique is employed. The first phase involves extensive literature review and the use of the Delphi method to identify barriers, pathways, and data collection for e-waste formalization. In the second phase, the best-worst method was employed to analyze the relative weight and ranking of the barriers. The third phase involves the application of fuzzy TOPSIS to rank and prioritize pathways to e-waste formalization systems. Fuzzy logic was applied to handle the subjectivity of decision-makers' preferences. A sensitivity analysis was carried out to check the robustness of the framework and address any effect of bias. The outcome of the study indicates that economic and financial limitations are the most significant barriers to e-waste formalization. "Setting up resourced environmental government agencies for effective monitoring and auditing at the regional levels for appropriate e-waste management practices" is the most prominent pathway. The present study can potentially inform policy makers to develop systematic and strategic policies for the implementation of e-waste formalization management systems.

Factors Associated with Malaria Infection among Head Porters in Agbogbloshie Market in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana

Background

Head porters constitute the mobile population who are at an increasing risk of being infected with malaria. They move around the city to carry out their duties with no accommodation. Therefore, they sleep wherever they find themselves in the evening and do not benefit from most of the malaria intervention programs such as the use of long-lasting insecticide net. The inability to identify them because they are mobile means that they can continue to drive malaria transmission even if malaria in the general population is controlled.

Objectives

This study assessed the factors associated with malaria infection among head porters in the Agbogbloshie market in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana.

Method

A total of 218 head porters were recruited from the Agbogbloshie market, and blood samples were collected from participants to test for malaria parasite infection using Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) and microscopy and were interviewed using a closed-ended questionnaire. The data were analyzed using Stata version 15. Simple descriptive statistics, Pearson chi-square, and Multiple Logistic Regression were performed with significance set at <0.05.

Result

The study revealed 12% (CI 95% = 8.2‐16.9) and 9.6% (CI 95% = 6.3‐14.4) infection of malaria using RDT and microscopy, respectively. Plasmodium falciparum (21/218) was the main parasite detected in all positive blood samples. Age and marital status are significant factors associated with malaria infection among head porters. Age group 40 years and above had 89% (AOR 0.11 (CI 95% = 0.01‐0.98)) reduced odds of getting malaria compared to those below 20 years, while those who are single are 3.52 times more likely to be infected with malaria compared with those who are married (AOR (95%CI) = 3.52 (1.13‐10.92)).

Conclusion

This study concludes that the increasing age of head porters significantly decreased the probability of malaria infection, while head porters who are single have greater odds of being infected with malaria. Age and marital status are important factors to be considered for malaria intervention programs in head porters.

Prevalence and Factors Influencing Eye Injuries among Welders in Accra, Ghana

Background

Eye injuries are one of the most common work-related injuries among certain occupations, including welders. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and factors influencing eye injuries among welders in Accra, Ghana.

Methods

In a cross-sectional study, we recruited 382 welders in Accra from two welding sites. Systematic sampling was used to select participants. A pretested semistructured questionnaire was used to collect demographic information, history of eye injuries, ownership, and use of eye protective equipment and workplace characteristics. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions at 5% level of significance were used to determine factors influencing eye injuries. Data were entered into Microsoft excel and exported to Stata 16/MP for analysis.

Results

We found 59.7% of welders engaged in electric/arc welding and 40.3% in gas welding. Overall prevalence of eye injuries was 47.9%, higher among electric/arc welders (73.7%) compared to gas welders (9.7%). Factors associated with eye injuries were engaging in gas welding [AOR: 0.08, 95% CI: 0.04–0.16], higher monthly income [AOR = 5.26; 95% CI: 1.72–16.09], nonuse of eye PPE while working [AOR = 1.86; 95% CI: 1.02–3.43], and no training on the use of eye personal protective equipment [AOR = 2.17; 95% CI: 1.07–4.38].

Conclusion

There is high prevalence of welding-related eye injuries among electric welders. Gas welding, high monthly income, nonuse of eye protective equipment, and inadequate training on the use of eye protective equipment were significantly associated with eye injuries. Health policies should be implemented to ensure all welders use eye personal protective equipment.

Global occurrence, chemical properties, and ecological impacts of e-wastes (IUPAC Technical Report)

The waste stream of obsolete electronic equipment grows exponentially, creating a worldwide pollution and resource problem. Electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) comprises a heterogeneous mix of glass, plastics (including flame retardants and other additives), metals (including rare Earth elements), and metalloids. The e-waste issue is complex and multi-faceted. In examining the different aspects of e-waste, informal recycling in developing countries has been identified as a primary concern, due to widespread illegal shipments; weak environmental, as well as health and safety, regulations; lack of technology; and inadequate waste treatment structure. For example, Nigeria, Ghana, India, Pakistan, and China have all been identified as hotspots for the disposal of e-waste. This article presents a critical examination on the chemical nature of e-waste and the resulting environmental impacts on, for example, microbial biodiversity, flora, and fauna in e-waste recycling sites around the world. It highlights the different types of risk assessment approaches required when evaluating the ecological impact of e-waste. Additionally, it presents examples of chemistry playing a role in potential solutions. The information presented here will be informative to relevant stakeholders seeking to devise integrated management strategies to tackle this global environmental concern.

Air Quality Impacts at an E-Waste Site in Ghana Using Flexible, Moderate-Cost and Quality-Assured Measurements

Air quality information is scarce in low- and middle-income countries. This study describes the application of moderate cost approaches that can provide spatial and temporal information on concentrations of particulate matter (PM) needed to assess community and occupational exposures. We evaluated PM levels at the Agbogbloshie e-waste and scrap yard site in Accra, Ghana, and at upwind and downwind locations, obtaining both optical and gravimetric measurements, local meteorological data and satellite aerosol optical depth. Due to overload issues, the gravimetric 24-hr samplers were modified for periodic sampling and some optical data were screened for quality assurance. Exceptionally high concentrations (e.g., 1-hr average PM10 exceeding 2000 μg/m3) were sometimes encountered near combustion sources, including open fires at the e-waste site and spoil piles. 24-hr PM2.5 levels averaged 31, 88 and 57 μg/m3 at upwind, e-waste and downwind sites, respectively, and PM10 averaged 145, 214 and 190 μg/m3, considerably exceeding air quality standards. Upwind levels likely reflected biomass burning that is prevalent in the surrounding informal settlements; levels at the e-waste and downwind sites also reflected contributions from biomass combustion and traffic. The highest PM levels occurred in evenings, influenced by diurnal changes in emission rates, atmospheric dispersion and wind direction shifts. We demonstrate that moderate cost instrumentation, with some modifications, appropriate data cleaning protocols, and attention to understanding local sources and background levels, can be used to characterize spatial and temporal variation in PM levels in urban and industrial areas.

Derivation of Time-Activity Data Using Wearable Cameras and Measures of Personal Inhalation Exposure among Workers at an Informal Electronic-Waste Recovery Site in Ghana

OBJECTIVES

Approximately 2 billion workers globally are employed in informal settings, which are characterized by substantial risk from hazardous exposures and varying job tasks and schedules. Existing methods for identifying occupational hazards must be adapted for unregulated and challenging work environments. We designed and applied a method for objectively deriving time-activity patterns from wearable camera data and matched images with continuous measurements of personal inhalation exposure to size-specific particulate matter (PM) among workers at an informal electronic-waste (e-waste) recovery site.

METHODS

One hundred and forty-two workers at the Agbogbloshie e-waste site in Accra, Ghana, wore sampling backpacks equipped with wearable cameras and real-time particle monitors during a total of 171 shifts. Self-reported recall of time-activity (30-min resolution) was collected during the end of shift interviews. Images (N = 35,588) and simultaneously measured PM2.5 were collected each minute and processed to identify activities established through worker interviews, observation, and existing literature. Descriptive statistics were generated for activity types, frequencies, and associated PM2.5 exposures. A kappa statistic measured agreement between self-reported and image-based time-activity data.

RESULTS

Based on image-based time-activity patterns, workers primarily dismantled, sorted/loaded, burned, and transported e-waste materials for metal recovery with high variability in activity duration. Image-based and self-reported time-activity data had poor agreement (kappa = 0.17). Most measured exposures (90%) exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) 24-h ambient PM2.5 target of 25 µg m-3. The average on-site PM2.5 was 81 µg m-3 (SD: 94). PM2.5 levels were highest during burning, sorting/loading and dismantling (203, 89, 83 µg m-3, respectively). PM2.5 exposure during long periods of non-work-related activities also exceeded the WHO standard in 88% of measured data.

CONCLUSIONS

In complex, informal work environments, wearable cameras can improve occupational exposure assessments and, in conjunction with monitoring equipment, identify activities associated with high exposures to workplace hazards by providing high-resolution time-activity data.

Revisiting e-waste management practices in selected African countries

African countries are among the prime destinations of electronic waste (e-waste) also called Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), and have been challenged with the management of its environmental and health impacts. This paper was carried out to understand the e-waste sector and policy responses in selected African countries. Data for the study were generated from sources; such as policy documents, legislations and literature. Findings show that the import of WEEE is on rising in Africa while landfill and incineration continued to be widely used handling approaches. Countries studied lack WEEE specific national policies and stringent policy instruments to enforce proper collection and recycling systems. Despite the start-ups in emerging recycling operations, a major gap is that informal e-waste actors dominate the e-waste chain from collection to material extraction and refurbish activities through rudimentary tools that cannot detect toxic elements. Tackling the problem demands integrated multi-actor interventions with multiple stakeholders to reduce WEEE inflow on one hand, and ramping up safe recycling capacity on the other hand.

IMPLICATIONS

The article attempts to explain the electronic waste problem in African countries, the nature of existing policy responses and limitations, and ways forward to address policy gaps. Electronic waste is a global problem but with local impacts with the hazardous substances it contains. Because E-waste is still not well recognized health and environment threat, less attention is given for the problem especially in African countries making the uneducated youth more vulnerable to toxic elements. The epistemic community, hence, is supposed to write about it and develop knowledge so that evidences for policy decision making would grow. The focus is on Africa because the problem needs special attention. E-waste has been dumped in Africa for long time and people who work with such waste are mostly uneducated and vulnerable to toxic substances. This problem requires certain attention in the scholarly and policy community at the international level.

Toxicity evaluation of E-waste plastics and potential repercussions for human health

At present, waste mobile phone is considered to be one of the fastest-growing obsolete items in the stream of electronic waste (e-waste). Toxic substances such as heavy metals and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been widely added to plastics used in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). The recent technological revolution in electronic appliances combined with high and growing consumption has caused a huge generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Therefore, e-waste plastics are considered to be one of the fastest-growing waste streams globally. In this study, we examined the hazardous substances in the plastic components of waste mobile phones and then applied the USEtox life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) model to determine the impacts on human health. Specifically, various plastic parts separated from waste mobile phones (n = 20) were collected and then, we used standard tests to characterize the heavy metals and brominated flame retardants. The mean and range of the results are 2207.7 μg/kg (503.9-11569.9 μg/kg) for Pb, 91.6 μg/kg (8.8-464.4 μg/kg) for Cd, 13.7 μg/kg (1.6-58.9 μg/kg) for Be, 7203.3 μg/kg (117-69813 μg/kg) for Sb, 471.3 μg/kg (143.4-2351.3 μg/kg) for As, 1.5 mg/kg (2.1-12.5 mg/kg) for Hg and 523.7 mg/kg (27.1-3859 mg/kg) for Cr. The BFRs - a sum Polybrominated Biphenyls, Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Hexabromocyclododecane - were not detected except for two samples, which was an average of 234.5 μg/kg for nona-BDE and deca-BDE. The total bromine (Br) concentration varied from 0 to 471 mg/kg (average value of 87.9 mg/kg) , while Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBP-A) showed an average concentration of 214.3 μg/kg. In the case of potential human health risks, Hg contributed the major risk for carcinogens and non-cancer disease in the plastics, but the contribution of Pb was also significant. In the case of eco-toxicity, Cr posed the most significant risks in the plastics. Overall, the results show that the toxic substances are below the limit values of substances regulated in the RoHS Directive in China and Europe. However, the results of LCIA highlight the growing importance to avoid the open burning practices of e-waste plastics that contain Hg, Pb, Cr ad Sb. Additionally, the results set a new database for the e-waste plastics recycling industry and provide information for ecodesign in EEE production.

Soil pollution at a major West African E-waste recycling site: Contamination pathways and implications for potential mitigation strategies

Organic contaminants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and chlorinated paraffins (CPs)) and heavy metals and metalloids (Ag, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, Zn) were analysed in surface soil samples from the Agbogbloshie e-waste processing and dumping site in Accra (Ghana). In order to identify which of the pollutants are likely to be linked specifically to handling of e-waste, samples were also collected from the Kingtom general waste site in Freetown (Sierra Leone). The results were compared using principal component analyses (PCA). PBDE congeners found in technical octa-BDE mixtures, highly chlorinated PCBs and several heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Ni, Cd, Ag and Hg) showed elevated concentrations in the soils that are likely due to contamination by e-waste. PCAs associated those compounds with pyrogenic PAHs, suggesting that burning of e-waste, a common practice to isolate valuable metals, may cause this contamination. Moreover, other contamination pathways, especially incorporation of waste fragments into the soil, also appeared to play an important role in determining concentrations of some of the pollutants in the soil. Concentrations of several of these compounds were extremely high (especially PBDEs, heavy metals and SCCPs) and in some cases exceeded action guideline levels for soil. This indicates that exposure to these contaminants via the soil alone is potentially harmful to the recyclers and their families living on waste sites. Many organic contaminants and other exposure pathways such as inhalation are not yet included in such guidelines but may also be significant, given that deposition from the air following waste burning was identified as a major pollutant source.

Determinants of Individuals’ E-Waste Recycling Decision: A Case Study from Romania

Due to the increase of the amount of electrical and electronical equipment waste (e-waste), the understanding of individual consumers’ main decision triggers represents a key point in increasing the quantity of recycled e-waste. A series of studies from the literature have shown a positive relationship between the consumers’ attitude, awareness, self-efficacy, social norms, and their e-waste recycling intention, as well as the positive influence between the intention and the manifested behavior. Additional to these determinants, in the present study, the influence of social media was analyzed along with the actions taken by the government and nongovernmental organizations, with the purpose to include and to capture, as much as possible, a high amount of determinants in the e-waste recycling process. Nevertheless, the demographic or socio-economic variables, such as age, gender, income, education, number of family members, etc., have shown over time to have a contribution to predicting the consumers’ pro-recycling behavior. As on one side, in the research literature, the opinions related to which of the demographic or socio-economic factors can have an impact on the recycling behavior have been divided and, on another side, a series of researchers believe that the discrepancies in the findings of different studies can be due to culture in various countries, in this paper we conducted such an analysis with reference to the Romania’s case. The results have shown that the demographic variables, such as age and gender, can have a contribution to predicting residents’ pro-e-waste recycling behavior. Based on these findings, the policymakers can gain a better understanding of the e-waste recycling phenomenon and on its main triggers, with results in creating better policies for sustaining a proper e-waste managing system.

The role of cities in reducing the cardiovascular impacts of environmental pollution in low- and middle-income countries

BACKGROUND

As low- and middle-income countries urbanize and industrialize, they must also cope with pollution emitted from diverse sources.

MAIN TEXT

Strong and consistent evidence associates exposure to air pollution and lead with increased risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence and death. Further, increasing evidence, mostly from high-income countries, indicates that exposure to noise and to both high and low temperatures may also increase cardiovascular risk. There is considerably less research on the cardiovascular impacts of environmental conditions in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where the levels of pollution are often higher and the types and sources of pollution markedly different from those in higher-income settings. However, as such evidence gathers, actions to reduce exposures to pollution in low- and middle-income countries are warranted, not least because such exposures are very high. Cities, where pollution, populations, and other cardiovascular risk factors are most concentrated, may be best suited to reduce the cardiovascular burden in LMICs by applying environmental standards and policies to mitigate pollution and by implementing interventions that target the most vulnerable. The physical environment of cities can be improved though municipal processes, including infrastructure development, energy and transportation planning, and public health actions. Local regulations can incentivize or inhibit the polluting behaviors of industries and individuals. Environmental monitoring can be combined with public health warning systems and publicly available exposure maps to inform residents of environmental hazards and encourage the adoption of pollution-avoiding behaviors. Targeted individual or neighborhood interventions that identify and treat high-risk populations (e.g., lead mitigation, portable air cleaners, and preventative medications) can also be leveraged in the very near term. Research will play a key role in evaluating whether these approaches achieve their intended benefits, and whether these benefits reach the most vulnerable.

CONCLUSION

Cities in LMICs can play a defining role in global health and cardiovascular disease prevention in the next several decades, as they are well poised to develop innovative, multisectoral approaches to pollution mitigation, while also protecting the most vulnerable.

Soil elemental concentrations, geoaccumulation index, non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks in functional areas of an informal e-waste recycling area in Accra, Ghana

This study assesses the distribution, contamination and human health risks of major, minor and trace elements in the topsoil and subsoil of two informal e-waste recycling sites in Accra, Ghana. Metal concentrations in Agbogbloshie exceeded the Dutch Soil intervention values with exceedances of 72%, 57%, 57%, 38%, 16%, 2% for Cu, Zn, Pb, Ba, Cd and As respectively. Metal concentrations in Ashaiman exceeded the Dutch Soil intervention values with exceedances of 62%, 57% and 46% for Cu, Zn and Pb respectively. Geoaccumulation indices indicated that the topsoils of the burn area and dismantling areas of Agbogbloshie e-waste recycling site were strongly contaminated by Pb and uncontaminated by Cr, Fe, As and Ba. Lead (Pb) contributed greatly to non-carcinogenic ingestion hazard quotient for residents living near Agbogbloshie and Ashaiman e-waste recycling sites while arsenic (As) presented carcinogenic risks to children from the dismantling area topsoils. Non-carcinogenic risks from ingestion were significant with children being more susceptible to non-carcinogenic ingestion risks than adults. Non-carcinogenic risks from dermal exposure were negligible. Hazard quotients of Pb for children in burn area topsoils and dismantling area topsoils were 7.4-7.6-fold greater than that for adults. The mean geoaccumulation indices values of Pb and Cu indicated extreme contamination of topsoils with these elements. A "novel environmental assessment tool" based on the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ASTDR) total impact points confirmed Pb and Cu as the most toxic elements.

Stress, health, noise exposures, and injuries among electronic waste recycling workers in Ghana

Background

Electronic waste (e-waste) recycling workers in low and middle-income countries have the potential for occupational injuries due to the nature of their work at informal e-waste sites. However, limited research exists on stress, noise, occupational injuries, and health risks associated with this work environment. This study evaluated injury experience, noise exposures, and stress risk factors among e-waste workers at the large recycling site in the Agbogbloshie market, Accra, Ghana.

Methods

Participants completed a survey addressing their work, health status, stress, exposures to several occupational hazards (including noise), use of personal protective equipment at work, and injury experience. A subset of participants also completed personal noise dosimetry measurements. Poisson regression was used to evaluate the association between the number of injuries experienced by participants and various factors evaluated in the survey.

Results

Forty-six male e-waste workers completed the survey, and 26 completed a noise dosimetry measurement. Participants experienced an average of 9.9 ± 9.6 injuries per person in the previous 6 months (range: 1–40). The majority of injuries were lacerations (65.2%), and the most common injury location was the hand (45.7%). Use of personal protective equipment was rare. The mean time-weighted average noise level was 78.8 ± 5.9 dBA. Higher perceived stress, greater age, poorer health status, not using gloves, and involvement in dismantling activities were associated with an increased number of injuries. After controlling for each of these risk factors, perceived stress level and perceived noise exposure were associated with a significantly greater number of injuries.

Conclusions

Our study identified a large number of injuries among informal e-waste recyclers, and we found that higher levels of perceived stress and perceived noise were associated with an increased number of occupational injuries, even after controlling for other injury risk factors.

Genomic instability in adult men involved in processing electronic waste in Northern China

BACKGROUND

Managing and recycling electronic waste (e-waste), while useful and necessary, has resulted in significant contamination of several environments in China. The area around Tianjin, China has become one of the world's largest e-waste disposal centers, where electronics are processed by manually disassembly or burning, which can result in serious exposure of workers to a multitude of toxicants.

OBJECTIVE

The present study assessed potential genomic damage in workers involved in recycling e-waste.

METHODS

To detect cytogenetic and DNA damage, chromosomal aberrations (CA), cytokinesis blocking micronucleus (CBMN) and the comet assay were performed. Concentrations of some trace elements, markers of oxidative stress and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in whole blood or serum were measured, and relationships among the markers described above, age, and duration of exposure were analyzed. The profiles of expression of genes in lymphocytes in peripheral blood were assessed to determine the status of the regulation of genes involved in genome stability.

RESULTS

Concentrations of 28 PCB congeners in the whole blood of the exposed group were significantly (P<0.001) greater than those in the control individuals. Frequency of CA (8.01%) and CBMN (26.3‰) in lymphocytes and the level of DNA damage in the lymphocytes and spermatozoa of the exposed men were also significantly (P<0.0001) greater than those of the controls. There were significant relationships between CA, CBMN, DNA damage and duration of exposure. Concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) and lead (Pb) in the blood serum were significantly greater, but activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) and concentrations of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were lower in the serum of the exposed men. MDA, Pb, Ca and Mg were associated with the duration of exposure to handling e-waste. In males involved in handling of e-waste, there were 13 genes - ATM, ATR, ABL1, CHEK1, CHEK2, GADD45A, CDK7, GTSE1, OGG1, DDB1, PRKDC, XRCC1 and CCNH - for which expression of mRNA was up-regulated and 7 genes - BRCA1, GTF2H1, SEMA4A, MRE11A, MUTYH, PNKP and RAD50 - for which the expression of mRNA was down-regulated.

CONCLUSIONS

A strong correlation between indicators of damage of DNA, which could result in instability of the genome, and duration of processing e-waste was observed. If proper procedures are not followed, there are significant risks to the health of the individuals involved in such activities.

Prevention-intervention strategies to reduce exposure to e-waste

As one of the largest waste streams, electronic waste (e-waste) production continues to grow in response to global demand for consumer electronics. This waste is often shipped to developing countries where it is disassembled and recycled. In many cases, e-waste recycling activities are conducted in informal settings with very few controls or protections in place for workers. These activities involve exposure to hazardous substances such as cadmium, lead, and brominated flame retardants and are frequently performed by women and children. Although recycling practices and exposures vary by scale and geographic region, we present case studies of e-waste recycling scenarios and intervention approaches to reduce or prevent exposures to the hazardous substances in e-waste that may be broadly applicable to diverse situations. Drawing on parallels identified in these cases, we discuss the future prevention and intervention strategies that recognize the difficult economic realities of informal e-waste recycling.

An Effectiveness Assessment of China's WEEE Treatment Fund

Policy is essential to the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). In order to present valuable findings for policy improvement, we performed a quantitative effectiveness assessment of China’s WEEE treatment fund from 2012 to 2015. The achievement of the general goal of the WEEE treatment fund was evaluated with various indicators. We calculated the values of all indicators and analyzed the changes in them. The results show that the WEEE treatment fund was important in promoting WEEE collection and recycling activities and has provided great benefits in the form of resources and the environment. Moreover, the authorized enterprises also experienced progress in their development. In a word, the WEEE treatment fund was effective to some extent. However, because of the limited subsidies and other factors, the WEEE treatment fund had different effects on five categories of WEEE. We found that its approach worked best for the TV set. Although the promotional effects on the other four categories of WEEE have been increasingly significant since 2014, there is room for improvement. Fortunately, the subsidy rates have been adjusted by administrations and new subsidies were provided in 2016. As it is crucial for the effectiveness of the WEEE treatment fund, new subsidy rates should be evaluated regularly.

Informal E-waste recycling in developing countries: review of metal(loid)s pollution, environmental impacts and transport pathways

Crude or primitive recycling practices are often adopted in material resource recovery from E-waste in developing nations. Significant human health and environmental impacts may occur because of such practices. Literature on metal(loid)s pollution during E-waste processing is fragmented. Here, I review the health and environmental impacts of E-waste recycling operations and transport pathways of metal(loid)s, dispersed during operations. This paper is organised into five sections. Section 1 relates to the background of global E-waste generation and legal/illegal trade, citing specific cases from Ghana and other developing nations. Section 2 provides a brief information on sources of metal(loid)s in E-waste. Section 3 describes characteristics of informal E-waste recycling operations in developing nations. Section 4 examines the health and environmental impacts in E-waste recycling while section 5 evaluates major transport pathways of metal(loid)s contaminants.