1
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Ahmadpour E, Debia M. Estimating airborne trichloramine levels in indoor swimming pools using the well-mixed box model. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2024:1-12. [PMID: 38669683 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2024.2327370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Exposure to airborne disinfection by-products, especially trichloramine (TCA), could cause various occupational health effects in indoor swimming pools. However, TCA concentration measurements involve specialized analysis conducted in specific laboratories, which can result in significant costs and time constraints. As an alternative, modeling techniques for estimating exposures are promising in addressing these challenges. This study aims to predict airborne TCA concentrations in indoor swimming pools using a mathematical model, the well-mixed box model, found in the IHMOD tool, freely available on the American Industrial Hygiene Association website. The model's predictions are compared with TCA concentrations measured during various bather load scenarios. The research involved conducting 2-hr successive workplace measurements over 16- to 18-hr periods in four indoor swimming pools in Quebec, Canada. TCA concentrations were estimated using the well-mixed box model, assuming a homogeneous mixing of air within the swimming pool environment. A novel approach was developed to estimate the TCA generation rate from swimming pool water, incorporating the number of swimmers in the model. Average measured concentrations of TCA were 0.24, 0.26, 0.14, and 0.34 mg/m3 for swimming pools 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The ratio of these measured average concentrations to their corresponding predicted values ranged from 0.51 to 1.30, 0.67 to 1.04, 0.57 to 1.14, and 0.68 to 1.49 for the respective swimming pools. In a worst-case scenario simulating the swimming pool at full capacity (maximum bathers allowed), TCA concentrations were estimated as 0.23, 0.36, 0.14, and 0.37 mg/m3 for swimming pools 1, 2, 3, and 4. Recalculated concentrations by adjusting the number of swimmers so as not to exceed the recommended occupational limit concentration of 0.35 mg/m3 gives a maximum number of swimmers of 63 and 335 instead of currently 80 and 424 for swimming pools 2 and 4, respectively. Similarly, for swimming pools 1 and 3, the maximum number of swimmers could be 173 and 398 (instead of the current 160 and 225, respectively). These results demonstrated that the model could be used to estimate and anticipate airborne TCA levels in indoor swimming pools across various scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadpour
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CreSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CreSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
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2
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Peng F, Lu Y, Dong X, Wang Y, Li H, Yang Z. Advances and research needs for disinfection byproducts control strategies in swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 454:131533. [PMID: 37146331 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools is of great significance due to the non-negligible toxicity and widespread existence of DBPs. However, the management of DBPs remains challenging as the removal and regulation of DBPs is a multifactorial phenomenon in pools. This study summarized recent studies on the removal and regulation of DBPs, and further proposed some research needs. Specifically, the removal of DBPs was divided into the direct removal of the generated DBPs and the indirect removal by inhibiting DBP formation. Inhibiting DBP formation seems to be the more effective and economically practical strategy, which can be achieved mainly by reducing precursors, improving disinfection technology, and optimizing water quality parameters. Alternative disinfection technologies to chlorine disinfection have attracted increasing attention, while their applicability in pools requires further investigation. The regulation of DBPs was discussed in terms of improving the standards on DBPs and their preccursors. The development of online monitoring technology for DBPs is essential for implementing the standard. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the control of DBPs in pool water by updating the latest research advances and providing detailed perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Xuelian Dong
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yingyang Wang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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3
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Hsu HT, Chen MJ, Tsai KC, Huang LJ, Lin CH, Lai CH, Cheng LH. Modelling chloroform in indoor swimming pool air and water: the influences of internal air circulation and occupants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:54857-54870. [PMID: 36881228 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-25978-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The release of chloroform from water to air in an indoor swimming pool (ISP) exhibits complex physicochemical interactions among many variables, including environmental conditions, occupant activities, and geometry of the ISP. By combining the relevant variables, a structured mathematical model, the double-layer air compartment (DLAC) model, was developed to predict the level of chloroform in ISP air. A physical parameter, the indoor airflow recycle ratio (R), was incorporated into the DLAC model due to internal airflow circulation resulting in the ISP structural configuration. The theoretical R-value for a specific indoor airflow rate (vy) can be found by fitting the predicted residence time distribution (RTD) to the simulated RTD from computational fluid dynamics (CFD), showing a positive linear relationship with vy. The mechanical energies induced by occupant activities were converted into a lumped overall mass-transfer coefficient to account for the enhanced mass transfer of chloroform from the water into the air and mixing in ISP air. The DLAC model predicted that chloroform air concentrations were statistically less accurate without considering the influence of R compared with the online open-path Fourier transform infrared measurements. A novel index, the magnitude of emission (MOE) from swimmers, was linked to the level of chloroform in ISP water. The capability of the DLAC model associated with the MOE concept may facilitate upgrading the hygiene management of ISPs, including the ability to administer necessary chlorine additives in pool water and monitor the chloroform in ISP air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Tsung Hsu
- Department of Public Health, China Medical University, No. 100, Sec. 1, Jingmao Road, Taichung, 406040, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Jen Chen
- Department of Occupational Safety and Hygiene, Fooyin University, 151 Chin-Hsueh Rd., Ta-Liao District, Kaohsiung, 83102, Taiwan
- Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, 2 Juoyue Rd., Nanzih District, Kaohsiung, 81164, Taiwan
| | - Kuang-Chung Tsai
- Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, 2 Juoyue Rd., Nanzih District, Kaohsiung, 81164, Taiwan
| | - Li-Jen Huang
- Department of Occupational Safety and Hygiene, Fooyin University, 151 Chin-Hsueh Rd., Ta-Liao District, Kaohsiung, 83102, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Ho Lin
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Science, Fooyin University, 151 Chin-Hsueh Rd., Ta-Liao District, Kaohsiung, 83102, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Hsing Lai
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Science, Fooyin University, 151 Chin-Hsueh Rd., Ta-Liao District, Kaohsiung, 83102, Taiwan
| | - Li-Hsin Cheng
- Department of Occupational Safety and Hygiene, Fooyin University, 151 Chin-Hsueh Rd., Ta-Liao District, Kaohsiung, 83102, Taiwan.
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4
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Genisoglu M, Minaz M, Tanacan E, Sofuoglu SC, Kaplan-Bekaroglu SS, Kanan A, Ates N, Sardohan-Koseoglu T, Yigit NÖ, Harman BI. Halogenated By-Products in Chlorinated Indoor Swimming Pools: A Long-Term Monitoring and Empirical Modeling Study. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:11364-11372. [PMID: 37008144 PMCID: PMC10061505 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring the disinfection process and swimming pool water quality is essential for the prevention of microbial infections and associated diseases. However, carcinogenic and chronic-toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed with reactions between disinfectants and organic/inorganic matters. DBP precursors in swimming pools originate from anthropogenic sources (body secretions, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, etc.) or chemicals used in pools. Temporal (48 weeks) water quality trends of trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), and halonitromethanes (HNMs) in two swimming pools (SP-A and SP-B) and precursor-DBP relationships were investigated in this study. Weekly samples were taken from swimming pools, and several physical/chemical water quality parameters, absorbable organic halides (AOX), and DBPs were determined. THMs and HAAs were the most detected DBP groups in pool water. While chloroform was determined to be the dominant THM compound, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid were the dominant HAA compounds. The average AOX concentrations were measured to be 304 and 746 μg/L as Cl- in SP-A and SP-B, respectively. Although the amount of AOX from unknown chlorinated by-products in SP-A did not vary temporally, a significant increase in unknown DBP concentrations in SP-B was observed over time. AOX concentrations of chlorinated pool waters were determined to be an important parameter that can be used to estimate DBP concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mesut Genisoglu
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Izmir Institute
of Technology, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | - Mert Minaz
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
- Department
of Aquaculture, Recep Tayyip Erdoǧan
University, Rize 53100, Turkey
| | - Ertac Tanacan
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
| | - Sait Cemil Sofuoglu
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Izmir Institute
of Technology, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | | | - Amer Kanan
- Department
of Environment and Earth Sciences, Al-Quds
University, Jerusalem 51000, Palestine
| | - Nuray Ates
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri 38280, Turkey
| | - Tugba Sardohan-Koseoglu
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Applied Sciences
University of Isparta, Isparta 32200, Turkey
| | - Nevzat Özgü Yigit
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
| | - Bilgehan Ilker Harman
- Department
of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel
University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
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5
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Ahmadpour E, Hallé S, Valois I, Ryan PE, Haddad S, Rodriguez M, Tardif R, Debia M. Comparison of sampling collection strategies for assessing airborne trichloramine levels in indoor swimming pools. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:36012-36022. [PMID: 36539665 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24790-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Since 1995, Hery's trichloramine sampling procedure has been widely used to determine trichloramine exposure in indoor swimming pools. This method consists of pumping air at a 1 L/min flow rate for 2 h through a Teflon prefilter and two quartz fiber filters. Modified Hery methods have been reported using different sampling pump flow rates and types of prefilters. It is possible that the prefilter type or sample collection pump flow rate influenced the results of these studies. This study is designed to evaluate the effects of different cassette assemblies and sampling flow rates on the levels of measured trichloramine. Laboratory tests were performed using a trichloramine production setup designed for this study. Workplace measurements were carried out at four indoor swimming pools. Different prefiltering strategies were used: no prefilter, glass prefilter or Teflon prefilter in the sampling cassette, and an original separable prefilter cassette is presented in this study. Laboratory tests indicated that at trichloramine concentrations higher than 1 mg/m3, the percentage of trichloramine captured on the first filter could be less than 75%, which demonstrated possible loss of the material during sampling. An investigation of the prefilter effect on the sampling strategy using different cassette assemblies revealed that using a separable cassette assembly prevented overestimations of trichloramine levels. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between trichloramine concentrations measured at flow rates (from 0.5 to 2 L/min) in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadpour
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Stéphane Hallé
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Canada
| | - Isabelle Valois
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Patrick Eddy Ryan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Sami Haddad
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- École Supérieure d'aménagement du Territoire Et de Développement Régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Robert Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
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6
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Zheng X, Xu J, Gao Y, Li W, Chen Y, Geng H, Yue J, Xu M. Within-day variation and health risk assessment of trihalomethanes (THMs) in a chlorinated indoor swimming pool in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:18354-18363. [PMID: 36210406 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23498-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are the most common species of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pools and have received widespread attention due to their risk to public health. However, studies examining within-day variation and the carcinogenic health risks from exposure to THMs in indoor swimming pools are limited. Our study aimed to detect the within-day variation of four THMs categories and carcinogenic health risk in indoor swimming pool water in Taiyuan, China, and to examine the correlations between THMs and environmental parameters. Our results showed chloroform (TCM) was the most abundant component in THMs with median concentrations from 0.038-0.118 μg/m3. TCM and THMs were significantly positively correlated with FCl and significantly negatively correlated with the cumulative number of swimmers (CNS) in the swimming pool. The concentration of total THMs and TCM, lifetime average daily doses (LADD) of TCM, and the total lifetime cancer risks (ELCR) values of THMs declined with time with the highest level occurring at 8:00 am. ELCR values of THMs were in the range of 1.368 × 10-5-1.968 × 10-5, which exceeded the negligible risk level (10-6) defined by US EPA. Our results suggest that THM occurrence and the carcinogenic health risks in pool water varied temporally. Exposure to pool water THMs may pose a carcinogenic risk to human health, especially at the pool's opening time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianyun Zheng
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China.
| | - Jingchao Xu
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Ye Gao
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- School of Physical Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Wanghong Li
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- School of Physical Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Yimei Chen
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Hong Geng
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Jianwei Yue
- Shanxi Unisdom Testing Technology Co., Ltd., Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Min Xu
- Shanxi Unisdom Testing Technology Co., Ltd., Taiyuan, 030032, China
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7
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Boecker D, Zhang Z, Breves R, Herth F, Kramer A, Bulitta C. Antimicrobial efficacy, mode of action and in vivo use of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) for prevention or therapeutic support of infections. GMS HYGIENE AND INFECTION CONTROL 2023; 18:Doc07. [PMID: 37034111 PMCID: PMC10073986 DOI: 10.3205/dgkh000433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2023]
Abstract
The objective is to provide a comprehensive overview of the rapidly developing field of the current state of research on in vivo use of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) to aid infection prevention and control, including naso-pharyngeal, alveolar, topical, and systemic HOCl applications. Also, examples are provided of dedicated applications in COVID-19. A brief background of HOCl's biological and chemical specifics and its physiological role in the innate immune system is provided to understand the effect of in vivo applications in the context of the body's own physiological defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Boecker
- TOTO Consulting LLC, San Jose CA, USA
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dirk Boecker, TOTO Consulting LLC, San Jose CA, USA, E-mail:
| | - Zhentian Zhang
- Institute for Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Felix Herth
- Thoraxklinik, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Axel Kramer
- Institut of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Clemens Bulitta
- Institut für Medizintechnik, Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule (OTH) Amberg-Weiden, Amberg-Weiden, Germany
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8
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Usman M, Hüben M, Kato T, Zwiener C, Wintgens T, Linnemann V. Occurrence of brominated disinfection by-products in thermal spas. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 845:157338. [PMID: 35843322 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Thermal spas are gaining more and more popularity among the population because they are used for recreational purposes. Disinfecting these baths without losing the health benefits poses a challenge for swimming pool operators. Previous studies have mainly focused on regulated chlorinated DBPs in freshwater pools with no bromide or seawater pools with very high bromide content. Thermal water pools have a low bromide content and in combination with chlorine can lead to chlorinated, brominated and mixed halogenated DBP species. The occurrence of brominated and mixed halogenated DBPs in these types of pools is largely unexplored, with very few or limited studies published on regulated DBPs and even fewer on emerging DBP classes. In the field of swimming pool water disinfection, apart from extensive studies in the field of drinking water disinfection, only a few studies are known in which >39 halogenated and 16 non-halogenated disinfection by-products, including regulated trihalomethanes (THM) and haloacetic acids (HAA), were investigated in swimming pool water. Calculated bromine incorporation factor (BIF) demonstrated that even small amounts of bromide in swimming pool water can lead to a large shift in DBP species towards brominated and mixed halogenated DBPs. Dihaloacetonitriles (DHANs) accounted for >50% of the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity on average. Comparison of the target analysis with the TOX showed that a major part of the measured TOX (69% on average) could be explained by the regulated classes THMs, HAAs, and the unregulated class of HANs. This study aims to help operators of swimming pools with bromide-containing water to gain a better understanding of DBP formation in future monitoring and to fill the knowledge gap that has existed so far on the occurrence of DBPs in thermal water pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Usman
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Analytical Laboratory, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str.1, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael Hüben
- Fraunhofer IME, Auf dem Aberg 1, 57392 Schmallenberg, Germany
| | - Takuro Kato
- Analytical Instruments, Mitsubishi Chemical Europe, Willstätterstr. 45, 40549 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christian Zwiener
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Center for Applied Geoscience, University of Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstr. 94-96, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Wintgens
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Analytical Laboratory, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str.1, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Volker Linnemann
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Analytical Laboratory, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str.1, 52056 Aachen, Germany.
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9
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Granger CO, Richardson SD. Do DBPs swim in salt water pools? Comparison of 60 DBPs formed by electrochemically generated chlorine vs. conventional chlorine. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:232-241. [PMID: 35725075 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Disinfectants are added to swimming pools to kill harmful pathogens. Although liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) is the most commonly used disinfectant, alternative disinfection techniques like electrochemically generated mixed oxidants or electrochemically generated chlorine, often referred to as salt water pools, are growing in popularity. However, these disinfectants react with natural organic matter and anthropogenic contaminants introduced to the pool water by swimmers to form disinfection byproducts (DBPs). DBPs have been linked to several adverse health effects, such as bladder cancer, adverse birth outcomes, and asthma. In this study, we quantified 60 DBPs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and assessed the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of an indoor community swimming pool before and after switching to a salt water pool with electrochemically generated chlorine. Interestingly, the total DBPs increased by 15% upon implementation of the salt water pool, but the calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity decreased by 45% and 15%, respectively. Predominant DBP classes formed were haloacetic acids, with trichloroacetic acid and dichloroacetic acid contributing 57% of the average total DBPs formed. Haloacetonitriles, haloacetic acids, and haloacetaldehydes were the primary drivers of calculated cytotoxicity, and haloacetic acids were the primary driver of calculated genotoxicity. Diiodoacetic acid, a highly toxic iodinated DBP, is reported for the first time in swimming pool water. Bromide impurities in sodium chloride used to electrochemically generate chlorine led to a 73% increase in brominated DBPs, primarily driven by bromochloroacetic acid. This study presents the most extensive DBP study to-date for salt water pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline O Granger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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10
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Ahmadpour E, Halle S, Valois I, Ryan PE, Haddad S, Rodriguez M, El Aroussi B, Simard S, Delpla I, Proulx F, Tardif R, Debia M. Temporal and spatial variations in the levels of prominent airborne disinfection by-products at four indoor swimming pools. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2022; 19:185-196. [PMID: 35119975 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2022.2035741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to airborne disinfection by-products, especially trichloramine and trichloromethane, may cause various adverse health effects for the workers and users of indoor swimming pools. This study aims to evaluate the spatial and temporal variations in trichloramine and trichloromethane concentrations within and between swimming pools. Workplace measurements were carried out at four indoor swimming pools in Quebec (Canada) during the cold season. To fully represent daily operating conditions, sampling started 2 hr before the swimming pool opened and continued until 2 hr after closing. To quantify trichloramine and trichloromethane concentrations, 304 air samples have been collected. Temperature, humidity, and CO2 were measured-simultaneously every 2 hr. The results showed that both trichloramine and trichloromethane concentrations varied significantly in time. The observed daily variations in trichloramine and trichloromethane concentrations suggest that the common practice of collecting a single 2-hr air sample does not represent daily pool trichloramine and trichloromethane contamination levels and, consequently, does not represent the true exposure and health risks for workers that are present for a full 8-hr shift. This study recommends a new 8-hr sampling strategy or a full-shift strategy using a cassette with three impregnated filters as a valid and cost-effective solution for comparing time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations to permissible trichloramine exposure limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadpour
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Stephan Halle
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Isabelle Valois
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Patrick Eddy Ryan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sami Haddad
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Québec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Badr El Aroussi
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sabrina Simard
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Québec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Ianis Delpla
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Québec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - François Proulx
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Québec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Robert Tardif
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Le Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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11
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Disinfection of Wastewater by UV-Based Treatment for Reuse in a Circular Economy Perspective. Where Are We at? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 18:ijerph18010077. [PMID: 33374200 PMCID: PMC7795268 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18010077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Among the critical issues that prevent the reuse of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) effluents in a circular economy perspective, the microbiological component plays a key role causing infections and diseases. To date, the use of conventional chemical oxidants (e.g., chlorine) represent the main applied process for wastewater (WW) disinfection following a series of operational advantages. However, toxicity linked to the production of highly dangerous disinfection by-products (DBPs) has been widely demonstrated. Therefore, in recent years, there is an increasing attention to implement sustainable processes, which can simultaneously guarantee the microbiological quality of the WWs treated and the protection of both humans and the environment. This review focuses on treatments based on ultraviolet radiation (UV) alone or in combination with other processes (sonophotolysis, photocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis with both natural and artificial light) without the dosage of chemical oxidants. The strengths of these technologies and the most significant critical issues are reported. To date, the use of synthetic waters in laboratory tests despite real waters, the capital and operative costs and the limited, or absent, experience of full-scale plant management (especially for UV-based combined processes) represent the main limits to their application on a larger scale. Although further in-depth studies are required to ensure full applicability of UV-based combined processes in WWTPs for reuse of their purified effluents, excellent prospects are presented thanks to an absent environmental impact in terms of DBPs formation and excellent disinfection yields of microorganisms (in most cases higher than 3-log reduction).
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12
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Wastensson G, Eriksson K. Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting. Crit Rev Toxicol 2020; 50:219-271. [PMID: 32484073 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2020.1744514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Inorganic chloramines are not commercially available, but monochloramine is produced in situ for disinfection or for use in chemical synthesis. Inorganic chloramines are also formed when free chlorine reacts with nitrogen containing substances, e.g. ammonia and urea, present in chlorinated water sources. Occupational exposure may, therefore, occur in e.g. swimming pool facilities and the food processing industry. Monochloramine is soluble and stable in water and the dominating inorganic chloramine in chlorinated water sources. No clinical effects were seen in healthy volunteers given monochloramine in drinking water during 4 or 12 weeks in doses of 0.043 or 0.034 mg/kg bw/day, respectively. Limited data indicate that monochloramine is weakly mutagenic in vitro but not genotoxic in vivo. One drinking water study indicated equivocal evidence of carcinogenicity in female rats but not in male rats and mice. No reproductive or developmental effects were shown in rodents in the few studies located. Dichloramine is soluble but unstable in water. In the only study located, mild histological effects in kidneys, thyroid and gastric cardia were observed in rats administered dichloramine in drinking water for 13 weeks. Trichloramine is immiscible with water and evaporates easily from water into air. Therefore, the primary exposure route of concern in the occupational setting is inhalation. Occupational exposure to trichloramine has been demonstrated in indoor swimming pool facilities and in the food processing industry where chlorinated water is used for disinfection. Exposure-response relationships between airborne levels and self-reported ocular and upper airway irritation have been shown in several studies. Exposure to trichloramine may aggravate asthma symptoms in individuals with existing asthma. The risk of developing asthma following long-term exposure to trichloramine cannot be evaluated at present. No data on genotoxic, carcinogenic, reproductive or developmental effects were located. The toxicological data for mono- and dichloramine are insufficient to recommend health-based occupational exposure limits (OELs).As regard trichloramine, the critical effect is judged to be irritation observed in several studies on pool workers, starting at approximately 0.4 mg/m3 (stationary sampling). Based on these data, a health-based OEL of 0.1 mg/m3 (8-h time-weighted average) is recommended. This corresponds to 0.2 mg/m3 for stationary measurements in swimming pool facilities. No short-term exposure limit (STEL) is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunilla Wastensson
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kåre Eriksson
- Department of Sustainable Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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13
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Lara P, Ramírez V, Castrillón F, Peñuela GA. Presence of Disinfection Byproducts in Public Swimming Pools in Medellín, Colombia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17134659. [PMID: 32605262 PMCID: PMC7369848 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17134659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The quality of water in swimming pools is essential to avoid risks to the health of users. Medellín has more than 1000 public swimming pools, which are supervised by the Medellín Health Authority to monitor and ensure compliance with relevant regulations. The Health Authority has financed several studies related to the quality of drinking and recreational water in Medellín in order to protect consumers and users. One such study involves the evaluation of the presence of disinfection byproducts (DBP). The best known DBPs resulting from disinfection with chlorine are trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs), as well as other minorities such as chloramines or halophenols (HPs). DBPs pose a greater risk in swimming pool water because there is a greater possibility of ingestion, since exposure occurs through several routes at the same time (direct ingestion of water, inhalation of volatile or aerosol solutes, dermal contact and absorption through skin). In the present work, high concentrations of THMs and HAAs were detected in the public swimming pools selected in the study, but the presence of HPs was not detected in the pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Lara
- Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia; (P.L.); (V.R.)
| | - Valentina Ramírez
- Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia; (P.L.); (V.R.)
| | - Fernando Castrillón
- Health Authority Entity of Medellín, La Alpujarra Administrative Center of Medellín, Calle 42 No 52-106, 050015 Medellín, Colombia;
| | - Gustavo A. Peñuela
- Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia; (P.L.); (V.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +57-219-6570
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14
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Tsamba L, Correc O, Couzinet A. +Chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools: Development of a pilot pool unit and impact of operating parameters. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105566. [PMID: 32106046 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine addition in swimming pools ensures the microbiological quality of the water and the bathers' safety. However, water chlorination is associated with disinfection byproducts (DBP) formation and adverse health effects. The impact of operating parameters and innovative water treatment systems on DBPs levels has been reported in several studies, but sampling campaign in real pools remain difficult to carry out, mainly due to unexpected attendance variations. This study presents the development of a pilot pool plant allowing to perform experiments under controlled and reproducible conditions. Bathers inputs were simulated both for the organic load and for the mechanical agitation of water. Two sampling campaigns were performed during the building of the pilot, before and after the hall was closed. Key operating parameters such as chlorine dose, water temperature and attendance were controlled and monitored. DBP levels in the pilot plant were representative of French indoor swimming pools and the impact of bathers' activity was visible on volatile DBPs. Furthermore, correlations could be stated between operating parameters and DBP levels. Stripping effectively reduced volatile DBP concentrations in water. Moreover, energy consumption data, which are usually very scarce in experimental studies, showed the influence of heat pump consumption on the global energy consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Tsamba
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Olivier Correc
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France.
| | - Anthony Couzinet
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France
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15
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Felgueiras F, Mourão Z, Morais C, Santos H, Gabriel MF, de Oliveira Fernandes E. Comprehensive assessment of the indoor air quality in a chlorinated Olympic-size swimming pool. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 136:105401. [PMID: 31884411 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Elite swimmers and swimming pool employees are likely to be at greater health risk due to their regular and intense exposure to air stressors in the indoor swimming pool environment. Since data on the real long-term exposure is limited, a long-term monitoring and sampling plan (22 non-consecutive days, from March to July 2017) was carried out in an indoor Olympic-size pool with a chlorine-based disinfection method to characterize indoor environments to which people involved in elite swimming and maintenance staff may be exposed to. A comprehensive set of parameters related with comfort and environmental conditions (temperature, relative humidity (RH), carbon dioxide (CO2) and monoxide and ultrafine particles (UFP)) were monitored both indoors and outdoors in order to determine indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratios. Additionally, an analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOC) concentration and its dynamics was implemented in three 1-hr periods: early morning, evening elite swimmers training session and late evening. Samplings were simultaneously carried out in the air layer above the water surface and in the air surrounding the pool, selected to be representative of swimmers and coaches/employees' breathing zones, respectively. The results of this work showed that the indoor climate was very stable in terms of air temperature, RH and CO2. In terms of the other measured parameters, mean indoor UFP number concentrations (5158 pt/cm3) were about 50% of those measured outdoors whereas chloroform was the predominant substance detected in all samples collected indoors (13.0-369.3 µg/m3), among a varied list of chemical compounds. An I/O non-trihalomethanes (THM) VOC concentration ratio of 2.7 was also found, suggesting that, beyond THM, other potentially hazardous VOC have also their source(s) indoors. THM and non-THM VOC concentration were found to increase consistently during the evening training session and exhibited a significant seasonal pattern. Compared to their coaches, elite swimmers seemed to be exposed via inhalation to significantly higher total THM levels, but to similar concentrations of non-THM VOC, during routine training activities. Regarding swimming employees, the exposure to THM and other VOC appeared to be significantly minimized during the early morning period. The air/water temperature ratio and RH were identified as important parameters that are likely to trigger the transfer processes of volatile substances from water to air and of their accumulation in the indoor environment of the swimming pool, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fátima Felgueiras
- INEGI, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal
| | - Zenaida Mourão
- INEGI, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina Morais
- INEGI, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal
| | - Hugo Santos
- INEGI, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marta Fonseca Gabriel
- INEGI, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal.
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16
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Long L, Bu Y, Chen B, Sadiq R. Removal of urea from swimming pool water by UV/VUV: The roles of additives, mechanisms, influencing factors, and reaction products. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 161:89-97. [PMID: 31181450 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To discover an applicable technology for urea abatement from swimming pool water (SPW), this study compared the performances of seven ultraviolet (UV)-based technologies on urea removal, including UV alone, UV coupled with hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2), sulfite (UV/Na2SO3), potassium persulfate (UV/K2S2O8), a combination of UV and vacuum UV (UV/VUV), and UV/VUV in tandem with either H2O2 (VUV/H2O2) or potassium persulfate (VUV/K2S2O8). Among them, UV and UV/Na2SO3 showed little removal ability, and UV/H2O2 removed only 12.8% of urea within 3-h experiments, while UV/VUV degraded 71.7% of urea without introducing substantial total dissolved solids (TDS). Therefore, UV/VUV was considered as a promising technology for further exploration. In comparison, although UV/K2S2O8 exhibited higher urea removal than UV/VUV, it caused dramatic increases of TDS, which made the regulatory threshold for the TDS increment difficult to maintain. Within UV/VUV studies, some common components in SPW (e.g., cyanuric acid, humic acid, nitrate, and bicarbonate) inhibited the removal process, whereas chloride and sulfate facilitated it, while free chlorine at doses ≤ 3 mg-Cl2/L and pH levels from 6.8 to 8.0 imposed little impact on urea degradation. Overall, UV/VUV degraded 40.0% and 22.2% of urea from tap water and SPW, respectively; both were lower than the efficiency observed in ultrapure water. As for reaction byproducts, urea phototransformation via UV/VUV yielded nitrate and ammonia as the key products with the mass balance of nitrogen element being met. However, the contents of organic carbon decreased at a rate slightly lower than urea degradation, suggesting that urea was mostly mineralized and slightly converted to unknown organic compounds. The results hence demonstrate that UV/VUV is an effective alternative for urea removal from SPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangchen Long
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yinan Bu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Baiyang Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V1V7, Canada
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17
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Evaluation of the effect of body fluid analogs on the parameters of nanofiltration during the purification of swimming pool water. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-0568-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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18
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Carter RAA, West N, Heitz A, Joll CA. An analytical method for the analysis of trihalomethanes in ambient air using solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: An application to indoor swimming pool complexes. INDOOR AIR 2019; 29:499-509. [PMID: 30844099 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A simple method for the collection and analysis of the four brominated and chlorinated trihalomethanes (THMs) in air samples is described. Ambient air samples were collected in pre-prepared glass vials, with THM analysis performed using solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, where the need for chemical reagents is minimized. Analytical parameters, including oven temperature program, solvent volume, incubation time, vial agitation, extraction time and temperature, as well as desorption time and temperature, were evaluated to ensure optimal method performance. The developed method allows for point-in-time quantification (compared to an average concentration measured over extended periods of time), with detection limits between 0.7 to 2.6 µg/m3 . Excellent linearity (r2 > 0.99), repeatability (3% to 11% RSD), and reproducibility (3% to 16% RSD) were demonstrated over a concentration range from 2 to 5000 µg/m3 . The method was validated for the analysis of THMs in indoor swimming pool air and was used to investigate the occurrence of THMs in the air above 15 indoor swimming pools. This is the first study to report the occurrence of THMs in swimming pool air in Australia, and concentrations higher than those previously reported in other countries were measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Nigel West
- ChemCentre, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Anna Heitz
- School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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19
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Nitter TB, Svendsen KVH. Determinants of Exposure and Variability of Trihalomethanes in the Air of Three Indoor Swimming Pools. Ann Work Expo Health 2019; 63:560-567. [DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxz024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Therese Bergh Nitter
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Centre for Sport Facilities and Technology (SIAT), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Kristin v Hirsch Svendsen
- Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Sem Sælands vei, Trondheim, Norway
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20
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Saleem S, Dyck R, Hu G, Hewage K, Rodriguez M, Sadiq R. Investigating the effects of design and management factors on DBPs levels in indoor aquatic centres. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 651:775-786. [PMID: 30253359 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in indoor swimming pool water and air have long been a critical human health risk concern. This study investigated the effects of several indoor swimming pool design and management factors (e.g. ventilation, water treatment, pool operations, pool type) on the concentrations of DBPs, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and chloramines, in pool water and air. Two sampling campaigns, A and B, were carried out to measure the concentrations of DBPs under different conditions. In both campaigns, 46 pool water samples, seven tap water samples, and 28 ambient air samples were collected and analyzed. Regression models were also developed and validated for investigating the combined effects of design and management factors on total trihalomethanes (TTHM) and trichloramine. The model results show that pool water characteristics (e.g., total organic content, temperature, conductivity, pH and alkalinity) and management factors (e.g., the number of bathers and sprayers) have direct effects on DBP concentrations. Pool water characteristics such as UV absorbance, hardness, and oxidation-reduction potential and a management factor UV intensity have inverse effects on DBPs levels. Based on the correlation analysis, other factors such as fan speed, fresh air, pool age, and basin area were found to be correlated with the concentrations of individual THMs and trichloramine in both water and air. It was also observed that the concentration of THMs varies with pool type. It is note worthy that the effects of the number of sprayers was quantified for the first time. This study comprehensively assessed pool design and management factors and identified their effects on DBPs, providing indoor swimming pool facilities with useful information to control DBPs in the indoor swimming environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sana Saleem
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7.
| | - Roberta Dyck
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7.
| | - Guangji Hu
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7.
| | - Kasun Hewage
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7.
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- Université Laval, Pavillon Félix-Antoine-Savard, 2325 rue des Bibliothèques, Local 1628, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7.
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21
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Ilyas H, Masih I, van der Hoek JP. An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:861-892. [PMID: 30540262 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation and their relationship with governing factors in chlorinated swimming pools. The study compares concentrations of DBPs with WHO guidelines for drinking water quality recommended to screen swimming pool water quality. The statistical analysis is based on a global database of 188 swimming pools accumulated from 42 peer-reviewed journal publications from 16 countries. The mean and standard deviation of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid were estimated as 282 ± 437 and 326 ± 517 μg L-1, respectively, which most often surpassed the WHO guidelines. Similarly, more than half of the examined pools had higher values of chloral hydrate (102 ± 128 μg L-1). The concentration of total chloramines (650 ± 490 μg L-1) was well above the WHO guidelines in all reported cases. Nevertheless, the reported values remained below the guidelines for most of the studied pools in the case of total trihalomethanes (134 ± 160 μg L-1), dichloroacetonitrile (12 ± 12 μg L-1) and dibromoacetonitrile (8 ± 11 μg L-1). Total organic carbon, free residual chlorine, temperature, pH, total nitrogen and bromide ions play a pivotal role in DBPs formation processes. Therefore, proper management of these governing factors could significantly reduce DBPs formation, thereby, contributing towards a healthy swimming pool environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huma Ilyas
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Ilyas Masih
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail: ; IHE Delft, Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands and Strategic Centre, Waternet, 1096 AC Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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22
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Pándics T, Hofer Á, Dura G, Vargha M, Szigeti T, Tóth E. Health risk of swimming pool disinfection by-products: a regulatory perspective. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:947-957. [PMID: 30540269 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
While disinfection of swimming pools is indispensable for microbiological safety, it may lead to the formation of disinfection by-products. Most studies agree that inhalation exposure is the predominant pathway of the associated health risks, but assumptions are based on concentrations measured in water and evaporation models. Pool water and air were sampled in 19 swimming pools. Trihalomethanes were detected in all sites; chloroform being the most abundant species. Concentrations ranged between 12.8-71.2 μg/L and 11.1-102.2 μg/m3 in pool water and air, respectively. The individual lifetime carcinogenic risk associated with chloroform in swimming pools exceeded 10-6 in all age groups for recreational swimmers and 10-5 for elite swimmers and staff, even if the pool complied with the national standards. Inhalation exposure was estimated and found to be the most relevant, however, different mass transfer models from water measurements significantly under- or overestimated the health burden compared to direct calculation from the concentration in air. The observed health risks call for defining regulatory values and monitoring requirement of indoor air quality in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Pándics
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Ádám Hofer
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Gyula Dura
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Márta Vargha
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Tamás Szigeti
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Erika Tóth
- Department of Microbiology, Eötvös Loránd University of Sciences, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, H-1117, Hungary
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23
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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Payus C, Geoffrey I, Amrie K, Oliver A. Coliform Bacteria Contamination in Chlorine-treated Swimming Pool Sports Complex. ASIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.3923/ajsr.2018.560.567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Carter RAA, Joll CA. Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:19-50. [PMID: 28774608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of water for human use is essential to protect against microbial disease; however, disinfection also leads to formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which are of health concern. From a chemical perspective, swimming pools are a complex matrix, with continual addition of a wide range of natural and anthropogenic chemicals via filling waters, disinfectant addition, pharmaceuticals and personal care products and human body excretions. Natural organic matter, trace amounts of DBPs and chlorine or chloramines may be introduced by the filling water, which is commonly disinfected distributed drinking water. Chlorine and/or bromine is continually introduced via the addition of chemical disinfectants to the pool. Human body excretions (sweat, urine and saliva) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (sunscreens, cosmetics, hair products and lotions) are introduced by swimmers. High addition of disinfectant leads to a high formation of DBPs from reaction of some of the chemicals with the disinfectant. Swimming pool air is also of concern as volatile DBPs partition into the air above the pool. The presence of bromine leads to the formation of a wide range of bromo- and bromo/chloro-DBPs, and Br-DBPs are more toxic than their chlorinated analogues. This is particularly important for seawater-filled pools or pools using a bromine-based disinfectant. This review summarises chemical contaminants and DBPs in swimming pool waters, as well as in the air above pools. Factors that have been found to affect DBP formation in pools are discussed. The impact of the swimming pool environment on human health is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia.
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Salas LA, Font-Ribera L, Bustamante M, Sumoy L, Grimalt JO, Bonnin S, Aguilar M, Mattlin H, Hummel M, Ferrer A, Kogevinas M, Villanueva CM. Gene expression changes in blood RNA after swimming in a chlorinated pool. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:250-261. [PMID: 28774616 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBP) such as trihalomethanes (THM) in swimming pools has been linked to adverse health effects in humans, but their biological mechanisms are unclear. We evaluated short-term changes in blood gene expression of adult recreational swimmers after swimming in a chlorinated pool. Volunteers swam 40min in an indoor chlorinated pool. Blood samples were drawn and four THM (chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform) were measured in exhaled breath before and after swimming. Intensity of physical activity was measured as metabolic equivalents (METs). Gene expression in whole blood mRNA was evaluated using IlluminaHumanHT-12v3 Expression-BeadChip. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate the relationship between gene expression changes and THM exposure. Thirty-seven before-after pairs were analyzed. The median increase from baseline to after swimming were: 0.7 to 2.3 for MET, and 1.4 to 7.1μg/m3 for exhaled total THM (sum of the four THM). Exhaled THM increased on average 0.94μg/m3 per 1 MET. While 1643 probes were differentially expressed post-exposure. Of them, 189 were also associated with exhaled levels of individual/total THM or MET after False Discovery Rate. The observed associations with the exhaled THM were low to moderate (Log-fold change range: -0.17 to 0.15). In conclusion, we identified short-term gene expression changes associated with swimming in a pool that were minor in magnitude and their biological meaning was unspecific. The high collinearity between exhaled THM levels and intensity of physical activity precluded mutually adjusted models with both covariates. These exploratory results should be validated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas A Salas
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Epidemiology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, USA; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Laia Font-Ribera
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mariona Bustamante
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics and Disease, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lauro Sumoy
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer (IMPPC), Institut Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Can Ruti Campus, Badalona, Spain
| | - Joan O Grimalt
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sarah Bonnin
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Aguilar
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Heidi Mattlin
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuela Hummel
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Ferrer
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manolis Kogevinas
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina M Villanueva
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
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27
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Tardif R, Rodriguez M, Catto C, Charest-Tardif G, Simard S. Concentrations of disinfection by-products in swimming pool following modifications of the water treatment process: An exploratory study. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:163-172. [PMID: 28774605 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The formation and concentration of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool water and the ambient air vary according to the type of water treatment process used. This exploratory study was aimed at investigating the short-term impact of modifications of the water treatment process on traditional DBP levels (e.g., trihalomethanes (THMs), chloramines) and emerging DBPs (e.g., Halonitromethanes, Haloketones, NDMA) in swimming pool water and/or air. A sampling program was carried to understand the impact of the following changes made successively to the standard water treatment process: activation of ultraviolet (UV) photoreactor, halt of air stripping with continuation of air extraction from the buffer tank, halt of air stripping and suppression of air extraction from the buffer tank, suppression of the polyaluminium silicate sulfate (PASS) coagulant. UV caused a high increase of Halonitromethanes (8.4 fold), Haloketones (2.1 fold), and THMs in the water (1.7 fold) and, of THMs in the air (1.6 fold) and contributed to reducing the level of chloramines in the air (1.6 fold) and NDMA in the water (2.1 fold). The results highlight the positive impact of air stripping in reducing volatile contaminants. The PASS did not change the presence of DBPs, except for the THMs, which decrease slightly with the use of this coagulant. This study shows that modifications affecting the water treatment process can rapidly produce important and variable impacts on DBP levels in water and air and suggests that implementation of any water treatment process to reduce DBP levels should take into account the specific context of each swimming pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada.
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair on Drinking Water, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Cyril Catto
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Ginette Charest-Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Sabrina Simard
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair on Drinking Water, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
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Occurrence, origin, and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools: An overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:591-603. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Daiber EJ, DeMarini DM, Ravuri SA, Liberatore HK, Cuthbertson AA, Thompson-Klemish A, Byer JD, Schmid JE, Afifi MZ, Blatchley ER, Richardson SD. Progressive Increase in Disinfection Byproducts and Mutagenicity from Source to Tap to Swimming Pool and Spa Water: Impact of Human Inputs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:6652-62. [PMID: 27124361 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b00808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Pools and spas are enjoyed throughout the world for exercise and relaxation. However, there are no previous studies on mutagenicity of disinfected spa (hot tub) waters or comprehensive identification of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) formed in spas. Using 28 water samples from seven sites, we report the first integrated mutagenicity and comprehensive analytical chemistry of spas treated with chlorine, bromine, or ozone, along with pools treated with these same disinfectants. Gas chromatography (GC) with high-resolution mass spectrometry, membrane-introduction mass spectrometry, and GC-electron capture detection were used to comprehensively identify and quantify DBPs and other contaminants. Mutagenicity was assessed by the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. More than 100 DBPs were identified, including a new class of DBPs, bromoimidazoles. Organic extracts of brominated pool/spa waters were 1.8× more mutagenic than chlorinated ones; spa waters were 1.7× more mutagenic than pools. Pool and spa samples were 2.4 and 4.1× more mutagenic, respectively, than corresponding tap waters. The concentration of the sum of 21 DBPs measured quantitatively increased from finished to tap to pool to spa; and mutagenic potency increased from finished/tap to pools to spas. Mutagenic potencies of samples from a chlorinated site correlated best with brominated haloacetic acid concentrations (Br-HAAs) (r = 0.98) and nitrogen-containing DBPs (N-DBPs) (r = 0.97) and the least with Br-trihalomethanes (r = 0.29) and Br-N-DBPs (r = 0.04). The mutagenic potencies of samples from a brominated site correlated best (r = 0.82) with the concentrations of the nine HAAs, Br-HAAs, and Br-DBPs. Human use increased significantly the DBP concentrations and mutagenic potencies for most pools and spas. These data provide evidence that human precursors can increase mutagenic potencies of pools and spas and that this increase is associated with increased DBP concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Daiber
- Student Services Authority, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - David M DeMarini
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Sridevi A Ravuri
- Student Services Authority, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - Hannah K Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Amy A Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Alexis Thompson-Klemish
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Jonathan D Byer
- LECO Corp., 3000 Lakeview Ave., St. Joseph, Michigan 49085, United States
| | - Judith E Schmid
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Mehrnaz Z Afifi
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University , 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Ernest R Blatchley
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University , 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University , 500 Central Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , 631 Sumter St., Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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30
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Tardif R, Catto C, Haddad S, Simard S, Rodriguez M. Assessment of air and water contamination by disinfection by-products at 41 indoor swimming pools. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 148:411-420. [PMID: 27131795 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study was aimed at assessing the profiles (occurrence and speciation) of disinfection by-product (DBP) contamination in air and water of a group of 41 public indoor swimming pools in Québec (Canada). The contaminants measured in the water included the traditional DBPs [i.e., four trihalomethanes (THMs), six haloacetic acids (HAAs)] but also several emergent DBPs [i.e., halonitriles, halonitromethanes, haloketones and nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)]. Those measured in the air comprised THMs and chloramines (CAMs). Overall, extremely variable DBP levels were found from one pool to another (both quantitatively and in terms of speciation). For instance, in water, among the four THMs, chloroform was usually the most abundant compound (37.9±25.7µg/L). Nevertheless, the sum of the three other brominated THMs represented more than 25% of total THMs at almost half the facilities visited (19 cases). In 13 of them, the levels of brominated THMs (66±24.2µg/L) even greatly outweighed the levels of chloroform (15.2±6.31µg/L). Much higher levels of HAAs (294.8±157.6µg/L) were observed, with a consistent preponderance of brominated HAAs in the swimming pools with more brominated THMs. NDMA levels which were measured in a subset of 8 pools ranged between 2.8ng/L and 105ng/L. With respect to air, chloroform was still the most abundant THM globally (119.4±74.2µg/m(3)) but significant levels of brominated THMs were also observed in various cases, particularly in the previously evoked group of 13 swimming pools with preponderant levels of brominated THMs in water. CAM levels (0.23±0.15mg/m(3)) varied highly, ranging from not detected to 0.56mg/m(3). Overall, the levels were generally relatively high compared to current guidelines or reference values from several countries, and they point to a relatively atypical presence of brominated compounds, and to significant levels of emergent DBPs for which health risk is less documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Tardif
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada.
| | - Cyril Catto
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Sami Haddad
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Sabrina Simard
- Research Chair on Drinking Water, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- Research Chair on Drinking Water, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
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31
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Chen MJ, Duh JM, Shie RH, Weng JH, Hsu HT. Dynamic real-time monitoring of chloroform in an indoor swimming pool air using open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. INDOOR AIR 2016; 26:457-467. [PMID: 25916255 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This study used open-path Fourier transform infrared (OP-FTIR) spectroscopy to continuously assess the variation in chloroform concentrations in the air of an indoor swimming pool. Variables affecting the concentrations of chloroform in air were also monitored. The results showed that chloroform concentrations in air varied significantly during the time of operation of the swimming pool and that there were two peaks in chloroform concentration during the time of operation of the pool. The highest concentration was at 17:30, which is coincident with the time with the highest number of swimmers in the pool in a day. The swimmer load was one of the most important factors influencing the chloroform concentration in the air. When the number of swimmers surpassed 40, the concentrations of chloroform were on average 4.4 times higher than the concentration measured without swimmers in the pool. According to the results of this study, we suggest that those who swim regularly should avoid times with highest number of swimmers, in order to decrease the risk of exposure to high concentrations of chloroform. It is also recommended that an automatic mechanical ventilation system is installed to increase the ventilation rate during times of high swimmer load.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-J Chen
- Department of Occupational Safety and Hygiene, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - J-M Duh
- Department of Occupational Safety and Hygiene, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - R-H Shie
- Advanced Monitoring and Analytical Department, Energy and Environmental Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - J-H Weng
- Department of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - H-T Hsu
- Department of Health Risk Management, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Llana-Belloch S, Priego Quesada JI, Pérez-Soriano P, Lucas-Cuevas ÁG, Salvador-Pascual A, Olaso-González G, Moliner-Martinez Y, Verdú-Andres J, Campins-Falco P, Gómez-Cabrera MC. Disinfection by-products effect on swimmers oxidative stress and respiratory damage. Eur J Sport Sci 2015; 16:609-17. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2015.1080306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Seys SF, Feyen L, Keirsbilck S, Adams E, Dupont LJ, Nemery B. An outbreak of swimming-pool related respiratory symptoms: An elusive source of trichloramine in a municipal indoor swimming pool. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2015; 218:386-91. [PMID: 25819556 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several members of a swimming club complained of respiratory symptoms associated with attending a municipal indoor swimming pool. Trichloramine, a volatile chlorination by-product and a potent respiratory irritant, was the most probable culprit, but the exact cause for its presence in excessive concentrations remained elusive. METHODS Twenty-two competitive swimmers and six coaches were evaluated during the outbreak and nine swimmers and four coaches were re-evaluated one year later. Symptoms were recorded by non-standardized history taking; pulmonary function testing included spirometry, measurement of fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) and histamine provocation. Concentrations of trichloramine in air were measured repeatedly by the method of Héry. RESULTS The most commonly reported symptoms consisted of cough (n=16), dyspnoea (n=13), tearing eyes (n=10) and blocked or runny nose (n=6). Mean FEV1% predicted was 109.1%. Mean FENO level was 19.7 ppb (higher than 25 ppb in 3 subjects). Airway hyperreactivity to histamine (PC20 ≤ 8 mg/ml) was detected in 22/26 subjects. Measured trichloramine concentrations in air exceeded the maximal concentration (WHO) of 0.5mg/m(3) four times between May and October 2011 and four times between January and March 2012. Polyamine compounds, present in glue used for repairing pipework, were identified as a probable external source of nitrogen resulting in increasing trichloramine concentrations. After the removal of the presumed cause of the excessive trichloramine concentrations, most subjects improved clinically, but several subjects remained symptomatic and had bronchial hyperreactivity. DISCUSSION A high prevalence of airway hyperreactivity, accompanied by symptoms of upper and lower airways, was detected in swimmers who had been repeatedly exposed to high trichloramine concentrations. A glue containing polyamines, used to repair a pipework, was suspected to be the source of this excessive production of trichloramine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven F Seys
- KU Leuven, Clinical Immunology, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ludo Feyen
- Laboratory Derva, Heusden-Zolder, Belgium
| | - Stephan Keirsbilck
- UZ Leuven, Clinic of Occupational and Environmental Health, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Els Adams
- UZ Leuven, Clinic of Occupational and Environmental Health, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Benoit Nemery
- UZ Leuven, Clinic of Occupational and Environmental Health, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Centre for Environment and Health, Leuven, Belgium.
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Teo TLL, Coleman HM, Khan SJ. Chemical contaminants in swimming pools: Occurrence, implications and control. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 76:16-31. [PMID: 25497109 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A range of trace chemical contaminants have been reported to occur in swimming pools. Current disinfection practices and monitoring of swimming pool water quality are aimed at preventing the spread of microbial infections and diseases. However, disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when the disinfectants used react with organic and inorganic matter in the pool. Additional chemicals may be present in swimming pools originating from anthropogenic sources (bodily excretions, lotions, cosmetics, etc.) or from the source water used where trace chemicals may already be present. DBPs have been the most widely investigated trace chemical contaminants, including trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), halobenzoquinones (HBQs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), N-nitrosamines, nitrite, nitrates and chloramines. The presence and concentrations of these chemical contaminants are dependent upon several factors including the types of pools, types of disinfectants used, disinfectant dosages, bather loads, temperature and pH of swimming pool waters. Chemical constituents of personal care products (PCPs) such as parabens and ultraviolet (UV) filters from sunscreens have also been reported. By-products from reactions of these chemicals with disinfectants and UV irradiation have been reported and some may be more toxic than their parent compounds. There is evidence to suggest that exposure to some of these chemicals may lead to health risks. This paper provides a detailed review of various chemical contaminants reported in swimming pools. The concentrations of chemicals present in swimming pools may also provide an alternative indicator to swimming pool water quality, providing insights to contamination sources. Alternative treatment methods such as activated carbon filtration and advanced oxidation processes may be beneficial in improving swimming pool water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany L L Teo
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Heather M Coleman
- Nanotechnology and Integrated BioEngineering Centre, School of Engineering, University of Ulster, Jordanstown, County Antrim BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| | - Stuart J Khan
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
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35
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Seys SF, Hox V, Van Gerven L, Dilissen E, Marijsse G, Peeters E, Dekimpe E, Kasran A, Aertgeerts S, Troosters T, Vanbelle V, Peers K, Ceuppens JL, Hellings PW, Dupont LJ, Bullens DM. Damage-associated molecular pattern and innate cytokine release in the airways of competitive swimmers. Allergy 2015; 70:187-94. [PMID: 25358760 DOI: 10.1111/all.12540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Daily intensive exercise by elite athletes can result in exercise-induced asthma especially in elite swimmers and this may be linked to epithelial damage. OBJECTIVE To study airway epithelial damage and release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) after intensive exercise in elite athletes and controls. METHODS We recruited competitive swimmers (n = 26), competitive indoor athletes (n = 13) and controls (n = 15) without any history of asthma. Lung function was measured before, immediately after and 24 h after a 90-min intensive exercise protocol. Sputum induction was performed at baseline and 24 h after exercise. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) was assessed by the eucapnic voluntary hyperventilation test. RESULTS Baseline sputum uric acid, high mobility group box-1, CXCL8 mRNA, sputum neutrophils and serum Clara cell protein-16 (CC-16) were significantly higher in competitive swimmers compared with controls. Intensive swimming for 90 min resulted in an increase of sputum IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF mRNA in competitive swimmers, and of sputum IL-6 mRNA and sputum neutrophils in controls. Although all participants were asymptomatic, seven competitive swimmers, one indoor athlete and one control met the criteria for EIB. CONCLUSION Our findings show that the intensive training combined with exposure to by-products of chlorination induces airway epithelial damage in competitive swimmers. This is associated with increased damage-associated molecular patterns, innate cytokine release and neutrophilic airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. F. Seys
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
- Laboratory of Pneumology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - V. Hox
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - L. Van Gerven
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - E. Dilissen
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - G. Marijsse
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - E. Peeters
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - E. Dekimpe
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - A. Kasran
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - S. Aertgeerts
- Academic Centre for General Practitioners; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - T. Troosters
- Laboratory of Pneumology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - V. Vanbelle
- Flemish Swimming Federation; Merelbeke Belgium
| | - K. Peers
- Sport Medical Advice Centre; University Hospitals of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - J. L. Ceuppens
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - P. W. Hellings
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - L. J. Dupont
- Laboratory of Pneumology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
| | - D. M. Bullens
- Laboratory of Pediatric Immunology; Catholic University of Leuven; Leuven Belgium
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36
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Hsu CS, Huang DJ. Disinfection of herbal spa pool using combined chlorine dioxide and sodium hypochlorite treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:34. [PMID: 25632897 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-014-4242-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in public spa pools poses a serious threat to human health. The problem is particularly acute in herbal spas, in which the herbs and microorganisms may interact and produce undesirable consequences. Accordingly, the present study investigated the effectiveness of a combined disinfectant containing chlorine dioxide and sodium hypochlorite in improving the water quality of a public herbal spa in Taiwan. Water samples were collected from the spa pool and laboratory tests were then performed to measure the variation over time of the microorganism content (total CFU and total coliforms) and residual disinfectant content given a single disinfection mode (SDM) with disinfectant concentrations of 5.2 × 10, 6.29 × 10, 7.4 × 10, and 11.4 × 10(-5) N, respectively. Utilizing the experience gained from the laboratory tests, a further series of on-site investigations was performed using three different disinfection modes, namely SDM, 3DM (once every 3 h disinfection mode), and 2DM (once every 2 h disinfection mode). The laboratory results showed that for all four disinfectant concentrations, the CFU concentration reduced for the first 6 h following SDM treatment, but then increased. Moreover, the ANOVA results showed that the sample treated with the highest disinfectant concentration (11.4 × 10(-5) N) exhibited the lowest rate of increase in the CFU concentration. In addition, the on-site test results showed that 3DM and 2DM treatments with disinfectant concentrations in excess of 9.3 × 10 and 5.5 × 10(-5) N, respectively, provided an effective reduction in the total CFU concentration. In conclusion, the experimental results presented in this study provide a useful source of reference for spa businesses seeking to improve the water quality of their spa pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Shan Hsu
- Department of Environmental Resource Management, Chia-Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, 71710, Taiwan,
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Righi E, Fantuzzi G, Predieri G, Aggazzotti G. Bromate, chlorite, chlorate, haloacetic acids, and trihalomethanes occurrence in indoor swimming pool waters in Italy. Microchem J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2013.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Simard S, Tardif R, Rodriguez MJ. Variability of chlorination by-product occurrence in water of indoor and outdoor swimming pools. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:1763-1772. [PMID: 23351434 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/15/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Swimming is one of the most popular aquatic activities. Just like natural water, public pool water may contain microbiological and chemical contaminants. The purpose of this study was to study the presence of chemical contaminants in swimming pools, in particular the presence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs) and inorganic chloramines (CAMi). Fifty-four outdoor and indoor swimming pools were investigated over a period of one year (monthly or bi-weekly sampling, according to the type of pool) for the occurrence of DBPs. The results showed that DBP levels in swimming pools were greater than DBP levels found in drinking water, especially for HAAs. Measured concentrations of THMs (97.9 vs 63.7 μg/L in average) and HAAs (807.6 vs 412.9 μg/L in average) were higher in outdoor pools, whereas measured concentrations of CAMi (0.1 vs 0.8 mg/L in average) were higher in indoor pools. Moreover, outdoor pools with heated water contained more DBPs than unheated pools. Finally, there was significant variability in tTHM, HAA9 and CAMi levels in pools supplied by the same municipal drinking water network, suggesting that individual pool characteristics (number of swimmers) and management strategies play a major role in DBP formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Simard
- Centre de recherche en aménagement et développement, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
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