Inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase meet immunity

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations Between Treatment for Herpes Virus Infection and the Dispensing of Antidementia Medicines: An Analysis of the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme Database

Background

Evidence from previous observational studies suggest that infection by herpes simplex virus (HSV) and varicella zoster virus (VZV) increase the risk of dementia.

Objective

To investigate if older adults exposed to HSV treatment have lower risk of dementia than the rest of the population.

Methods

We used the 10% Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) database from 2013 to 2022 to ascertain the cross-sectional, time-series and longitudinal association between exposure to HSV treatment and the dispensing of antidementia medicines. Participants were men and women aged 60 years or older. We used Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) codes to identify medicines dispensed for the treatment of HSV and dementia.

Results

During the year 2022 6,868 (1.2%) of 559,561 of participants aged 60 years or over were dispensed antidementia agent. The odds ratio (OR) of being dispensed an antidementia agent among individuals dispensed treatment for HSV was 0.73 (99% CI = 0.56-0.95). Multilevel logistic regression for the 2013-2022 period for those dispensed HSV treatment was 0.87 (99% CI = 0.75-1.00). Split-time span series from 2013 was associated with hazard ratio of 0.98 (99% CI = 0.89-1.07) for individuals dispensed relative to those not dispensed HSV treatment. All analyses were adjusted for age, sex, and the dispensing of medicines for the treatment of diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and ischemic heart disease.

Conclusions

The dispensing of antiviral medicines for the treatment of HSV and VZV is consistently, but not conclusively, associated with decreased dispensing of antidementia medicines. This suggests that treatment of HSV and VZV infections may contribute to reduce the risk of dementia.

Mild hyperhomocysteinemia alters oxidative stress profile via Nrf2, inflammation and cholinesterases in cardiovascular system of aged male rats

Homocysteine (Hcy) is an independent cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor, whose mechanisms are poorly understood. We aimed to explore mild hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) effects on oxidative status, inflammatory, and cholinesterase parameters in aged male Wistar rats (365 days old). Rats received subcutaneous Hcy (0.03 μmol/g body weight) twice daily for 30 days, followed by euthanasia, blood collection and heart dissection 12 h after the last injection. Results revealed increased dichlorofluorescein (DCF) levels in the heart and serum, alongside decreased antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase), reduced glutathione (GSH) content, and diminished acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the heart. Serum butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) levels also decreased. Furthermore, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) protein content decreased in both cytosolic and nuclear fractions, while cytosolic nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) p65 increased in the heart. Additionally, interleukins IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 showed elevated expression levels in the heart. These findings could suggest a connection between aging and HHcy in CVD. Reduced Nrf2 protein content and impaired antioxidant defenses, combined with inflammatory factors and altered cholinesterases activity, may contribute to understanding the impact of Hcy on cardiovascular dynamics. This study sheds light on the complex interplay between HHcy, oxidative stress, inflammation, and cholinesterases in CVD, providing valuable insights for future research.

Rationally Designed Functionalization of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Real-Time Monitoring of Cholinesterase Activity and Inhibition in Plasma

Enzymes play a pivotal role in regulating numerous bodily functions. Thus, there is a growing need for developing sensors enabling real-time monitoring of enzymatic activity and inhibition. The activity and inhibition of cholinesterase (CHE) enzymes in blood plasma are fluorometrically monitored using near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) as probes, strategically functionalized with myristoylcholine (MC)- the substrate of CHE. A significant decrease in the fluorescence intensity of MC-suspended SWCNTs upon interaction with CHE is observed, attributed to the hydrolysis of the MC corona phase of the SWCNTs by CHE. Complementary measurements for quantifying choline, the product of MC hydrolysis, reveal a correlation between the fluorescence intensity decrease and the amount of released choline, rendering the SWCNTs optical sensors with real-time feedback in the NIR biologically transparent spectral range. Moreover, when synthetic and naturally abundant inhibitors inhibit the CHE enzymes present in blood plasma, no significant modulations of the MC-SWCNT fluorescence are observed, allowing effective detection of CHE inhibition. The rationally designed SWCNT sensors platform for monitoring of enzymatic activity and inhibition in clinically relevant samples is envisioned to not only advance the field of clinical diagnostics but also deepen further understanding of enzyme-related processes in complex biological fluids.

Exploring the Potential Biological Activities of Pyrazole-Based Schiff Bases as Anti-Diabetic, Anti-Alzheimer's, Anti-Inflammatory, and Cytotoxic Agents: In Vitro Studies with Computational Predictions

In this innovative research, we aim to reveal pyrazole-based Schiff bases as new multi-target agents. In this context, we re-synthesized three sets of pyrazole-based Schiff bases, 5a-f, 6a-f, and 7a-f, to evaluate their biological applications. The data from in vitro biological assays (including antioxidant and scavenging activities, anti-diabetes, anti-Alzheimer's, and anti-inflammatory properties) of the pyrazole-based Schiff bases 5a-f, 6a-f, and 7a-f showed that the six pyrazole-based Schiff bases 5a, 5d, 5e, 5f, 7a, and 7f possess the highest biological properties among the compounds evaluated. The cytotoxicity against lung (A549) and colon (Caco-2) human cancer types, as well as normal lung (WI-38) cell lines, was evaluated. The data from the cytotoxicity investigation demonstrated that the three Schiff bases 5d, 5e, and 7a are active against lung (A549) cells, while the two Schiff bases 5e and 7a exhibited the highest cytotoxicity towards colon (Caco-2) cells. Additionally, the enzymatic activities against caspase-3 and Bcl-2 of the six pyrazole-based Schiff bases 5a, 5d, 5e, 5f, 7a, and 7f were evaluated. Furthermore, we assessed the in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and toxicity (ADMT) properties of the more potent pyrazole-based Schiff bases. After modifying the structures of the six pyrazole-based Schiff bases, we plan to further extend the studies in the future.

Unleashing new MTDL AChE and BuChE inhibitors as potential anti-AD therapeutic agents: In vitro, in vivo and in silico studies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is challenging due to its irreversible declining cognitive symptoms and multifactorial nature. This work tackles targeting both acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and BuChE with a multitarget-directed ligand (MTDL) through design, synthesis, and biological and in silico evaluation of a series of twenty eight new 5-substituted-2-anilino-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives 4a-g, 5a-g, 9a-g and 13a-g dual inhibitors of the target biomolecules. In vitro cholinesterases inhibition and selectivity assay of the synthesized derivatives showed excellent nanomolar level inhibitory activities. Compound 5a, the most potent inhibitor, elicited IC50s of 46.9 and 3.5 nM against AChE and BuChE, respectively (SI = 0.07), 5 folds better than the known dual inhibitor Rivastagmine. In vivo and ex vivo investigation showed that 5a significantly inhibited MDA levels and increased GSH contents, thus, attenuating the brain tissue oxidative stress. Additionally, 5a significantly decreased AChE and BuChE levels and inhibited self-mediated β-amyloid aggregation in brains of treated rats. Histopathological and immunohistochemical evaluation demonstrated lessened damage and decreased caspase-3 and VEGF expression levels. In silico prediction of 5a's pharmacokinetics and toxicity profiles reflected promising results. Finally, 5a demonstrated tight binding interactions with the two target biomolecules upon docking along with stable complex formation with its bio-targets throughout the 100 ns MD trajectories.

Senolytics prevent age-associated changes in female mice brain

PURPOSE

Considering that the combination of dasatinib and quercetin (D + Q) demonstrated a neuroprotective action, as well as that females experience a decline in hormonal levels during aging and this is linked to increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease, in this study we evaluated the effect of D + Q on inflammatory and oxidative stress markers and on acetylcholinesterase and Na+, K+-ATPase activities in brain of female mice.

METHODS

Female C57BL/6 mice were divided in Control and D (5 mg/kg) + Q (50 mg/kg) treated. Treatment was administered via gavage for three consecutive days every two weeks starting at 30 days of age. The animals were euthanized at 6 months of age and at 14 months of age.

RESULTS

Results indicate an increase in reactive species (RS), thiol content and lipid peroxidation followed by a reduction in nitrite levels and superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione S-transferase activity in the brain of control animals with age. D+Q protected against age-associated increase in RS and catalase activity reduction. Acetylcholinesterase activity was increased, while Na+, K+-ATPase activity was reduced at 14 months of age and D+Q prevented this reduction.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrate that D+Q can protect against age-associated neurochemical alterations in the female brain.

Alzheimer Disease Treatment With Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors and Incident Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Importance

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a serious and common ophthalmologic disorder that is hypothesized to result, in part, from inflammatory reactions in the macula. Alzheimer disease (AD) treatment, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), have anti-inflammatory effects and it remains unclear if they modify the risk of AMD.

Objective

To investigate the association between AChEI medications and the incidence of AMD.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This propensity score-matched retrospective cohort study took place at health care facilities within the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system from January 2000 through September 2023. Participants included patients diagnosed with AD between ages 55 and 80 years with no preexisting diagnosis of AMD in the VA database.

Exposure

AChEIs prescription dispensed as pharmacologic treatments for AD.

Main Outcomes and Measure

The first diagnosis of AMD.

Results

A total of 21 823 veterans with AD (mean [SD] age, 72.3 [6.1] years; 21 313 male participants [97.7%] and 510 female participants [2.3%]) were included. Propensity score-matched Cox model reveals each additional year of AChEI treatment was associated with a 6% lower hazard of AMD (hazard ratio, 0.94; 95% CI, (0.89-0.99).

Conclusions and Relevance

This observational study reports a small reduction in the risk of AMD among veterans with AD receiving AChEIs. Randomized clinical trials would be needed to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship and further research is required to validate these findings across diverse populations.

Synthesis and molecular docking simulation of new benzimidazole-thiazole hybrids as cholinesterase inhibitors

Dementia is a cognitive disturbance that is generally correlated with central nervous system diseases, especially Alzheimer's disease. The limited number of medications available is insufficient to improve the lifestyle of the patients suffering from this disease. Thus, new benzimidazole-thiazole hybrids (3-10) were designed and synthesized as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibitory agents. The in vitro evaluation displayed that the derivatives 4b, 4d, 5b, 6a, 7a, and 8b demonstrated dual inhibitory efficiency against both AChE with IC50 ranging from 4.55 to 8.62 µM and BChE with IC50 ranging from 3.50 to 8.32 µM. By analyzing the Lineweaver-Burk plot, an uncompetitive form of inhibition was determined for the highly active compound 4d, revealing its inhibition type. The human telomerase reverse transcriptase-immortalized retinal pigment epithelial cell line was used to ensure the safety of the most potent cholinesterase inhibitors. Furthermore, compounds 4b, 4d, 5b, 6a, 7a, and 8b were evaluated for their neuroprotective and antioxidant properties, as well as their ability to suppress COX-2. The results demonstrated that compounds 4d, 5b, and 8b presented significant neuroprotection efficiency against H2 O2 -induced damage in SH-SY5Y cells with % cell viability of 67.42 ± 7.90%, 62.51 ± 6.71%, and 72.61 ± 8.10%, respectively, while the tested candidates did not reveal significant antioxidant activity. Otherwise, compounds 4b, 6a, 7a, and 8b displayed outstanding COX-2 inhibition effects with IC50 ranging from 0.050 to 0.080 μM relative to celecoxib (IC50  = 0.050 µM). In addition, molecular docking was carried out for the potent benzimidazole-thiazole hybrids with the active sites of both AChE (PDB ID: 4EY7) and BChE (PDB code: 1P0P). The tested candidates fit well in the active sites of both portions, with docking scores ranging from -8.65 to -6.64 kcal/mol (for AChE) and -8.71 to -7.73 kcal/mol (for BChE). In silico results show that the synthesized benzimidazole-thiazole hybrids have good physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties with no Lipinski rule violations. The preceding results exhibited that compound 4d could be used as a new template for developing more significant cholinesterase inhibitors in the future.

Acetylcholinesterase- and Butyrylcholinesterase-Based Biosensors for the Detection of Quaternary Ammonium Biocides in Food Industry

A sensitive and robust electrochemical cholinesterase-based sensor was developed to detect the quaternary ammonium (QAs) biocides most frequently found in agri-food industry wash waters: benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC). To reach the maximum residue limit of 28 nM imposed by the European Union (EU), two types of cholinesterases were tested, acetylcholinesterase (AChE, from Drosophila melanogaster) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE, from horse serum). The sensors were designed by entrapping AChE or BChE on cobalt phthalocyanine-modified screen-printed carbon electrodes. The limits of detection (LOD) of the resulting biosensors were 38 nM for DDAC and 320 nM for BAC, using, respectively, AChE and BChE. A simple solid-phase extraction step was used to concentrate the samples before biosensor analysis, allowing for the accurate determination of DDAC and BAC in tap water with limits of quantification (LOQ) as low as 2.7 nM and 5.3 nM, respectively. Additional assays demonstrated that the use of a phosphotriesterase enzyme allows for the total removal of interferences due to the possible presence of organophosphate insecticides in the sample. The developed biosensors were shown to be stable during 3 months storage at 4 °C.

Ginkgo biloba: Antioxidant Activity and In Silico Central Nervous System Potential

Ginkgo biloba (GB) extracts have been used in clinical studies as an alternative therapy for Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the exact bioaction mechanism has not yet been elucidated. In this work, an in silico study on GB metabolites was carried out using SwissTargetPrediction to determine the proteins associated with AD. The resulting proteins, AChE, MAO-A, MAO-B, β-secretase and γ-secretase, were studied by molecular docking, resulting in the finding that kaempferol, quercetin, and luteolin have multitarget potential against AD. These compounds also exhibit antioxidant activity towards reactive oxygen species (ROS), so antioxidant tests were performed on the extracts using the DPPH and ABTS techniques. The ethanol and ethyl acetate GB extracts showed an important inhibition percentage, higher than 80%, at a dose of 0.01 mg/mL. The effect of GB extracts on AD resulted in multitarget action through two pathways: firstly, inhibiting enzymes responsible for degrading neurotransmitters and forming amyloid plaques; secondly, decreasing ROS in the central nervous system (CNS), reducing its deterioration, and promoting the formation of amyloid plaques. The results of this work demonstrate the great potential of GB as a medicinal plant.

Phenolic Derivatives with Anti-Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activities from Galeola nudifolia in Vietnam

A new phenolic derivative, galeomalate A (1), together with five known structurally related compounds (2-6), was isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of Galeola nudifolia collected in Vietnam. The structures were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-TOF-MS, and CD data, and chemical conversion of the sugar moiety. All isolated compounds possessed acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activities in a dose-dependent manner. Among them, compounds 2 and 3 exhibited the first and second highest inhibitory activity on AChE with IC50 values of 122.13 and 125.49 μM, respectively. Compounds 1 and 4-6 inhibited the AChE activity by mixed modes of action comprising competitive and non-competitive modes, whereas 2 and 3 exerted their inhibitory activities in a competitive manner. Molecular docking analyses suggested that the phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside unit of 2 and 3 bound to the active site of AChE for the competitive inhibitory activities, while the mixed inhibitory activity of 4 was due to the two binding patterns in the active-site and the active-site entrance of AChE. Furthermore, the docking studies indicated that 1, 5, and 6 would inhibit AChE in a mixed inhibitory manner by adopting three distinct binding patterns of the additional phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside unit at the active-site entrance.

Targeted stimulation of the vagus nerve reduces renal injury in female mice with systemic lupus erythematosus

Pharmacological stimulation of the vagus nerve has been shown to suppress inflammation and reduce blood pressure in a murine model of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) that is characterized by hypertension, inflammation, renal injury and dysautonomia. The present study aims to directly stimulate vagal nerves at the level of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV) using designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) to determine if there is similar protection and confirm mechanism. Female NZBWF1/J (SLE) mice and NZW/LacJ mice (controls, labeled as NZW throughout) received bilateral microinjections of pAAV-hSyn-hM3D(Gq)-mCherry or control virus into the DMV at 31 weeks of age. After two weeks of recovery and viral transfection, the DREADD agonist clozapine-N-oxide (CNO; 3 mg/kg) was injected subcutaneously for an additional 14 days. At 35 weeks, mean arterial pressure (MAP; mmHg) was increased in SLE mice compared to NZW mice, but selective activation of DMV neurons did not significantly alter MAP in either group. SLE mice had higher indices of renal injury including albumin excretion rate (μg/day), glomerulosclerosis index, interstitial fibrosis, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), and kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) compared to NZW mice. Selective DMV neuronal activation reduced albumin excretion rate, glomerulosclerosis, interstitial fibrosis, and NGAL in SLE mice but not NZW mice. Together, these data indicate that selective activation of neurons within the DMV by DREADD protects the kidney suggesting an important role of vagus-mediated pathways in the progression of renal injury in SLE.

Neuroprotective Agents with Therapeutic Potential for COVID-19

COVID-19 patients can exhibit a wide range of clinical manifestations affecting various organs and systems. Neurological symptoms have been reported in COVID-19 patients, both during the acute phase of the illness and in cases of long-term COVID. Moderate symptoms include ageusia, anosmia, altered mental status, and cognitive impairment, and in more severe cases can manifest as ischemic cerebrovascular disease and encephalitis. In this narrative review, we delve into the reported neurological symptoms associated with COVID-19, as well as the underlying mechanisms contributing to them. These mechanisms include direct damage to neurons, inflammation, oxidative stress, and protein misfolding. We further investigate the potential of small molecules from natural products to offer neuroprotection in models of neurodegenerative diseases. Through our analysis, we discovered that flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and other natural compounds exhibit neuroprotective effects by modulating signaling pathways known to be impacted by COVID-19. Some of these compounds also directly target SARS-CoV-2 viral replication. Therefore, molecules of natural origin show promise as potential agents to prevent or mitigate nervous system damage in COVID-19 patients. Further research and the evaluation of different stages of the disease are warranted to explore their potential benefits.

The Antioxidant and Neuroprotective Potential of Leaves and Inflorescences Extracts of Selected Hemp Varieties Obtained with scCO2

Cannabis sativa, a versatile plant with numerous varieties, holds promising potential for a wide range of biological activity. As raw materials for research, we chose leaves and inflorescences of hemp varieties such as Białobrzeskie, Henola, and Tygra, which are cultivated mainly for their fibers or seeds. The choice of extraction is a key step in obtaining the selected compositions of active compounds from plant material. Bearing in mind the lipophilic nature of cannabinoids, we performed supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) extraction at 50 °C under 2000 (a) and 6000 PSI (b). The cannabinoid contents were determined with the use of the HPLC-DAD method. The antioxidant capabilities were assessed through a series of procedures, including the DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP methods. The capacity to inhibit enzymes that play a role in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and tyrosinase was also studied. The dominant cannabinoids in the extracts were cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). The highest concentration of eight cannabinoids was detected in the Tygra inflorescences extract (b). The most notable antioxidant properties were provided by the Tygra inflorescences extract (b). Nonetheless, it was the Henola inflorescences extract (b) that demonstrated the most efficient inhibition of AChE and BChE, and tyrosinase was inhibited the most significantly by the Białobrzeskie inflorescences extract (b). Multidimensional comparative analysis enrolled all assays and revealed that the Henola inflorescences extract (b) showed the most substantial neuroprotective potential.

Cholinesterase Inhibitory and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the Naphtho- and Thienobenzo-Triazole Photoproducts: Experimental and Computational Study

New 1,2,3-triazolo(thieno)stilbenes were synthesized as mixtures of isomers and efficiently photochemically transformed to their corresponding substituted thienobenzo/naphtho-triazoles in high isolated yields. The resulting photoproducts were studied as acetyl- (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibitors without or with interconnected inhibition potential of TNF-α cytokine production. The most promising anti-inflammatory activity was shown again by naphtho-triazoles, with a derivative featuring 4-pentenyl substituents exhibiting notable potential as a cholinesterase inhibitor. To identify interactions between ligands and the active site of cholinesterases, molecular docking was performed for the best potential inhibitors. Additionally, molecular dynamics simulations were employed to assess and validate the stability and flexibility of the protein-ligand complexes generated through docking.

Co-Dispersion Delivery Systems with Solubilizing Carriers Improving the Solubility and Permeability of Cannabinoids (Cannabidiol, Cannabidiolic Acid, and Cannabichromene) from Cannabis sativa (Henola Variety) Inflorescences

Cannabinoids: cannabidiol (CBD), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), and cannabichromene (CBC) are lipophilic compounds with limited water solubility, resulting in challenges related to their bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy upon oral administration. To overcome these limitations, we developed co-dispersion cannabinoid delivery systems with the biopolymer polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol (Soluplus) and magnesium aluminometasilicate (Neusilin US2) to improve solubility and permeability. Recognizing the potential therapeutic benefits arising from the entourage effect, we decided to work with an extract instead of isolated cannabinoids. Cannabis sativa inflorescences (Henola variety) with a confirming neuroprotective activity were subjected to dynamic supercritical CO2 (scCO2) extraction and next they were combined with carriers (1:1 mass ratio) to prepare the co-dispersion cannabinoid delivery systems (HiE). In vitro dissolution studies were conducted to evaluate the solubility of CBD, CBDA, and CBC in various media (pH 1.2, 6.8, fasted, and fed state simulated intestinal fluid). The HiE-Soluplus delivery systems consistently demonstrated the highest dissolution rate of cannabinoids. Additionally, HiE-Soluplus exhibited the highest permeability coefficients for cannabinoids in gastrointestinal tract conditions than it was during the permeability studies using model PAMPA GIT. All three cannabinoids exhibited promising blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability (Papp higher than 4.0 × 10-6 cm/s), suggesting their potential to effectively cross into the central nervous system. The improved solubility and permeability of cannabinoids from the HiE-Soluplus delivery system hold promise for enhancement in their bioavailability.

Drug Repurposing Analysis for Colorectal Cancer through Network Medicine Framework: Novel Candidate Drugs and Small Molecules

This study aimed to reveal the drug-repurposing candidates for colorectal cancer (CRC) via drug-repurposing methods and network biology approaches. A novel, differentially co-expressed, highly interconnected, and co-regulated prognostic gene module was identified for CRC. Based on the gene module, polyethylene glycol (PEG), gallic acid, pyrazole, cordycepin, phenothiazine, pantoprazole, cysteamine, indisulam, valinomycin, trametinib, BRD-K81473043, AZD8055, dovitinib, BRD-A17065207, and tyrphostin AG1478 presented as drugs and small molecule candidates previously studied in the CRC. Lornoxicam, suxamethonium, oprelvekin, sirukumab, levetiracetam, sulpiride, NVP-TAE684, AS605240, 480743.cdx, HDAC6 inhibitor ISOX, BRD-K03829970, and L-6307 are proposed as novel drugs and small molecule candidates for CRC.

New advances in clinical application of neostigmine: no longer focusing solely on increasing skeletal muscle strength

Neostigmine is a clinical cholinesterase inhibitor, that is, commonly used to enhance the function of the cholinergic neuromuscular junction. Recent studies have shown that neostigmine regulates the immune-inflammatory response through the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, affecting perioperative neurocognitive function. This article reviews the relevant research evidence over the past 20 years, intending to provide new perspectives and strategies for the clinical application of neostigmine.

Azole derivatives inhibit wildtype butyrylcholinesterase and its common mutants

Azoles, which have been used for antifungal chemotherapy for decades, have recently been of interest for their efficacy against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). There is little known about the potential of azoles against BChE, however there is none regarding their inhibitory effects against mutants of BChE. In the current study, an azole library of 1-aryl-2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)ethanol/ethanone oxime esters were tested against AChE and BChE, which yielded derivates more potent than the positive control, galantamine, against both isoforms. Kinetic analyses were performed for wildtype and mutant (A328F and A328Y) inhibition for the two most potent BChE inhibitors, pivalic and 3-bezoylpropanoic acid esters of 2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(2-naphthyl)ethanol, which were found to have great affinity to the wildtype and mutant BChE types with Ki values as low as 0.173 ± 0.012 µM. The compounds were identified to show linear competitive or mixed type inhibition. Molecular modeling confirmed these kinetic data and provided further insights regarding molecular basis of BChE inhibition by the active derivatives. Thus, current study suggests new azole derivatives with promising cholinesterase inhibitory effects and reveals the first set of information to promote our understanding for the inhibitory behavior of this class against the mutant BChE forms.

[Trigger-free anesthesia : Indications and safe application]

The safe anesthesiological care of patients with neuromuscular diseases poses a particular challenge for anesthetists. Only a small group of muscle diseases and syndromes are associated with an increased risk of malignant hyperthermia and therefore require trigger-free anesthetic procedures avoiding volatile anesthetics and succinylcholine. These diseases are frequently associated with mutations in the RYR1, CACNA1S or STAC-3 genes. In other neuromuscular diseases, anesthetic-induced rhabdomyolysis can occur. Therefore, volatile anesthetics should be avoided in these patients in addition to the contraindication for succinylcholine. In other neuromuscular diseases the risk of a propofol infusion syndrome or myotonic crises can be elevated or the duration of the effect of non-depolarizing muscle relaxants can be changed in an incalculable way. In every case an individual anesthetic aproach including the avoidance of potential pharmacological or non-pharmacological triggers is essential for the safety of the patients.

Protective Effect of Galantamine against Doxorubicin-Induced Neurotoxicity

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Doxorubicin (DOX) causes cognitive impairment (chemobrain) in patients with cancer. While DOX damages the cholinergic system, few studies have focused on the protective effects of cholinergic function on chemobrain. The acetylcholinesterase inhibitor galantamine (GAL) demonstrates neuroprotective properties. We investigated the mechanisms associated with DOX-induced cognitive impairments and the potential protective role of GAL in preventing chemobrain.

MAIN METHODS

Female Wistar rats were divided into control, DOX, GAL, and DOX + GAL groups. The rats in the DOX group were administered DOX (5 mg/kg intraperitoneally twice weekly for two weeks), while those in the GAL group were orally administered GAL (2.5 mg/kg) via oral gavage once daily for 15 days. The combination group (DOX + GAL) received GAL (once daily) and DOX (two times per week) concurrently. The body weights and survival rates were monitored daily. The animals were subjected to behavioral tests to assess the memory function followed by the biochemical estimation of inflammatory markers, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukine-1β (IL-1β), and interleukine-6 (IL-6) in rat brain tissue and RT-qPCR.

KEY FINDINGS

DOX caused a reduction in the body weight and survival rate, which was alleviated by GAL concomitant treatment with DOX (DOX + GAL). These groups had reduced body weights and survival rates. DOX-treated animals exhibited an impairment of short-term spatial working memory, manifested as a behavioral alteration in the Y-maze test, the novel object recognition (NOR) test, and the elevated plus-maze (EPM) test. Concurrent treatment with GAL (DOX + GAL) showed improved memory function, as evidenced by an increase in the number of entries and time spent in the novel arm, the time spent exploring the novel object, and the transfer latency in the Y-maze, NOR test, and EPM test, respectively. These findings were also supported by biochemical observations showing the reversal of DOX-induced changes in IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, as well as their relative expression of mRNA in brain tissue following concurrent GAL treatment.

CONCLUSION

GAL appeared to be a neuroprotective agent against neuroinflammation caused by DOX by reducing inflammatory markers in the brain.

Therapeutic potential of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles as potential lead compounds for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Monoamine oxidase and cholinesterase enzymes are important targets for the treatment of several neurological diseases especially depression, Parkinson disease and Alzheimer's. Here, we report the synthesis and testing of new 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives as novel inhibitors of monoamine oxidase enzymes (MAO-A and MAO-B) and cholinesterase enzymes (acetyl and butyryl cholinesterase (AChE, BChE). Compounds 4c, 4d, 4e, 4g, 4j, 4k, 4m, 4n displayed promising inhibitory effects on MAO-A (IC₅₀: 0.11-3.46 μM), MAO-B (IC₅₀: 0.80-3.08 μM) and AChE (IC₅₀: 0.83-2.67 μM). Interestingly, compounds 4d, 4e and 4g are multitargeting MAO-A/B and AChE inhibitors. Also, Compound 4m displayed promising MAO-A inhibition with IC₅₀ of 0.11 μM and high selectivity (∼25-fold) over MAO-B and AChE enzymes. These newly synthesized analogues represent promising hits for the development of promising lead compounds for neurological disease treatment.

Unravelling Novel Phytochemicals and Anticholinesterase Activity in Irish Cladonia portentosa

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors remain the mainstay of symptomatic treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The natural world is rich in acetylcholinesterase inhibitory molecules, and research efforts to identify novel leads is ongoing. Cladonia portentosa, commonly known as reindeer lichen, is an abundant lichen species found in Irish Boglands. The methanol extract of Irish C. portentosa was identified as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitory lead using qualitative TLC-bioautography in a screening program. To identify the active components, the extract was deconvoluted using a successive extraction process with hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol to isolate the active fraction. The hexane extract demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity and was selected for further phytochemical investigations. Olivetolic acid, 4-O-methylolivetolcarboxylic acid, perlatolic acid and usnic acid were isolated and characterized using ESI-MS and two-dimensional NMR techniques. LC-MS analysis also determined the presence of the additional usnic acid derivatives, placodiolic and pseudoplacodiolic acids. Assays of the isolated components confirmed that the observed anticholinesterase activity of C. portentosa can be attributed to usnic acid (25% inhibition at 125 µM) and perlatolic acid (20% inhibition at 250 µM), which were both reported inhibitors. This is the first report of isolation of olivetolic and 4-O-methylolivetolcarboxylic acids and the identification of placodiolic and pseudoplacodiolic acids from C. portentosa.

Unanswered questions in the regulation and function of the duplicated α7 nicotinic receptor gene CHRFAM7A

The α7 nicotinic receptor (α7 nAChR) is an important entry point for Ca²⁺ into the cell, which has broad and important effects on gene expression and function. The gene (CHRNA7), mapping to chromosome (15q14), has been genetically linked to a large number of diseases, many of which involve defects in cognition. While numerous mutations in CHRNA7 are associated with mental illness and inflammation, an important control point may be the function of a recently discovered partial duplication CHRNA7, CHRFAM7A, that negatively regulates the function of the α7 receptor, through the formation of heteropentamers; other functions cannot be excluded. The deregulation of this human specific gene (CHRFAM7A) has been linked to neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory disorders and has important copy number variations. Much effort is being made to understand its function and regulation both in healthy and pathological conditions. However, many questions remain to be answered regarding its functional role, its regulation, and its role in the etiogenesis of neurological and inflammatory disorders. Missing knowledge on the pharmacology of the heteroreceptor has limited the discovery of new molecules capable of modulating its activity. Here we review the state of the art on the role of CHRFAM7A, highlighting unanswered questions to be addressed. A possible therapeutic approach based on genome editing protocols is also discussed.

Effects of 3R, 16S-2-hydroxyethyl apovincaminate (HEAPO), donepezil and galantamine on learning and memory retention in naïve Wistar rats

The effects of 3R,16S-2-hydroxyethyl apovincaminate (HEAPO, RGH-10885) compared with those of two cholinesterase inhibitors, donepezil and galantamine, were examined in naïve Wistar rats using standard active and passive avoidance tests. The active avoidance test (shuttle box) and two passive avoidance tests (step-through and step-down) were performed according to the experimental design. There were 10 groups of rats (n = 8) and the substances studied were applied orally before each testing session. In the active avoidance test, the number of conditioned stimuli (avoidances), unconditioned stimuli (escapes) and intertrial crossings were observed. In step-down and step-through passive avoidance tests, the latencies of reactions were observed. All the studied compounds showed positive effects in the learning and memory tests, compared to the controls. It was concluded that HEAPO, donepezil and galantamine had a memory-enhancing effect in active and passive avoidance tests.

Structure assignment, conformational properties and discovery of potential targets of the Ugi cinnamic adduct NGI25

The structure assignment and conformational analysis of cinnamic derivative N-benzyl-N-(2-(cyclohexylamino)-2-oxoethyl) cinnamamide (NGI25) was carried out through Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, Molecular Dynamics (MD) and Quantum Mechanics (QM), i.e. semiempirical and Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations. Moreover, Homonuclear (COSY, NOESY) and heteronuclear (HSQC, HMBC) experiments were applied to assign its protons and carbons. After structure identification, NGI25 was subjected to computational calculations to reveal its most favorable conformations. In particular, MD studies were performed in two different solvents, DMSO of intermediate polarity and hydrophobic CHCl₃. The obtained results suggest that NGI25 adopts similar conformations in both environments. In particular, the two aromatic rings of the molecule reside in spatial vicinity, while they remain quite distant from the cyclohexane. 2D NOESY experiments confirmed the in silico MD and QM calculations. Finally, molecular docking calculations were performed in order to reveal possible enzyme-targets for NGI25. Swiss target module was used to guide the discovery of new targets based on the structure of NGI. Indeed, it was predicted that NGI25 inhibited butyrylcholinesterase (BCHE) and lipoxygenase (LOX). Molecular docking experiments, followed by Molecular Dynamics studies, confirmed the favorable binding of NGI25 to both enzymes.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

[Optimizing the diagnosis and treatment of dorsalgia in real-world clinical practice: the secondary endpoint of the DORISS multicenter observational study]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy of Ipigrix in the complex treatment of patients with dorsalgia (DA) of the lumbosacral spine based on the results of the DORISS observational non-interventional multicenter study.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Overall 3563 patients with verified diagnoses of DA at 200 clinical centers within the Russian Federation who received comparable baseline therapy according to nosological standards were examined, some of them additionally received oral or staggered treatment with Ipigrix. Baseline therapy for DA was given to 376 patients (treatment group 1), combination of baseline with oral Ipigrix was given to 1026 patients (group 2), and combination with staggered prescription of ipidacrine - to 2161 (group 3). Secondary endpoint of the study included analysis of the improvement of clinical symptoms, values of pain NRS and DN4 scales together with Roland-Morris questionnaire during the period of observation depending on the therapy with an assessment of its safety.

RESULTS

The results of the analysis of covariance allowed to exclude the influence of confounders (age and initial indicators of the utilized scales) on DA outcomes and demonstrated the greatest pain reduction in patients who additionally received Ipigrix via the staggered scheme. The inter-group comparison aligned by pseudorandomization showed statistically significant benefits of combined therapy regardless of the type of Ipigrix administration concerning main vertebral syndrome manifestations, sensory and motor disturbances, relief of pain, as well as neuropathic symptoms, improvement of neurophysiological parameters and restoration of life functioning without serious drug related adverse events.

CONCLUSION

Ipigrix (ipidacrine) can be considered an effective and safe adjuvant analgesic in the treatment of DA.

Insights into the Pathophysiology of Alzheimer's Disease and Potential Therapeutic Targets: A Current Perspective

The aging population increases steadily because of a healthy lifestyle and medical advancements in healthcare. However, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is becoming more common and problematic among older adults. AD-related cases show an increasing trend annually, and the younger age population may also be at risk of developing this disorder. AD constitutes a primary form of dementia, an irreversible and progressive brain disorder that steadily damages cognitive functions and the ability to perform daily tasks. Later in life, AD leads to death as a result of the degeneration of specific brain areas. Currently, the cause of AD is poorly understood, and there is no safe and effective therapeutic agent to cure or slow down its progression. The condition is entirely preventable, and no study has yet demonstrated encouraging findings in terms of treatment. Identifying this disease's pathophysiology can help researchers develop safe and efficient therapeutic strategies to treat this ailment. This review outlines and discusses the pathophysiology that resulted in the development of AD including amyloid-β plaques, tau neurofibrillary tangles, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, cholinergic dysfunction, glutamate excitotoxicity, and changes in neurotrophins level may sound better based on the literature search from Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Potential therapeutic strategies are discussed to provide more insights into AD mechanisms by developing some possible pharmacological agents for its treatment.

In silico and in vitro studies confirm Ondansetron as a novel acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitor

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is growing rapidly among the elderly population around the world. Studies show that a lack of acetylcholine and butyrylcholine due to the overexpression of enzymes Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) may lead to reduced communication between neuron cells. As a result, seeking novel inhibitors targeting these enzymes might be vital for the future treatment of AD. Ondansetron is used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy or radiation treatments and is herein shown to be a potent inhibitor of cholinesterase. Comparison is made between Ondansetron and FDA-approved cholinesterase inhibitors Rivastigmine and Tacrine. Molecular docking demonstrates that interactions between the studied ligand and aromatic residues in the peripheral region of the active site are important in binding. Molecular dynamics simulations and binding pose metadynamics show that Ondansetron is highly potent against both enzymes and far better than Rivastigmine. Inhibitor activities evaluated by in vitro studies confirm that the drug inhibits AChE and BChE by non-competitive and mixed inhibition, respectively, with IC₅₀ values 33 µM (AChE) and 2.5 µM (BChE). Based on the findings, we propose that Ondansetron may have therapeutic applications in inhibiting cholinesterase, especially for BChE.

Neurotoxicity evoked by organophosphates and available countermeasures

Organophosphorus compounds (OP) are a constant problem, both in the military and in the civilian field, not only in the form of acute poisoning but also for their long-lasting consequences. No antidote has been found that satisfactorily protects against the toxic effects of organophosphates. Likewise, there is no universal cure to avert damage after poisoning. The key mechanism of organophosphate toxicity is the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. The overstimulation of nicotinic or muscarinic receptors by accumulated acetylcholine on a synaptic cleft leads to activation of the glutamatergic system and the development of seizures. Further consequences include generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), neuroinflammation, and the formation of various other neuropathologists. In this review, we present neuroprotection strategies which can slow down the secondary nerve cell damage and alleviate neurological and neuropsychiatric disturbance. In our opinion, there is no unequivocal approach to ensure neuroprotection, however, sooner the neurotoxicity pathway is targeted, the better the results which can be expected. It seems crucial to target the key propagation pathways, i.e., to block cholinergic and, foremostly, glutamatergic cascades. Currently, the privileged approach oriented to stimulating GABA_AR by benzodiazepines is of limited efficacy, so that antagonizing the hyperactivity of the glutamatergic system could provide an even more efficacious approach for terminating OP-induced seizures and protecting the brain from permanent damage. Encouraging results have been reported for tezampanel, an antagonist of GluK1 kainate and AMPA receptors, especially in combination with caramiphen, an anticholinergic and anti-glutamatergic agent. On the other hand, targeting ROS by antioxidants cannot or already developed neuroinflammation does not seem to be very productive as other processes are also involved.

Caffeic Acid and Diseases-Mechanisms of Action

Caffeic acid belongs to the polyphenol compounds we consume daily, often in the form of coffee. Even though it is less explored than caffeic acid phenethyl ester, it still has many positive effects on human health. Caffeic acid can affect cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, or bacterial and viral infections. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms of how caffeic acid achieves its effects.

Levetiracetam Ameliorates Doxorubicin-Induced Chemobrain by Enhancing Cholinergic Transmission and Reducing Neuroinflammation Using an Experimental Rat Model and Molecular Docking Study

Cancer chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment (chemobrain) is a major complication that affects the prognosis of therapy. Our study evaluates the nootropic-like activity of levetiracetam (LEVE) against doxorubicin (DOX)-induced memory defects using in vivo and molecular modelling. Rats were treated with LEVE (100 and 200 mg/kg, 30 days) and chemobrain was induced by four doses of DOX (2 mg/kg, i.p.). Spatial memory parameters were evaluated using an elevated plus maze (EPM) and Y-maze. Additionally, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and the neuroinflammatory biomarkers cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were analyzed using brain homogenate. PharmMapper was used for inverse docking and AutoDock Vina was used for molecular docking. LEVE treatment significantly diminished the DOX-induced memory impairment parameters in both the EPM and Y-maze. In addition, the drug treatment significantly reduced AChE, COX-2, PGE2, NF-κB, and TNF-α levels compared to DOX-treated animals. The inverse docking procedures resulted in the identification of AChE as the potential target. Further molecular modelling studies displayed interactions with residues Gly118, Gly119, and Ser200, critical for the hydrolysis of ACh. Analysis of the results suggested that administration of LEVE improved memory-related parameters in DOX-induced animals. The ‘nootropic-like’ activity could be related to diminished AChE and neuroinflammatory mediator levels.

Esterases Involved in the Rapid Bioconversion of Esmolol after Intravenous Injection in Humans

Esmolol is indicated for the acute and temporary control of ventricular rate due to its rapid onset of action and elimination at a rate greater than cardiac output. This rapid elimination is achieved by the hydrolysis of esmolol to esmolol acid. It has previously been reported that esmolol is hydrolyzed in the cytosol of red blood cells (RBCs). In order to elucidate the metabolic tissues and enzymes involved in the rapid elimination of esmolol, a hydrolysis study was performed using different fractions of human blood and liver. Esmolol was slightly hydrolyzed by washed RBCs and plasma proteins while it was extensively hydrolyzed in plasma containing white blood cells and platelets. The negligible hydrolysis of esmolol in RBCs is supported by its poor hydrolysis by esterase D, the sole cytosolic esterase in RBCs. In human liver microsomes, esmolol was rapidly hydrolyzed according to Michaelis-Menten kinetics, and its hepatic clearance, calculated by the well-stirred model, was limited by hepatic blood flow. An inhibition study and a hydrolysis study using individual recombinant esterases showed that human carboxylesterase 1 isozyme (hCE1) is the main metabolic enzyme of esmolol in both white blood cells and human liver. These studies also showed that acyl protein thioesterase 1 (APT1) is involved in the cytosolic hydrolysis of esmolol in the liver. The hydrolysis of esmolol by hCE1 and APT1 also results in its pulmonary metabolism, which might be a reason for its high total clearance (170-285 mL/min/kg bodyweight), 3.5-fold greater than cardiac output (80.0 mL/min/kg bodyweight).

Newly scheduled carbamate compounds: A synopsis of their properties and development, and considerations for the scientific community

In November 2019, for the first time in the history of the Chemical Weapons Convention, changes were made to Schedule 1 of the Annex on Chemicals. While there is little in the scientific literature regarding any of these newly scheduled chemicals, the carbamates, specifically, prove to be substantially different, both in terms of their chemical composition and their toxicological effects, from all the other scheduled nerve agents and have yet to be fully reported on in the literature. Herein, we present a literature review of the available information on carbamates included in Schedule 1, as well as analogous other carbamates, and provide a summary of their utility and function as cholinesterase inhibitors in general and their toxicities. Though there is a paucity of studies in the literature related to the detection of these newly scheduled quaternary and bisquaternary carbamates and/or their biomarkers, information available on carbamate pesticides may be a solid starting point to further postulate amenable detection methodologies. Lastly, we note some implications of these newly scheduled carbamates for the nonproliferation and disarmament community.

Synthesis, anticholinesterase activity, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulation studies of 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives

Two new series of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles bearing pyridine and thiazole heterocycles (4a-h and 5a-h) were synthesized (2,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-oxadiazoles). The structures of these newly synthesized compounds were confirmed by ¹ H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), ¹³ C NMR, high-resolution mass spectrometric and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic methods. All these compounds were evaluated for their enzyme inhibitory activities against two cholinesterase enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). From the studies, we identified compounds 4a, 4h, 5a, 5d, and 5e as selective AChE inhibitors, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.023 to 0.037 μM. Furthermore, docking studies of these compounds were performed at the active sites of their target enzymes. The molecular docking study showed that 5e possessed an ideal docking pose with interactions inside AChE.

Therapeutic targets and functions of curcumol against COVID-19 and colon adenocarcinoma

Since 2019, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has caused 6,319,395 deaths worldwide. Although the COVID-19 vaccine is currently available, the latest variant of the virus, Omicron, spreads more easily than earlier strains, and its mortality rate is still high in patients with chronic diseases, especially cancer patients. So, identifying a novel compound for COVID-19 treatment could help reduce the lethal rate of the viral infection in patients with cancer. This study applied network pharmacology and systematic bioinformatics analysis to determine the possible use of curcumol for treating colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) in patients infected with COVID-19. Our results showed that COVID-19 and COAD in patients shared a cluster of genes commonly deregulated by curcumol. The clinical pathological analyses demonstrated that the expression of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit delta (GABRD) was associated with the patients' hazard ratio. More importantly, the high expression of GABRD was associated with poor survival rates and the late stages of COAD in patients. The network pharmacology result identified seven-core targets, including solute carrier family 6 member 3, gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit pi, butyrylcholinesterase, cytochrome P450 3A4, 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, progesterone receptor, and GABRD of curcumol for treating patients with COVID-19 and COAD. The bioinformatic analysis further highlighted their importance in the biological processes and molecular functions in gland development, inflammation, retinol, and steroid metabolism. The findings of this study suggest that curcumol could be an alternative compound for treating patients with COVID-19 and COAD.

New naphtho/thienobenzo-triazoles with interconnected anti-inflammatory and cholinesterase inhibitory activity

New 1,2,3-triazolo(thieno)stilbenes were synthesized by Wittig reaction and photochemically transformed to corresponding substituted thienobenzo/naphtho-triazoles in high isolated yields. They were prepared to study the acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition associated with the inhibition of TNFα cytokine production and anti-inflammatory activity. The best experimental results were achieved with the allyl-thienobenzotriazole and isopropyl, p-methoxybenzyl, and hydroxybutyl substituted naphthotriazoles bearing additional chloro or methoxy groups. The allyl-thienobenzotriazole photoproduct is twice as potent an inhibitor of eqBChE compared to the standard galantamine. At the same time, this compound strongly inhibited TNFα production in PBMCs in response to the LPS stimulus. The complexes between selected compounds with the active site of BChE and AChE are assessed by docking, providing insight into the stabilizing interactions between the potential inhibitor and the active site.

The neuroprotective effect of Xylopia parviflora against aluminum chloride-induced neurotoxicity in rats

Neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer's disease, are progressive disorders which has been linked to oxidative imbalance and associated perturbations characterised by loss of memory, cognition and cholinergic deficit. To date, cholinesterase inhibition and neuroprotection are the two major strategies in drug development. Xylopia parviflora (Annonacea family) is a spice consumed in Cameroon and has been used in traditional medicine to treat various pains. In this study, X. parviflora was evaluated on behavioural studies, ion homeostasis, cholinesterase inhibitory and antioxidant activities. Rats were exposed to aluminium chloride (75 mg/kg) during 60 days, and were treated with the extract of X. parviflora (150 and 300 mg/kg BW) and two drugs references (Donepezil and Curcumin). Behavioural parameters were assessed using the Morris-Maze test and the Open Field, followed by biochemical investigations, namely, cholinesterase enzyme activity (AChE and BChE), oxidative stress (NO, MDA, GSH level, SOD and Catalase activities) and ion homeostasis (Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ levels). AlCl₃ administration shows a decrease in learning and memory improvement during behavioural studies, significant alteration of the central cholinergic system characterised by an increase in AChE and BChE activities to 2.72 ± 0.002 mol/min/g and 5.74 ± 0.12 mol/min/g respectively, disturbance of ion homeostasis with an increase in Ca²⁺ level (25.68 ± 3.78 μmol/mg protein) and a decrease in Mg²⁺ level (15.97 ± 2.05 μmol/mg protein) and an increase in oxidative stress compared to the positive control group. Treatment with the different doses of X. parviflora increased memory and improved locomotion, improved cholinesterase activities, ion homeostasis and stabilized brain oxidative stress levels. The study suggests that X. parviflora could potentially be used for the management of some biochemical alterations associated with Alzheimer's disease. It could even be a good alternative to chemical drugs for neurotoxicity and memory enhancement.

Butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors as potential anti-Alzheimer's agents: an updated patent review (2018-present)

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer's disease (AD) constitutes one of the most complex and devastating diseases, with an extraordinarily high increase expected for the next few years. Despite the numerous efforts accomplished so far there is still no cure but just palliative treatments.

AREAS COVERED

The main topic covered herein has been the development of butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) inhibitors with the aim of increasing the levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Two main groups of compounds have been considered: multitarget and non-multitarget ligands, depending if the structural design is focused or not on other key targets and pathogenic factors of the disease. Seventeen patents regarding multitarget-directed ligands (MTDLs), twelve for not multitarget derivatives, and three for miscellaneous uses have been covered in the period 2018‒2021.

EXPERT OPINION

BuChE is an attractive target in the treatment of AD for many reasons. It is the most prevalent cholinesterase within more advanced stages of the disease, so drugs inhibiting it would be suitable for the treatment of mid- to severe Alzheimer's patients. Moreover, BuChE has been proved to be connected with some other key hallmarks of the disease, like amyloidogenesis; hybridization of a BuChE-targeting pharmacophore with other scaffolds designed for other therapeutic targets is quite a promising design for potential anti-Alzheimer's drugs.

The Human-Restricted Isoform of the α7 nAChR, CHRFAM7A: A Double-Edged Sword in Neurological and Inflammatory Disorders

CHRFAM7A is a relatively recent and exclusively human gene arising from the partial duplication of exons 5 to 10 of the α7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit (α7 nAChR) encoding gene, CHRNA7. CHRNA7 is related to several disorders that involve cognitive deficits, including neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory disorders. In extra-neuronal tissues, α7nAChR plays an important role in proliferation, differentiation, migration, adhesion, cell contact, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and tumor progression, as well as in the modulation of the inflammatory response through the “cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway”. CHRFAM7A translates the dupα7 protein in a multitude of cell lines and heterologous systems, while maintaining processing and trafficking that are very similar to the full-length form. It does not form functional ion channel receptors alone. In the presence of CHRNA7 gene products, dupα7 can assemble and form heteromeric receptors that, in order to be functional, should include at least two α7 subunits to form the agonist binding site. When incorporated into the receptor, in vitro and in vivo data showed that dupα7 negatively modulated α7 activity, probably due to a reduction in the number of ACh binding sites. Very recent data in the literature report that the presence of the duplicated gene may be responsible for the translational gap in several human diseases. Here, we will review the studies that have been conducted on CHRFAM7A in different pathologies, with the intent of providing evidence regarding when and how the expression of this duplicated gene may be beneficial or detrimental in the pathogenesis, and eventually in the therapeutic response, to CHRNA7-related neurological and non-neurological diseases.

Involvement of Ocular Muscles in Patients With Myasthenia Gravis With Nonocular Onset

BACKGROUND

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disorder involving neuromuscular junctions and more than half of MG patients manifested with extraocular muscle weakness initially. In the remained patients, ocular weakness may occur later in the course of the disease. However, little data are available about ocular involvement in such patients. Therefore, the study aims to investigate ocular weakness in MG patients with nonocular onset and evaluate the associated factors influencing it.

METHODS

In our monocentric retrospective study, 54 adult-onset patients with MG with nonocular onset were included and were followed up for at least 2 years from the onset. The primary outcome was the occurrence of ptosis, diplopia, or both. Kaplan-Meier analysis was performed to estimate the time to the ocular weakness, and log-rank tests were used to analyze the association between clinical characteristics and ocular weakness. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to identify factors associated with ocular involvement.

RESULTS

A total of 47 (87.0%) patients developed ocular weakness during the study period. The median time to ocular weakness was 6.0 months. Time to the ocular involvement was earlier in patients with bulbar onset (P = 0.007), whereas patients receiving pyridostigmine monotherapy and immunomodulatory therapy had a longer median time of ocular weakness (P < 0.0001). No significant difference was noted between ocular weakness and age of onset, gender, and thymoma. The Cox analysis showed that bulbar onset was a risk factor of ocular weakness (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 2.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.41-4.99), whereas pyridostigmine monotherapy (adjusted HR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13-0.60) and immunotherapy (adjusted HR 0.09, 95% CI 0.04-0.22) were protective factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Eighty-seven percent of patients with MG with nonocular onset developed ocular weakness. Bulbar onset was an independent risk factor for ocular involvement, whereas pyridostigmine and immunotherapy were protective factors.

Acrylamide Neurotoxicity as a Possible Factor Responsible for Inflammation in the Cholinergic Nervous System

Acrylamide (ACR) is a chemical compound that exhibits neurotoxic and genotoxic effects. It causes neurological symptoms such as tremors, general weakness, numbness, tingling in the limbs or ataxia. Numerous scientific studies show the effect of ACR on nerve endings and its close connection with the cholinergic system. The cholinergic system is part of the autonomic nervous system that regulates higher cortical functions related to memory, learning, concentration and attention. Within the cholinergic system, there are cholinergic neurons, anatomical cholinergic structures, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) and cholinergic receptors. Some scientific reports suggest a negative effect of ACR on the cholinergic system and inflammatory reactions within the body. The aim of the study was to review the current state of knowledge on the influence of acrylamide on the cholinergic system and to evaluate its possible effect on inflammatory processes. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) is a neuroimmunomodulatory pathway that is located in the blood and mucous membranes. The role of CAP is to stop the inflammatory response in the appropriate moment. It prevents the synthesis and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and ultimately regulates the local and systemic immune response. The cellular molecular mechanism for inhibiting cytokine synthesis is attributed to acetylcholine (ACh), the major vagal neurotransmitter, and the α7 nicotinic receptor (α7nAChR) subunit is a key receptor for the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. The combination of ACh with α7nAChR results in inhibition of the synthesis and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The blood AChE is able to terminate the stimulation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway due to splitting ACh. Accordingly, cytokine production is essential for pathogen protection and tissue repair, but over-release of cytokines can lead to systemic inflammation, organ failure, and death. Inflammatory responses are precisely regulated to effectively protect against harmful stimuli. The central nervous system dynamically interacts with the immune system, modulating inflammation through the humoral and nervous pathways. The stress-induced rise in acetylcholine (ACh) level acts to ease the inflammatory response and restore homeostasis. This signaling process ends when ACh is hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE). There are many scientific reports indicating the harmful effects of ACR on AChE. Most of them indicate that ACR reduces the concentration and activity of AChE. Due to the neurotoxic effect of acrylamide, which is related to the disturbance of the secretion of neurotransmitters, and its influence on the disturbance of acetylcholinesterase activity, it can be concluded that it disturbs the normal inflammatory response.

The effects of galangin in prepulse inhibition test and experimental schizophrenia models

OBJECTIVE

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are the focus of interest in the management of schizophrenia. We aimed to investigate the effects of acute galangin administration, a flavonoid compound with acetylcholinesterase inhibiting activity, on schizophrenia-associated cognitive deficits in rats and schizophrenia models in mice.

METHODS

Apomorphine-induced prepulse inhibition (PPI) disruption for cognitive functions, nicotinic, muscarinic, and serotonergic mechanism involvement, and brain acetylcholine levels were investigated in Wistar rats. Apomorphine-induced climbing, MK-801-induced hyperlocomotion, and catalepsy tests were used as schizophrenia models in Swiss albino mice. The effects of galangin were compared with acetylcholinesterase inhibitor donepezil, and typical and atypical antipsychotics haloperidol and olanzapine, respectively.

RESULTS

Galangin (50,100 mg/kg) enhanced apomorphine-induced PPI disruption similar to donepezil, haloperidol, and olanzapine (p < 0.05). This effect was not altered in the combination of galangin with the nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine (1 mg/kg), the muscarinic receptor antagonist scopolamine (0.05 mg/kg), or the serotonin-1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 (1 mg/kg) (p > 0.05). Galangin (50,100 mg/kg) alone increased brain acetylcholine concentrations (p < 0.05), but not in apomorphine-injected rats (p > 0.05). Galangin (50 mg/kg) decreased apomorphine-induced climbing and MK-801-induced hyperlocomotion similar to haloperidol and olanzapine (p < 0.05), but did not induce catalepsy, unlike them.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that galangin may help enhance schizophrenia-associated cognitive deficits, and nicotinic, muscarinic cholinergic, and serotonin-1A receptors are not involved in this effect. Galangin also exerted an antipsychotic-like effect without inducing catalepsy and may be considered as an advantageous antipsychotic agent.

Elevated Fibrinogen Level Reduces Therapeutic Efficiency of AD Drugs: Biophysical Insights into the Interaction of FDA-Approved Cholinesterase Inhibitors with Human Fibrinogen

Despite being the second most abundant protein in blood plasma, reports on the interaction of drugs with fibrinogen (FIB) are relatively scarce. The effect of FIB on the therapeutic potency of four FDA-approved Alzheimer's disease drugs, namely, tacrine (TAC), donepezil (DON), eserine (ESE), and huperzine (HUP), was investigated through a combination of different in vitro and in silico experiments. The efficiency of the drugs in inhibiting the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was significantly reduced in the presence of FIB. This effect was even found to be more substantial than that for the most abundant plasma protein, human serum albumin (HSA). For example, the relative change in IC₅₀ for TAC was found to be 65% in 10 μM FIB as opposed to 43% in the presence of 250 μM HSA. The relative trend of modulation in AChE activity showed consistency with the binding efficiency of the drugs and FIB. The sequestration of drugs in FIB, therefore reducing the availability of free drugs in solution, was identified to be the primary cause for the decrease in the AChE inhibition potency. This study aims to establish FIB as a vital component, while considering the therapeutic effectiveness of different newly developed AChE inhibitors.

Integration of System Biology Tools to Investigate Huperzine A as an Anti-Alzheimer Agent

Aim: The present study aimed to investigate huperzine A as an anti-Alzheimer agent based on the principle that a single compound can regulate multiple proteins and associated pathways, using system biology tools. Methodology: The simplified molecular-input line-entry system of huperzine A was retrieved from the PubChem database, and its targets were predicted using SwissTargetPrediction. These targets were matched with the proteins deposited in DisGeNET for Alzheimer disease and enriched in STRING to identify the probably regulated pathways, cellular components, biological processes, and molecular function. Furthermore, huperzine A was docked against acetylcholinesterase using AutoDock Vina, and simulations were performed with the Gromacs package to take into account the dynamics of the system and its effect on the stability and function of the ligands. Results: A total of 100 targets were predicted to be targeted by huperzine A, of which 42 were regulated at a minimum probability of 0.05. Similarly, 101 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways were triggered, in which neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions scored the least false discovery rate. Also, huperzine A was predicted to modulate 54 cellular components, 120 molecular functions, and 873 biological processes. Furthermore, huperzine A possessed a binding affinity of -8.7 kcal/mol with AChE and interacted within the active site of AChE via H-bonds and hydrophobic interactions.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibition with Pyridostigmine attenuates hypertension and neuroinflammation in the paraventricular nucleus in rat model for Preeclampsia

Preeclampsia (PE) is characterized by hypertension, autonomic imbalance and inflammation. The subfornical organ (SFO) reportedly relays peripheral inflammatory mediator's signals to the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), a brain autonomic center shown to mediate hypertension in hypertensive rat but not yet in PE rat models. Additionally, we previously showed that Pyridostigmine (PYR), an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, attenuated placental inflammation and hypertension in PE models. In this study, we investigated the effect of PYR on the activities of these brain regions in PE model. PYR (20 mg/kg/day) was administered to reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) Sprague-Dawley rat from gestational day (GD) 14 to GD19. On GD19, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) was recorded and samples were collected for analysis. RUPP rats exhibited increased MAP (P = 0.0025), elevated circulating tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α, P = 0.0075), reduced baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), increased neuroinflammatory markers including TNF-α, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), microglial activation (P = 0.0039), oxidative stress and neuronal excitation within the PVN and the SFO. Changes in MAP, in molecular and cellular expression induced by RUPP intervention were improved by PYR. The ability of PYR to attenuate TNF-α mediated central effect was evaluated in TNF-α-infused pregnant rats. TNF-α infusion-promoted neuroinflammation in the PVN and SFO in dams was abolished by PYR. Collectively, our data suggest that PYR improves PE-like symptoms in rat by dampening placental ischemia and TNF-α-promoted inflammation and pro-hypertensive activity in the PVN. This broadens the therapeutical potential of PYR in PE.

Phytopharmacological Evaluation of Different Solvent Extract/Fractions From Sphaeranthus indicus L. Flowers: From Traditional Therapies to Bioactive Compounds

Sphaeranthus indicus L. is a medicinal herb having widespread traditional uses for treating common ailments. The present research work aims to explore the in-depth phytochemical composition and in vitro reactivity of six different polarity solvents (methanol, n-hexane, benzene, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol) extracts/fractions of S. indicus flowers. The phytochemical composition was accomplished by determining total bioactive contents, HPLC-PDA polyphenolic quantification, and UHPLC-MS secondary metabolomics. The reactivity of the phenolic compounds was tested through the following biochemical assays: antioxidant (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, CUPRAC, phosphomolybdenum, and metal chelation) and enzyme inhibition (AChE, BChE, α-glucosidase, α-amylase, urease, and tyrosinase) assays were performed. The methanol extract showed the highest values for phenolic (94.07 mg GAE/g extract) and flavonoid (78.7 mg QE/g extract) contents and was also the most active for α-glucosidase inhibition as well as radical scavenging and reducing power potential. HPLC-PDA analysis quantified rutin, naringenin, chlorogenic acid, 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, and epicatechin in a significant amount. UHPLC-MS analysis of methanol and ethyl acetate extracts revealed the presence of well-known phytocompounds; most of these were phenolic, flavonoid, and glycoside derivatives. The ethyl acetate fraction exhibited the highest inhibition against tyrosinase and urease, while the n-hexane fraction was most active for α-amylase. Moreover, principal component analysis highlighted the positive correlation between bioactive compounds and the tested extracts. Overall, S. indicus flower extracts were found to contain important phytochemicals, hence could be further explored to discover novel bioactive compounds that could be a valid starting point for future pharmaceutical and nutraceuticals applications.