Molecular Mechanisms of Phosphate Sensing, Transport and Signalling in Streptomyces and Related Actinobacteria

Evolution of phosphate scouting in the terrestrial biosphere

Chemistry assigns phosphorus and its most oxidized form, inorganic phosphate, unique roles for propelling bioenergetics and metabolism in all domains of life, possibly since its very origin on prebiotic Earth. For plants, access to the vital mineral nutrient profoundly affects growth, development and vigour, thus constraining net primary productivity in natural ecosystems and crop production in modern agriculture. Unlike other major biogenic elements, the low abundance and uneven distribution of phosphate in Earth's crust result from the peculiarities of phosphorus cosmochemistry and geochemistry. Here, we trace the chemical evolution of the element, the geochemical phosphorus cycle and its acceleration during Earth's history until the present (Anthropocene) as well as during the evolution and rise of terrestrial plants. We highlight the chemical and biological processes of phosphate mobilization and acquisition, first evolved in bacteria, refined in fungi and algae and expanded into powerful phosphate-prospecting strategies during land plant colonization. Furthermore, we review the evolution of the genetic and molecular networks from bacteria to terrestrial plants, which monitor intracellular and extracellular phosphate availabilities and coordinate the appropriate responses and adjustments to fluctuating phosphate supply. Lastly, we discuss the modern global phosphorus cycle deranged by human activity and the challenges imposed ahead. This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolution and diversity of plant metabolism'.

Enolase inhibitors as therapeutic leads for Naegleria fowleri infection

Infections with the pathogenic free-living amoebae Naegleria fowleri can lead to life-threatening illnesses including catastrophic primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). Efficacious treatment options for these infections are lacking and the mortality rate remains >95% in the US. Glycolysis is very important for the infectious trophozoite lifecycle stage and inhibitors of glucose metabolism have been found to be toxic to the pathogen. Recently, human enolase 2 (ENO2) phosphonate inhibitors have been developed as lead agents to treat glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). These compounds, which cure GBM in a rodent model, are well-tolerated in mammals because enolase 1 (ENO1) is the predominant isoform used systemically. Here, we describe findings that demonstrate these agents are potent inhibitors of N. fowleri ENO (NfENO) and are lethal to amoebae. In particular, (1-hydroxy-2-oxopiperidin-3-yl) phosphonic acid (HEX) was a potent enzyme inhibitor (IC50 = 0.14 ± 0.04 μM) that was toxic to trophozoites (EC50 = 0.21 ± 0.02 μM) while the reported CC50 was >300 μM. Molecular docking simulation revealed that HEX binds strongly to the active site of NfENO with a binding affinity of -8.6 kcal/mol. Metabolomic studies of parasites treated with HEX revealed a 4.5 to 78-fold accumulation of glycolytic intermediates upstream of NfENO. Last, nasal instillation of HEX increased longevity of amoebae-infected rodents. Two days after infection, animals were treated for 10 days with 3 mg/kg HEX, followed by one week of observation. At the end of the one-week observation, eight of 12 HEX-treated animals remained alive (resulting in an indeterminable median survival time) while one of 12 vehicle-treated rodents remained, yielding a median survival time of 10.9 days. However, intranasal HEX delivery was not curative as brains of six of the eight survivors were positive for amoebae. These findings suggest that HEX requires further evaluation to develop as a lead for treatment of PAM.

Role of Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphate and Sulfur Metabolism in Secondary Metabolism Precursor Supply in Streptomyces spp

The natural soil environment of Streptomyces is characterized by variations in the availability of nitrogen, carbon, phosphate and sulfur, leading to complex primary and secondary metabolisms. Their remarkable ability to adapt to fluctuating nutrient conditions is possible through the utilization of a large amount of substrates by diverse intracellular and extracellular enzymes. Thus, Streptomyces fulfill an important ecological role in soil environments, metabolizing the remains of other organisms. In order to survive under changing conditions in their natural habitats, they have the possibility to fall back on specialized enzymes to utilize diverse nutrients and supply compounds from primary metabolism as precursors for secondary metabolite production. We aimed to summarize the knowledge on the C-, N-, P- and S-metabolisms in the genus Streptomyces as a source of building blocks for the production of antibiotics and other relevant compounds.

Phytate metabolism is mediated by microbial cross-feeding in the gut microbiota

Dietary intake of phytate has various reported health benefits. Previous work showed that the gut microbiota can convert phytate to short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), but the microbial species and metabolic pathway are unclear. Here we identified Mitsuokella jalaludinii as an efficient phytate degrader, which works synergistically with Anaerostipes rhamnosivorans to produce the SCFA propionate. Analysis of published human gut taxonomic profiles revealed that Mitsuokella spp., in particular M. jalaludinii, are prevalent in human gut microbiomes. NMR spectroscopy using 13C-isotope labelling, metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses identified a complete phytate degradation pathway in M. jalaludinii, including production of the intermediate Ins(2)P/myo-inositol. The major end product, 3-hydroxypropionate, was converted into propionate via a synergistic interaction with Anaerostipes rhamnosivorans both in vitro and in mice. Upon [13C6]phytate administration, various 13C-labelled components were detected in mouse caecum in contrast with the absence of [13C6] InsPs or [13C6]myo-inositol in plasma. Caco-2 cells incubated with co-culture supernatants exhibited improved intestinal barrier integrity. These results suggest that the microbiome plays a major role in the metabolism of this phytochemical and that its fermentation to propionate by M. jalaludinii and A. rhamnosivorans may contribute to phytate-driven health benefits.

Integrated genomics provides insights into the evolution of the polyphosphate accumulation trait of Ca. Accumulibacter

Candidatus Accumulibacter, a prominent polyphosphate-accumulating organism (PAO) in wastewater treatment, plays a crucial role in enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR). The genetic underpinnings of its polyphosphate accumulation capabilities, however, remain largely unknown. Here, we conducted a comprehensive genomic analysis of Ca. Accumulibacter-PAOs and their relatives within the Rhodocyclaceae family, identifying 124 core genes acquired via horizontal gene transfer (HGT) at its least common ancestor. Metatranscriptomic analysis of an enrichment culture of Ca. Accumulibacter revealed active transcription of 44 of these genes during an EBPR cycle, notably including the polyphosphate kinase 2 (PPK2) gene instead of the commonly recognized polyphosphate kinase 1 (PPK1) gene. Intriguingly, the phosphate regulon (Pho) genes showed minimal transcriptions, pointing to a distinctive fact of Pho dysregulation, where PhoU, the phosphate signaling complex protein, was not regulating the high-affinity phosphate transport (Pst) system, resulting in continuous phosphate uptake. To prevent phosphate toxicity, Ca. Accumulibacter utilized the laterally acquired PPK2 to condense phosphate into polyphosphate, resulting in the polyphosphate-accumulating feature. This study provides novel insights into the evolutionary emergence of the polyphosphate-accumulating trait in Ca. Accumulibacter, offering potential advancements in understanding the PAO phenotype in the EBPR process.

Comparative genomic analysis of Bacillus atrophaeus HAB-5 reveals genes associated with antimicrobial and plant growth-promoting activities

Bacillus atrophaeus HAB-5 is a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR) that exhibits several biotechnological traits, such as enhancing plant growth, colonizing the rhizosphere, and engaging in biocontrol activities. In this study, we conducted whole-genome sequencing of B. atrophaeus HAB-5 using the single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing platform by Pacific Biosciences (PacBio; United States), which has a circular chromosome with a total length of 4,083,597 bp and a G + C content of 44.21%. The comparative genomic analysis of B. atrophaeus HAB-5 with other strains, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DSM7, B. atrophaeus SRCM101359, Bacillus velezensis FZB42, B. velezensis HAB-2, and Bacillus subtilis 168, revealed that these strains share 2,465 CDSs, while 599 CDSs are exclusive to the B. atrophaeus HAB-5 strain. Many gene clusters in the B. atrophaeus HAB-5 genome are associated with the production of antimicrobial lipopeptides and polypeptides. These gene clusters comprise distinct enzymes that encode three NRPs, two Transat-Pks, one terpene, one lanthipeptide, one T3PKS, one Ripp, and one thiopeptide. In addition to the likely IAA-producing genes (trpA, trpB, trpC, trpD, trpE, trpS, ywkB, miaA, and nadE), there are probable genes that produce volatile chemicals (acoA, acoB, acoR, acuB, and acuC). Moreover, HAB-5 contained genes linked to iron transportation (fbpA, fetB, feuC, feuB, feuA, and fecD), sulfur metabolism (cysC, sat, cysK, cysS, and sulP), phosphorus solubilization (ispH, pstA, pstC, pstS, pstB, gltP, and phoH), and nitrogen fixation (nif3-like, gltP, gltX, glnR, glnA, nadR, nirB, nirD, nasD, narl, narH, narJ, and nark). In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive genomic analysis of B. atrophaeus HAB-5, pinpointing the genes and genomic regions linked to the antimicrobial properties of the strain. These findings advance our knowledge of the genetic basis of the antimicrobial properties of B. atrophaeus and imply that HAB-5 may employ a variety of commercial biopesticides and biofertilizers as a substitute strategy to increase agricultural output and manage a variety of plant diseases.

Drought stress tolerance and metabolomics of Medicago sativa induced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DGL1

Introduction

This study used Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DGL1 isolated from the arid sandy land of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau as the research strain and investigated the effects of DGL1 on the biomass, physiology, and metabolites of Medicago sativa under different intensities of drought stress to provide a high-quality bacterial source and a theoretical basis for the research and development of biological fertilizer suitable for arid areas.

Methods

The exopolysaccharides (EPS), 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase (ACC), and phosphorus solubilizing capacity of DGL1 were determined. The effects of a DGL1 suspension on alfalfa biomass, physiological indexes, degree of peroxidation of cell membranes, and activity of antioxidant enzymes were determined after irrigating roots under drought stress. The effects on soil physicochemical properties were also evaluated, and metabolomics analysis was performed to explore the effect of DGL1 on the metabolites of alfalfa under drought stress.

Results

Strain DGL1 produced extracellular polysaccharide EPS and ACC deaminase and was capable of phosphorus solubilization. Treatment with DGL1 increased the biomass of alfalfa under different degrees of drought stress, significantly increased the activities of alfalfa antioxidant enzymes Super Oxide Dismutase (SOD), Peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT), reduced the content of MDA and H2O2, and increased the content of quick-acting phosphorus, quick-acting potassium, ammonium nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen in the soil, thus improving soil fertility. Through metabolomics analysis, DGL1 was shown to affect amino acid metabolic pathways, such as arginine, leucine, glutamate, and tyrosine, as well as the levels of energy-providing polysaccharides and lipids, in alfalfa under 15% PEG-6000 drought stress, enhancing alfalfa's capacity to resist drought stress.

Discussion

Strain DGL1 enhances the drought suitability of alfalfa and has the potential for dryland development as a biological agent.

Microalgae for freshwater arsenic bioremediation: examining cellular toxicity, bioconcentration factor and eluding an alternative arsenic detoxification pathway

Microalgae are photoautotrophic organisms in freshwater systems known to uptake and bioremediate arsenic, a heavy metal. In this study, we compared the growth and arsenic uptake of two microalgae strains, Nostoc and Chlorella, to determine their suitability for arsenic bioremediation. As compared to the control, our results showed that treatment with As (III) enhanced the Nostoc growth by approximately 15% when grown in the absence of phosphate. The highest bioconcentration factor of Nostoc at this treatment was 1463.6, whereas 0.10 mg L-1 As (V) treatment improved the Chlorella growth by 25%, in the presence of phosphate. However, arsenic uptake reduced from 175.7 to 32.3 throughout the cultivation period for Chlorella. This suggests that Nostoc has an upper advantage in the bioremediation of arsenic as compared to the Chlorella strain. To gain insights into the potential of Nostoc in arsenic bioremediation, we further conducted SEM analysis on the vegetative cell surface. The SEM results showed that As (III) disrupted the Nostoc vegetative cell surface and structure. Further to this, pathway analysis and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were conducted to identify the potential arsenic pathway regulated by Nostoc. The primary As (III)-related pathways elucidated include the arsA transporter and arsD complex that require ATP and As (III) methylation to S-adenosylmethionine. The phosphate deficiency condition resulting in the inability to generate ATP caused As (III) could not be excreted from the Nostoc cells, potentially contributing to the high arsenic concentration accumulated under phosphate-depleted conditions. These insights contribute to understanding the efficacy of microalgae strains in freshwater arsenic bioremediation.

Multifactorial genetic control and magnesium levels govern the production of a Streptomyces antibiotic with unusual cell density dependence

Streptomyces bacteria are renowned both for their antibiotic production capabilities and for their cryptic metabolic potential. Their metabolic repertoire is subject to stringent genetic control, with many of the associated biosynthetic gene clusters being repressed by the conserved nucleoid-associated protein Lsr2. In an effort to stimulate new antibiotic production in wild Streptomyces isolates, we leveraged the activity of an Lsr2 knockdown construct and successfully enhanced antibiotic production in the wild Streptomyces isolate WAC07094. We determined that this new activity stemmed from increased levels of the angucycline-like family member saquayamycin. Saquayamycin has both antibiotic and anti-cancer activities, and intriguingly, beyond Lsr2-mediated repression, we found saquayamycin production was also suppressed at high density on solid or in liquid growth media; its levels were greatest in low-density cultures. This density-dependent control was exerted at the level of the cluster-situated regulatory gene sqnR and was mediated in part through the activity of the PhoRP two-component regulatory system, where deleting phoRP led to both constitutive antibiotic production and sqnR expression. This suggests that PhoP functions to repress the expression of sqnR at high cell density. We further discovered that magnesium supplementation could alleviate this density dependence, although its action was independent of PhoP. Finally, we revealed that the nitrogen-responsive regulators GlnR and AfsQ1 could relieve the repression exerted by Lsr2 and PhoP. Intriguingly, we found that this low density-dependent production of saquayamycin was not unique to WAC07094; saquayamycin production by another wild isolate also exhibited low-density activation, suggesting that this spatial control may serve an important ecological function in their native environments.IMPORTANCEStreptomyces specialized metabolic gene clusters are subject to complex regulation, and their products are frequently not observed under standard laboratory growth conditions. For the wild Streptomyces isolate WAC07094, production of the angucycline-family compound saquayamycin is subject to a unique constellation of control factors. Notably, it is produced primarily at low cell density, in contrast to the high cell density production typical of most antibiotics. This unusual density dependence is conserved in other saquayamycin producers and is driven by the pathway-specific regulator SqnR, whose expression is influenced by both nutritional and genetic elements. Collectively, this work provides new insights into an intricate regulatory system governing antibiotic production and indicates there may be benefits to including low-density cultures in antibiotic screening platforms.

Changes in soil microbe-mediated carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling during spontaneous succession in abandoned PbZn mining areas

The mechanism through which soil microorganisms mediate carbon and nutrient cycling during mine wasteland restoration remained unknown. Using soil metagenome sequencing, we investigated the dynamic changes in soil microbial potential metabolic functions during the transition from biological soil crusts (BSC) to mixed broad-conifer forest (MBF) in a typical PbZn mine. The results showed soil microorganisms favored carbon sequestration through anaerobic and microaerobic pathways, predominantly using efficient, low-energy pathways during succession. Genes governing carbon degradation and aerobic respiration increased by 19.56 % and 24.79 %, respectively, reflecting change toward more efficient and intensive soil carbon utilization in late succession. Nitrogen-cycling genes mediated by soil microorganisms met their maximum influence during early succession (sparse grassland, SGL), leading to a respective increase of 75.29 % and 76.81 % in the net potential nitrification rate and total nitrogen content. Mantel and correlation analyses indicated that TOC, TN, Zn and Cd contents were the main factors affecting the soil carbon and phosphorus cycles. Soil AP content emerged as the primary influencer of genes associated with the nitrogen cycle. These results shed light on the dynamic shifts in microbial metabolic activities during succession, providing a genetic insight into biogeochemical cycling mechanisms and underscoring crucial factors influencing soil biogeochemical processes in mining regions.

Rainfall-induced changes in aquatic microbial communities and stability of dissolved organic matter: Insight from a Fen river analysis

Microbial communities are pivotal in aquatic ecosystems, as they affect water quality, energy dynamics, nutrient cycling, and hydrological stability. This study explored the effects of rainfall on hydrological and photosynthetic parameters, microbial composition, and functional gene profiles in the Fen River. Our results demonstrated that rainfall-induced decreases in stream temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, total phosphorus, chemical oxygen demand, and dissolved organic carbon concentrations. In contrast, rainfall increased total dissolved solids, salinity, and ammonia-nitrogen concentrations. A detailed microbial community structure analysis revealed that Cyanobacteria was the dominant microbial taxon in the Fen River, accounting for approximately 75% and 25% of the microalgal and bacterial communities, respectively. The abundance of Chlorophyta and Bacillariophyta increased by 47.66% and 29.92%, respectively, whereas the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes decreased by 37.55% under rainfall conditions. Stochastic processes predominantly affected the assembly of the bacterial community on rainy days. Functional gene analysis revealed variations in bacterial functions between sunny (Sun) and rainy (Rain) conditions, particularly in genes associated with the carbon cycle. The 3-oxoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductase gene was more abundant in the Fen River bacterial community. Particular genes involved in metabolism and environmental information processing, including the acetyl-CoA C-acetyltransferase (atoB), enoyl-CoA hydratase (paaF), and branched-chain amino acid transport system gene (livK), which are integral to environmental information processing, were more abundant in Sun than the Rain conditions. In contrast, the phosphate transport system gene, the galactose metabolic gene, and the pyruvate metabolic gene were more abundant in Rain. The excitation-emission matrix analysis with parallel factor analysis identified four fluorescence components (C1-C4) in the river, which were predominantly protein- (C1) and humic-like (C2-C4) substances. Rainfall affected organic matter production and transport, leading to changes in the degradation and stability of dissolved organic matter. Overall, this study offers insight into how rainfall affects aquatic ecosystems.

Functional analysis and comparative genomics of Rahnella perminowiae S11P1 and Variovorax sp. S12S4, two plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria isolated from Crocus sativus L. (saffron) rhizosphere

BACKGROUND

Rahnella perminowiae S11P1 and Variovorax sp. S12S4 are two plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria that were previously isolated from the rhizosphere of Crocus sativus L. (saffron), and have demonstrated interesting PGP activities and promising results when used as inoculants in field trials. To further elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying their beneficial effects on plant growth, comprehensive genome mining of S11P1 and S12S4 and comparative genomic analysis with closely related strains were conducted.

RESULTS

Functional annotation of the two strains predicted a large number of genes involved in auxin and siderophore production, nitrogen fixation, sulfur metabolism, organic acid biosynthesis, pyrroloquinoline quinone production, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity, volatile organic compounds production, and polyamine biosynthesis. In addition, numerous genes implicated in plant-bacteria interactions, such as those involved in chemotaxis and quorum sensing, were predicted. Moreover, the two strains carried genes involved in bacterial fitness under abiotic stress conditions. Comparative genomic analysis revealed an open pan-genomic structure for the two strains. COG annotation showed that higher fractions of core and accessory genes were involved in the metabolism and transport of carbohydrates and amino acids, suggesting the metabolic versatility of the two strains as effective rhizosphere colonizers. Furthermore, this study reports the first comparison of Multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) and core-based phylogenies of the Rahnella and Variovorax genera.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study unveils the molecular mechanisms underlying plant growth promotion and biocontrol activity of S11P1 and S12S4, and provides a basis for their further biotechnological application in agriculture.

Effects and mechanisms of glyphosate as phosphorus nutrient on element stoichiometry and metabolism in the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

The ability to utilize dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) gives phytoplankton competitive advantages in P-limited environments. Our previous research indicates that the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum could grow on glyphosate, a DOP with carbon-phosphorus (C-P) bond and an herbicide, as sole P source. However, direct evidence and mechanism of glyphosate utilization are still lacking. In this study, using physiological and isotopic analysis, combined with transcriptomic profiling, we demonstrated the uptake of glyphosate by P. tricornutum and revealed the candidate responsible genes. Our data showed a low efficiency of glyphosate utilization by P. tricornutum, suggesting that glyphosate utilization costs energy and that the alga possessed an herbicide-resistant type of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP) synthase. Compared to the P-limited cultures, the glyphosate-grown P. tricornutum cells up-regulated genes involved in DNA replication, cell growth, transcription, translation, carbon metabolism, and many genes encoding antioxidants. Additionally, cellular C and silicon (Si) increased remarkably while cellular nitrogen (N) declined in the glyphosate-grown P. tricornutum, leading to higher Si:C and Si:N ratios, which corresponded to the up-regulation of genes involved in the C metabolism and Si uptake and the down-regulation of those encoding N uptake. This has the potential to enhance C and Si export to the deep sea when P is limited but phosphonate is available. In sum, our study documented how P. tricornutum could utilize the herbicide glyphosate as P nutrient and how glyphosate utilization may affect the element content and stoichiometry in this diatom, which have important ecological implications in the future ocean.IMPORTANCEGlyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the world and could be utilized as phosphorus (P) source by some bacteria. Our study first revealed that glyphosate could be transported into Phaeodactylum tricornutum cells for utilization and identified putative genes responsible for glyphosate uptake. This uncovers an alternative strategy of phytoplankton to cope with P deficiency considering phosphonate accounts for about 25% of the total dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) in the ocean. Additionally, accumulation of carbon (C) and silicon (Si), as well as elevation of Si:C ratio in P. tricornutum cells when grown on glyphosate indicates glyphosate as the source of P nutrient has the potential to result in more C and Si export into the deep ocean. This, along with the differential ability to utilize glyphosate among different species, glyphosate supply in dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP)-depleted ecosystems may cause changes in phytoplankton community structure. These insights have implications in evaluating the effects of human activities (use of Roundup) and climate change (potentially reducing DIP supply in sunlit layer) on phytoplankton in the future ocean.

Enolase inhibitors as therapeutic leads for Naegleria fowleri infection

Infections with the pathogenic free-living amoebae Naegleria fowleri can lead to life-threatening illnesses including catastrophic primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). Efficacious treatment options for these infections are lacking and the mortality rate remains >95% in the US. Glycolysis is very important for the infectious trophozoite lifecycle stage and inhibitors of glucose metabolism have been found to be toxic to the pathogen. Recently, human enolase 2 (ENO2) phosphonate inhibitors have been developed as lead agents to treat glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). These compounds, which cure GBM in a rodent model, are well-tolerated in mammals because enolase 1 (ENO1) is the predominant isoform used systemically. Here, we describe findings that demonstrate that these agents are potent inhibitors of N. fowleri ENO ( Nf ENO) and are lethal to amoebae. In particular, (1-hydroxy-2-oxopiperidin-3-yl) phosphonic acid (HEX) was a potent enzyme inhibitor (IC 50 value of 0.14 ± 0.04 µM) that was toxic to trophozoites (EC 50 value of 0.21 ± 0.02 µM) while the reported CC 50 was >300 µM. Molecular docking simulation revealed that HEX binds strongly to the active site of Nf ENO with a binding affinity of -8.6 kcal/mol. Metabolomic studies of parasites treated with HEX revealed a 4.5 to 78-fold accumulation of glycolytic intermediates upstream of Nf ENO. Last, nasal instillation of HEX increased longevity of amoebae-infected rodents. Two days after infection, animals were treated for 10 days with 3 mg/kg HEX, followed by one week of observation. At the conclusion of the experiment, eight of 12 HEX-treated animals remained alive (resulting in an indeterminable median survival time) while one of 12 vehicle-treated rodents remained, yielding a median survival time of 10.9 days. Brains of six of the eight survivors were positive for amoebae, suggesting the agent at the tested dose suppressed, but did not eliminate, infection. These findings suggest that HEX is a promising lead for the treatment of PAM.

Systems-wide analysis of the ROK-family regulatory gene rokL6 and its role in the control of glucosamine toxicity in Streptomyces coelicolor

IMPORTANCE

Central metabolism plays a key role in the control of growth and antibiotic production in streptomycetes. Specifically, aminosugars act as signaling molecules that affect development and antibiotic production, via metabolic interference with the global repressor DasR. While aminosugar metabolism directly connects to other major metabolic routes such as glycolysis and cell wall synthesis, several important aspects of their metabolism are yet unresolved. Accumulation of N-acetylglucosamine 6-phosphate or glucosamine 6-phosphate is lethal to many bacteria, a yet unresolved phenomenon referred to as "aminosugar sensitivity." We made use of this concept by selecting for suppressors in genes related to glucosamine toxicity in nagB mutants, which showed that the gene pair of rok-family regulatory gene rokL6 and major facilitator superfamily transporter gene sco1448 forms a cryptic rescue mechanism. Inactivation of rokL6 resulted in the expression of sco1448, which then prevents the toxicity of amino sugar-derived metabolites in Streptomyces. The systems biology of RokL6 and its transcriptional control of sco1448 shed new light on aminosugar metabolism in streptomycetes and on the response of bacteria to aminosugar toxicity.

Mechanisms underlying soil microbial regulation of available phosphorus in a temperate forest exposed to long-term nitrogen addition

With exogenous nitrogen (N) input into soil, phosphorus (P) could become a limiting nutrient for plant growth. Soil microbes play a crucial role in regulating soil P cycle and availability. P functional genes, further, regulate soil P availability. It is unclear how the addition of N in different chemical forms and rates influences the composition of soil microbes associated with P cycling and the abundance of P functional genes. A long-term experiment of N addition in three chemical forms with two levels in a temperate forest was performed to reveal the influences and the underlying mechanisms. We found that both chemical N forms and N rates selected for different P-solubilizing microbes. Ammonia form-N increased the abundances of P-solubilizing bacteria at low and high rates. Continuous N deposition included a significant decrease in soil pH and inhibited the viability and activity of bacterial communities in soil, especially the P-solubilizing bacteria. Thus, it restricted inorganic P mobilization and led to a decrease in soil available P. In addition, ammonium-N enhanced the relative abundance of most of the functional genes related to organic P mineralization, while nitrate-N presented a decrease trend. Ammonium-N significantly decreased most of the functional genes relevant to P transportation, whereas the other chemical N forms did not change them. Although N-addition consistently decreased the functional genes relevant to inorganic P solubilization, two of them (ppx and ppa) were the exceptions and showed an increase trend. N addition also decreased soil pH and altered soil properties, and indirectly contributed to the changes in community composition of P-solubilizing microbes and the abundances of multiple P functional genes. Our results provide a mechanistic explanation for the regulation of microbes on N-induced available P limitation via tuning the compositions of P-solubilizing microbes and the abundances of multiple P functional genes.

Culturable Bacterial Endophytes of Wild White Poplar (Populus alba L.) Roots: A First Insight into Their Plant Growth-Stimulating and Bioaugmentation Potential

The white poplar (Populus alba L.) has good potential for a green economy and phytoremediation. Bioaugmentation using endophytic bacteria can be considered as a safe strategy to increase poplar productivity and its resistance to toxic urban conditions. The aim of our work was to find the most promising strains of bacterial endophytes to enhance the growth of white poplar in unfavorable environmental conditions. To this end, for the first time, we performed whole-genome sequencing of 14 bacterial strains isolated from the tissues of the roots of white poplar in different geographical locations. We then performed a bioinformatics search to identify genes that may be useful for poplar growth and resistance to environmental pollutants and pathogens. Almost all endophytic bacteria obtained from white poplar roots are new strains of known species belonging to the genera Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Kocuria, Micrococcus, Peribacillus, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus. The genomes of the strains contain genes involved in the enhanced metabolism of nitrogen, phosphorus, and metals, the synthesis of valuable secondary metabolites, and the detoxification of heavy metals and organic pollutants. All the strains are able to grow on media without nitrogen sources, which indicates their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It is concluded that the strains belonging to the genus Pseudomonas and bacteria of the species Kocuria rosea have the best poplar growth-stimulating and bioaugmentation potential, and the roots of white poplar are a valuable source for isolation of endophytic bacteria for possible application in ecobiotechnology.

Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria: Their agroecological function and optimistic application for enhancing agro-productivity

Phosphorus (P) is a limiting nutrient in the soil-plant nutrient cycling. Although the exogenous application of chemical P fertilizers can satisfy crop P requirements during critical growth phases. While excessive P fertilizers use results in low phosphorus acquisition efficiency (PAE), it has serious environmental consequences and hastens the depletion of P mineral reserves. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) have the potential to make insoluble phosphate available to plants through solubilization and mineralization, increasing crop yields while maintaining environmental sustainability. Existing reviews mainly focus on the beneficial effects of PSB on crop performance and related mechanisms, while few of them elucidate the action mechanisms of PSB in soil-microbe-plant interactions for crop cultivation with high yield efficiency. Hence, this study provides a comprehensive review of the physicochemical and molecular mechanisms (e.g., root exudates, extracellular polysaccharides, organic acids, phosphatases, and phosphate-specific transport systems) of PSB to facilitate the P cycle in the soil-plant systems. Further, the potential of commercial applications of PSB (e.g., genetic engineering, seed priming and coating) are also discussed in order to highlight their contribution to sustainable agriculture. Finally, existing challenges and future prospects in agricultural applications are proposed. In conclusion, we firmly believe that PSB represent a highly significant biotechnological tool for enhancing agricultural productivity and offers a wide range of extensive potential applications.

Transcriptomic Insights into Archaeal Nitrification in the Amundsen Sea Polynya, Antarctica

Antarctic polynyas have the highest Southern Ocean summer primary productivity, and due to anthropogenic climate change, these areas have formed faster recently. Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) are among the most ubiquitous and abundant microorganisms in the ocean and play a primary role in the global nitrogen cycle. We utilized metagenomics and metatranscriptomics to gain insights into the physiology and metabolism of AOA in polar oceans, which are associated with ecosystem functioning. A polar-specific ecotype of AOA, from the "Candidatus Nitrosomarinus"-like group, was observed to be dominant in the Amundsen Sea Polynya (ASP), West Antarctica, during a succession of summer phytoplankton blooms. AOA had the highest transcriptional activity among prokaryotes during the bloom decline phase (DC). Metatranscriptomic analysis of key genes involved in ammonia oxidation, carbon fixation, transport, and cell division indicated that this polar AOA ecotype was actively involved in nitrification in the bloom DC in the ASP. This study revealed the physiological and metabolic traits of this key polar-type AOA in response to phytoplankton blooms in the ASP and provided insights into AOA functions in polar oceans.

The Microbial Degradation of Natural and Anthropogenic Phosphonates

Phosphonates are compounds containing a direct carbon-phosphorus (C-P) bond, which is particularly resistant to chemical and enzymatic degradation. They are environmentally ubiquitous: some of them are produced by microorganisms and invertebrates, whereas others derive from anthropogenic activities. Because of their chemical stability and potential toxicity, man-made phosphonates pose pollution problems, and many studies have tried to identify biocompatible systems for their elimination. On the other hand, phosphonates are a resource for microorganisms living in environments where the availability of phosphate is limited; thus, bacteria in particular have evolved systems to uptake and catabolize phosphonates. Such systems can be either selective for a narrow subset of compounds or show a broader specificity. The role, distribution, and evolution of microbial genes and enzymes dedicated to phosphonate degradation, as well as their regulation, have been the subjects of substantial studies. At least three enzyme systems have been identified so far, schematically distinguished based on the mechanism by which the C-P bond is ultimately cleaved-i.e., through either a hydrolytic, radical, or oxidative reaction. This review summarizes our current understanding of the molecular systems and pathways that serve to catabolize phosphonates, as well as the regulatory mechanisms that govern their activity.

Interaction of calcium responsive proteins and transcriptional factors with the PHO regulon in yeasts and fungi

Phosphate and calcium ions are nutrients that play key roles in growth, differentiation and the production of bioactive secondary metabolites in filamentous fungi. Phosphate concentration regulates the biosynthesis of hundreds of fungal metabolites. The central mechanisms of phosphate transport and regulation, mediated by the master Pho4 transcriptional factor are known, but many aspects of the control of gene expression need further research. High ATP concentration in the cells leads to inositol pyrophosphate molecules formation, such as IP3 and IP7, that act as phosphorylation status reporters. Calcium ions are intracellular messengers in eukaryotic organisms and calcium homeostasis follows elaborated patterns in response to different nutritional and environmental factors, including cross-talking with phosphate concentrations. A large part of the intracellular calcium is stored in vacuoles and other organelles forming complexes with polyphosphate. The free cytosolic calcium concentration is maintained by transport from the external medium or by release from the store organelles through calcium permeable transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels. Calcium ions, particularly the free cytosolic calcium levels, control the biosynthesis of fungal metabolites by two mechanisms, 1) direct interaction of calcium-bound calmodulin with antibiotic synthesizing enzymes, and 2) by the calmodulin-calcineurin signaling cascade. Control of very different secondary metabolites, including pathogenicity determinants, are mediated by calcium through the Crz1 factor. Several interactions between calcium homeostasis and phosphate have been demonstrated in the last decade: 1) The inositol pyrophosphate IP3 triggers the release of calcium ions from internal stores into the cytosol, 2) Expression of the high affinity phosphate transporter Pho89, a Na+/phosphate symporter, is controlled by Crz1. Also, mutants defective in the calcium permeable TRPCa7-like of Saccharomyces cerevisiae shown impaired expression of Pho89. This information suggests that CrzA and Pho89 play key roles in the interaction of phosphate and calcium regulatory pathways, 3) Finally, acidocalcisomes organelles have been found in mycorrhiza and in some melanin producing fungi that show similar characteristics as protozoa calcisomes. In these organelles there is a close interaction between orthophosphate, pyrophosphate and polyphosphate and calcium ions that are absorbed in the polyanionic polyphosphate matrix. These advances open new perspectives for the control of fungal metabolism.

In-depth genome and pan-genome analysis of a metal-resistant bacterium Pseudomonas parafulva OS-1

A metal-resistant bacterium Pseudomonas parafulva OS-1 was isolated from waste-contaminated soil in Ranchi City, India. The isolated strain OS-1 showed its growth at 25-45°C, pH 5.0-9.0, and in the presence of ZnSO₄ (upto 5 mM). Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that strain OS-1 belonged to the genus Pseudomonas and was most closely related to parafulva species. To unravel the genomic features, we sequenced the complete genome of P. parafulva OS-1 using Illumina HiSeq 4,000 sequencing platform. The results of average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis indicated the closest similarity of OS-1 to P. parafulva PRS09-11288 and P. parafulva DTSP2. The metabolic potential of P. parafulva OS-1 based on Clusters of Othologous Genes (COG) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) indicated a high number of genes related to stress protection, metal resistance, and multiple drug-efflux, etc., which is relatively rare in P. parafulva strains. Compared with other parafulva strains, P. parafulva OS-1 was found to have the unique β-lactam resistance and type VI secretion system (T6SS) gene. Additionally, its genomes encode various CAZymes such as glycoside hydrolases and other genes associated with lignocellulose breakdown, suggesting that strain OS-1 have strong biomass degradation potential. The presence of genomic complexity in the OS-1 genome indicates that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) might happen during evolution. Therefore, genomic and comparative genome analysis of parafulva strains is valuable for further understanding the mechanism of resistance to metal stress and opens a perspective to exploit a newly isolated bacterium for biotechnological applications.

Functional expansion of the natural inorganic phosphorus starvation response system in Escherichia coli

Phosphorus, an indispensable nutrient, plays an essential role in cell composition, metabolism, and signal transduction. When inorganic phosphorus (Pi) is scarce, the Pi starvation response in E. coli is activated to increase phosphorus acquisition and drive the cells into a non-growing state to reduce phosphorus consumption. In the six decades of research history, the initiation, output, and shutdown processes of the Pi starvation response have been extensively studied. Simultaneously, Pi starvation has been used in biosensor development, recombinant protein production, and natural product biosynthesis. In this review, we focus on the output process and the applications of the Pi starvation response that have not been summarized before. Meanwhile, based on the current status of mechanistic studies and applications, we propose practical strategies to develop the natural Pi starvation response into a multifunctional and standardized regulatory system in four aspects, including response threshold, temporal expression, intensity range, and bifunctional regulation, which will contribute to its broader application in more fields such as industrial production, medical analysis, and environmental protection.

Regulation of Multidrug Efflux Pumps by TetR Family Transcriptional Repressor Negatively Affects Secondary Metabolism in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2)

Streptomyces spp. are well-known producers of bioactive secondary metabolites (SMs) that serve as pharmaceutical agents. In addition to their ability to produce SMs, Streptomyces spp. have evolved diverse membrane transport systems to protect cells against antibiotics produced by itself or other microorganisms. We previously screened mutants of Streptomyces coelicolor that show a phenotype of reduced undecylprodigiosin (RED) production in a combined-culture with Tsukamurella pulmonis. Here, we identified a point mutation, which reduced RED production, by performing genome resequencing and genetic complementation. We found that inactivation of the sco1718 gene encoding the TetR family transcriptional regulator (TFR) produced a deficient phenotype for several SMs in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). In the genome of S. coelicolor A3(2), two other sets of TFR and two-component ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes (sco4358-4360 and sco5384-5382) were found which had similar effects on the phenotype for both secondary metabolism and antibiotic resistance. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay and quantitative reverse transcription-PCR experiments demonstrated that TFRs repressed the expression of each adjacent two-component ABC transporter genes by binding to the operator sequence. Notably, the Δsco1718 mutant showed increased resistance to several antibiotics of other actinomycete origin. Our results imply the switching of cell metabolism to direct offense (antibiotic production) or defense (efflux pump activation) using costly and limited quantities of cell energy sources (e.g., ATP) in the soil ecosystem. IMPORTANCE The bacterial metabolic potential to synthesize diverse secondary metabolites in the environment has been revealed by recent (meta)genomics of both unculturable and culturable bacteria. These studies imply that bacteria are continuously exposed to harmful chemical compounds in the environment. Streptomyces spp. contain antibiotic efflux pumps and SM biosynthetic gene clusters. However, the mechanism by which soil bacteria, including Streptomyces, survive against toxic compounds in the environment remains unclear. Here, we identified three sets of TFR-ABC transporter genes in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). We found that each TFR controlled the expression of respective ABC transporter, and the expression of all ABC transporters negatively impacted SM production and increased antibiotic resistance. Notably, bioinformatic analysis indicated that these TFR-ABC transporter gene sets are highly conserved and widely distributed in the genome of Streptomyces species, indicating the importance of systematic regulation that directs antibiotic production and xenobiotic excretion.

Metabolic adjustments in response to ATP spilling by the small DX protein in a Streptomyces strain

ATP wasting is recognized as an efficient strategy to enhance metabolic activity and productivity of specific metabolites in several microorganisms. However, such strategy has been rarely implemented in Streptomyces species whereas antibiotic production by members of this genus is known to be triggered in condition of phosphate limitation that is correlated with a low ATP content. In consequence, to assess the effects of ATP spilling on the primary and specialized metabolisms of Streptomyces, the gene encoding the small synthetic protein DX, that has high affinity for ATP and dephosphorylates ATP into ADP, was cloned in the integrative vector pOSV10 under the control of the strong ErmE promoter. This construct and the empty vector were introduced into the species Streptomyces albogriseolus/viridodiastaticus yielding A37 and A36, respectively. A37 yielded higher biomass than A36 indicating that the DX-mediated ATP degradation resulted into a stimulation of A37 metabolism, consistently with what was reported in other microorganisms. The comparative analysis of the metabolomes of A36 and A37 revealed that A37 had a lower content in glycolytic and Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle intermediates as well as in amino acids than A36, these metabolites being consumed for biomass generation in A37. In contrast, the abundance of other molecules indicative either of energetic stress (ADP, AMP, UMP, ornithine and thymine), of activation (NAD and threonic acid) or inhibition (citramalic acid, fatty acids, TAG and L-alanine) of the oxidative metabolism, was higher in A37 than in A36. Furthermore, hydroxyl-pyrimidine derivatives and polycyclic aromatic polyketide antibiotics belonging to the angucycline class and thought to have a negative impact on respiration were also more abundantly produced by A37 than by A36. This comparative analysis thus revealed the occurrence in A37 of antagonistic metabolic strategies, namely, activation or slowing down of oxidative metabolism and respiration, to maintain the cellular energetic balance. This study thus demonstrated that DX constitutes an efficient biotechnological tool to enhance the expression of the specialized metabolic pathways present in the Streptomyces genomes that may include cryptic pathways. Its use thus might lead to the discovery of novel bioactive molecules potentially useful to human health.

Genome insights into the plant growth-promoting bacterium Saccharibacillus brassicae ATSA2T

Endophytes can facilitate the improvement of plant growth and health in agriculturally important crops, yet their genomes and secondary metabolites remain largely unexplored. We previously isolated Saccharibacillus brassicae strain ATSA2^T from surface-sterilized seeds of kimchi cabbage and represented a novel species of the genus Saccharibacillus. In this study, we evaluated the plant growth-promoting (PGP) effect of strain ATSA2^T in kimchi cabbage, bok choy, and pepper plants grown in soils. We found a significant effect on the shoot and root biomass, and chlorophyll contents following strain ATSA2^T treatment. Strain ATSA2^T displayed PGP traits such as indole acetic acid (IAA, 62.9 μg/mL) and siderophore production, and phosphate solubilization activity. Furthermore, genome analysis of this strain suggested the presence of gene clusters involved in iron acquisition (fhuABD, afuABC, fbpABC, and fepCDG) and phosphate solubilization (pstABCHS, phoABHLU, and phnCDEP) and other phytohormone biosynthesis genes, including indole-3-acetic acid (trpABCDEFG), in the genome. Interestingly, the secondary metabolites cerecidin, carotenoid, siderophore (staphylobactin), and bacillaene underlying plant growth promotion were found in the whole genome via antiSMASH analysis. Overall, physiological testing and genome analysis data provide comprehensive insights into plant growth-promoting mechanisms, suggesting the relevance of strain ATSA2^T in agricultural biotechnology.

Bacteriocin production enhancing mechanism of Lactiplantibacillus paraplantarum RX-8 response to Wickerhamomyces anomalus Y-5 by transcriptomic and proteomic analyses

Plantaricin is a kind of bacteriocin with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity on several food pathogens and spoilage microorganisms, showing potential in biopreservation applications. However, the low yield of plantaricin limits its industrialization. In this study, it was found that the co-culture of Wickerhamomyces anomalus Y-5 and Lactiplantibacillus paraplantarum RX-8 could enhance plantaricin production. To investigate the response of L. paraplantarum RX-8 facing W. anomalus Y-5 and understand the mechanisms activated when increasing plantaricin yield, comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of L. paraplantarum RX-8 were performed in mono-culture and co-culture. The results showed that different genes and proteins in the phosphotransferase system (PTS) were improved and enhanced the uptake of certain sugars; the key enzyme activity in glycolysis was increased with the promotion of energy production; arginine biosynthesis was downregulated to increase glutamate mechanism and then promoted plantaricin yield; and the expression of several genes/proteins related to purine metabolism was downregulated and those related to pyrimidine metabolism was upregulated. Meanwhile, the increase of plantaricin synthesis by upregulation of plnABCDEF cluster expression under co-culture indicated that the PlnA-mediated quorum sensing (QS) system took part in the response mechanism of L. paraplantarum RX-8. However, the absence of AI-2 did not influence the inducing effect on plantaricin production. Mannose, galactose, and glutamate were critical metabolites and significantly simulate plantaricin production (p < 0.05). In summary, the findings provided new insights into the interaction between bacteriocin-inducing and bacteriocin-producing microorganisms, which may serve as a basis for further research into the detailed mechanism.

Two-Component Systems of Streptomyces coelicolor: An Intricate Network to Be Unraveled

Bacteria of the Streptomyces genus constitute an authentic biotech gold mine thanks to their ability to produce a myriad of compounds and enzymes of great interest at various clinical, agricultural, and industrial levels. Understanding the physiology of these organisms and revealing their regulatory mechanisms is essential for their manipulation and application. Two-component systems (TCSs) constitute the predominant signal transduction mechanism in prokaryotes, and can detect a multitude of external and internal stimuli and trigger the appropriate cellular responses for adapting to diverse environmental conditions. These global regulatory systems usually coordinate various biological processes for the maintenance of homeostasis and proper cell function. Here, we review the multiple TCSs described and characterized in Streptomyces coelicolor, one of the most studied and important model species within this bacterial group. TCSs are involved in all cellular processes; hence, unravelling the complex regulatory network they form is essential for their potential biotechnological application.

Single-cell Raman-activated sorting and cultivation (scRACS-Culture) for assessing and mining in situ phosphate-solubilizing microbes from nature

Due to the challenges in detecting in situ activity and cultivating the not-yet-cultured, functional assessment and mining of living microbes from nature has typically followed a 'culture-first' paradigm. Here, employing phosphate-solubilizing microbes (PSM) as model, we introduce a 'screen-first' strategy that is underpinned by a precisely one-cell-resolution, complete workflow of single-cell Raman-activated Sorting and Cultivation (scRACS-Culture). Directly from domestic sewage, individual cells were screened for in-situ organic-phosphate-solubilizing activity via D2O intake rate, sorted by the function via Raman-activated Gravity-driven Encapsulation (RAGE), and then cultivated from precisely one cell. By scRACS-Culture, pure cultures of strong organic PSM including Comamonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., Enterobacter spp. and Citrobacter spp., were derived, whose phosphate-solubilizing activities in situ are 90-200% higher than in pure culture, underscoring the importance of 'screen-first' strategy. Moreover, employing scRACS-Seq for post-RACS cells that remain uncultured, we discovered a previously unknown, low-abundance, strong organic-PSM of Cutibacterium spp. that employs secretary metallophosphoesterase (MPP), cell-wall-anchored 5'-nucleotidase (encoded by ushA) and periplasmic-membrane located PstSCAB-PhoU transporter system for efficient solubilization and scavenging of extracellular phosphate in sewage. Therefore, scRACS-Culture and scRACS-Seq provide an in situ function-based, 'screen-first' approach for assessing and mining microbes directly from the environment.

Structural Considerations for Building Synthetic Glycoconjugates as Inhibitors for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Lectins

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a pathogenic bacterium, responsible for a large portion of nosocomial infections globally and designated as critical priority by the World Health Organisation. Its characteristic carbohydrate-binding proteins LecA and LecB, which play a role in biofilm-formation and lung-infection, can be targeted by glycoconjugates. Here we review the wide range of inhibitors for these proteins (136 references), highlighting structural features and which impact binding affinity and/or therapeutic effects, including carbohydrate selection; linker length and rigidity; and scaffold topology, particularly for multivalent candidates. We also discuss emerging therapeutic strategies, which build on targeting of LecA and LecB, such as anti-biofilm activity, anti-adhesion and drug-delivery, with promising prospects for medicinal chemistry.

The regulatory gene wblA is a target of the orphan response regulator OrrA in Streptomyces coelicolor

Our previous study using transposon mutagenesis indicated that disruption of the putative response regulator gene orrA impacted antibiotic production in Streptomyces coelicolor. In this study, the role of OrrA was further characterized by comparing the phenotypes and transcriptomic profiles of the wild-type S. coelicolor strain M145 and ΔorrA, a strain with an inactivated orrA gene. Chromatin immunoprecipitation using a strain expressing OrrA fused with FLAG showed that OrrA binds the promoter of wblA, whose expression was downregulated in ΔorrA. The interaction of OrrA with the wblA promoter was further validated by a pull-down assay. Similar to ΔorrA, the deletion mutant of wblA (ΔwblA) was defective in development, and developmental genes were expressed at similar levels in ΔorrA and ΔwblA. Although both OrrA and WblA downregulated actinorhodin and undecylprodigiosin, their roles in regulation of the calcium-dependent antibiotic and yellow-pigmented type I polyketide differed. sco1375, a gene of unknown function, was identified as another OrrA target, and overexpression of either sco1375 or wblA in ΔorrA partially restored the wild-type phenotype, indicating that these genes mediate some of the effects of OrrA. This study revealed targets of OrrA and provided more insights into the role of the orphan response regulator OrrA in Streptomyces. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

A Proteomic Analysis Indicates That Oxidative Stress Is the Common Feature Triggering Antibiotic Production in Streptomyces coelicolor and in the pptA Mutant of Streptomyces lividans

In most Streptomyces species, antibiotic production is triggered in phosphate limitation and repressed in phosphate proficiency. However, the model strain, Streptomyces coelicolor, escapes this general rule and produces actinorhoddin (ACT), a polyketide antibiotic, even more abundantly in phosphate proficiency than in phosphate limitation. ACT was shown to bear "anti-oxidant" properties suggesting that its biosynthesis is triggered by oxidative stress. Interestingly, Streptomyces lividans, a strain closely related to S. coelicolor, does not produce ACT in any phosphate condition whereas its pptA/sco4144 mutant produces ACT but only in phosphate limitation. In order to define the potentially common features of the ACT producing strains, these three strains were grown in condition of low and high phosphate availability, and a comparative quantitative analysis of their proteomes was carried out. The abundance of proteins of numerous pathways differed greatly between S. coelicolor and the S. lividans strains, especially those of central carbon metabolism and respiration. S. coelicolor is characterized by the high abundance of the complex I of the respiratory chain thought to generate reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and by a weak glycolytic activity causing a low carbon flux through the Pentose Phosphate Pathway resulting into the low generation of NADPH, a co-factor of thioredoxin reductases necessary to combat oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is thus predicted to be high in S. coelicolor. In contrast, the S. lividans strains had rather similar proteins abundance for most pathways except for the transhydrogenases SCO7622-23, involved in the conversion of NADPH into NADH. The poor abundance of these enzymes in the pptA mutant suggested a deficit in NADPH. Indeed, PptA is an accessory protein forcing polyphosphate into a conformation allowing their efficient use by various enzymes taking polyphosphate as a donor of phosphate and energy, including the ATP/Polyphosphate-dependent NAD kinase SCO1781. In phosphate limitation, this enzyme would mainly use polyphosphate to phosphorylate NAD into NADP, but this phosphorylation would be inefficient in the pptA mutant resulting in low NADP(H) levels and thus high oxidative stress. Altogether, our results indicated that high oxidative stress is the common feature triggering ACT biosynthesis in S. coelicolor and in the pptA mutant of S. lividans.

Transcriptomics and metabolomics of engineered Synechococcus elongatus during photomixotrophic growth

Background

Converting carbon dioxide (CO₂) into value-added chemicals using engineered cyanobacteria is a promising strategy to tackle the global warming and energy shortage issues. However, most cyanobacteria are autotrophic and use CO₂ as a sole carbon source, which makes it hard to compete with heterotrophic hosts in either growth or productivity. One strategy to overcome this bottleneck is to introduce sugar utilization pathways to enable photomixotrophic growth with CO₂ and sugar (e.g., glucose and xylose). Advances in engineering mixotrophic cyanobacteria have been obtained, while a systematic interrogation of these engineered strains is missing. This work aimed to fill the gap at omics level.

Results

We first constructed two engineered Synechococcus elongatus YQ2-gal and YQ3-xyl capable of utilizing glucose and xylose, respectively. To investigate the metabolic mechanism, transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis were then performed in the engineered photomixotrophic strains YQ2-gal and YQ3-xyl. Transcriptome and metabolome of wild-type S. elongatus were set as baselines. Increased abundance of metabolites in glycolysis or pentose phosphate pathway indicated that efficient sugar utilization significantly enhanced carbon flux in S. elongatus as expected. However, carbon flux was redirected in strain YQ2-gal as more flowed into fatty acids biosynthesis but less into amino acids. In strain YQ3-xyl, more carbon flux was directed into synthesis of sucrose, glucosamine and acetaldehyde, while less into fatty acids and amino acids. Moreover, photosynthesis and bicarbonate transport could be affected by upregulated genes, while nitrogen transport and assimilation were regulated by less transcript abundance of related genes in strain YQ3-xyl with utilization of xylose.

Conclusions

Our work identified metabolic mechanism in engineered S. elongatus during photomixotrophic growth, where regulations of fatty acids metabolism, photosynthesis, bicarbonate transport, nitrogen assimilation and transport are dependent on different sugar utilization. Since photomixotrophic cyanobacteria is regarded as a promising cell factory for bioproduction, this comprehensive understanding of metabolic mechanism of engineered S. elongatus during photomixotrophic growth would shed light on the engineering of more efficient and controllable bioproduction systems based on this potential chassis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-022-01760-1.

Strategies of organic phosphorus recycling by soil bacteria: acquisition, metabolism, and regulation

Critical to meeting cellular phosphorus (P) demand, soil bacteria deploy a number of strategies to overcome limitation in inorganic P (P_i ) in soils. As a significant contributor to P recycling, soil bacteria secrete extracellular enzymes to degrade organic P (P_o ) in soils into the readily bioavailable P_i . In addition, several P_o compounds can be transported directly via specific transporters and subsequently enter intracellular metabolic pathways. In this review, we highlight the strategies that soil bacteria employ to recycle P_o from the soil environment. We discuss the diversity of extracellular phosphatases in soils, the selectivity of these enzymes towards various P_o biomolecules and the influence of the soil environmental conditions on the enzyme's activities. Moreover, we outline the intracellular metabolic pathways for P_o biosynthesis and transporter-assisted P_o and P_i uptake at different P_i availabilities. We further highlight the regulatory mechanisms that govern the production of phosphatases, the expression of P_o transporters and the key metabolic changes in P metabolism in response to environmental P_i availability. Due to the depletion of natural resources for P_i , we propose future studies needed to leverage bacteria-mediated P recycling from the large pools of P_o in soils or organic wastes to benefit agricultural productivity.

Plant Beneficial Deep-Sea Actinobacterium, Dermacoccus abyssi MT1.1T Promote Growth of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) under Salinity Stress

Simple Summary

Salt stress is an important environmental problem that negatively affects agricultural and food production in the world. Currently, the use of plant beneficial bacteria for plant growth promotion is attractive due to the demand for eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture. In this study, salt tolerant deep-sea actinobacterium, Dermacoccus abyssi MT1.1^T was investigated plant growth promotion and salt stress mitigation in tomato seedlings. In addition, D. abyssi MT1.1^T whole genome was analyzed for plant growth promoting traits and genes related to salt stress alleviation in plants. We also evaluated the biosafety of this strain on human health and organisms in the environment. Our results highlight that the inoculation of D. abyssi MT1.1^T could reduce the negative effects of salt stress in tomato seedlings by growth improvement, total soluble sugars accumulation and hydrogen peroxide reduction. Moreover, this strain could survive and colonize tomato roots. Biosafety testing and genome analysis of D. abyssi MT1.1^T showed no pathogenicity risk. In conclusion, we provide supporting evidence on the potential of D. abyssi MT1.1^T as a safe strain for use in plant growth promotion under salt stress.

Abstract

Salt stress is a serious agricultural problem threatens plant growth and development resulted in productivity loss and global food security concerns. Salt tolerant plant growth promoting actinobacteria, especially deep-sea actinobacteria are an alternative strategy to mitigate deleterious effects of salt stress. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential of deep-sea Dermacoccus abyssi MT1.1^T to mitigate salt stress in tomato seedlings and identified genes related to plant growth promotion and salt stress mitigation. D. abyssi MT1.1^T exhibited plant growth promoting traits namely indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and siderophore production and phosphate solubilization under 0, 150, 300, and 450 mM NaCl in vitro. Inoculation of D. abyssi MT1.1^T improved tomato seedlings growth in terms of shoot length and dry weight compared with non-inoculated seedlings under 150 mM NaCl. In addition, increased total soluble sugar and total chlorophyll content and decreased hydrogen peroxide content were observed in tomato inoculated with D. abyssi MT1.1^T. These results suggested that this strain mitigated salt stress in tomatoes via osmoregulation by accumulation of soluble sugars and H₂O₂ scavenging activity. Genome analysis data supported plant growth promoting and salt stress mitigation potential of D. abyssi MT1.1^T. Survival and colonization of D. abyssi MT1.1^T were observed in roots of inoculated tomato seedlings. Biosafety testing on D. abyssi MT1.1^T and in silico analysis of its whole genome sequence revealed no evidence of its pathogenicity. Our results demonstrate the potential of deep-sea D. abyssi MT1.1^T to mitigate salt stress in tomato seedlings and as a candidate of eco-friendly bio-inoculants for sustainable agriculture.

Properties of Modestobacter deserti sp. nov., a Kind of Novel Phosphate-Solubilizing Actinobacteria Inhabited in the Desert Biological Soil Crusts

Three Gram-stain-positive, aerobic, motile actinobacterial strains designated as CPCC 205119^T, CPCC 205215, and CPCC 205251 were isolated from different biological soil crust samples collected from Tengger Desert, China. The 16S rRNA gene sequence comparison of these three strains showed they had almost identical 16S rRNA genes, which were closely related to members of the family Geodermatophilaceae, with the highest similarities of 96.3–97.3% to the species of Modestobacter. In the phylogenetic tree based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, these isolates clustered into a subclade next to the branch containing the species of Modestobacter lapidis and Modestobacter multiseptatus, within the lineage of the genus Modestobacter. The comparative genomic characteristics (values of ANI, dDDH, AAI, and POCP) and the phenotypic properties (morphological, physiological, and chemotaxonomic characteristics) of these isolates readily supported to affiliate them to the genus Modestobacter as a single separate species. For which, we proposed that the isolates CPCC 205119^T, CPCC 205215, and CPCC 205251 represent a novel species of the genus Modestobacter as Modestobacter deserti sp. nov. CPCC 205119^T (=I12A-02624=NBRC 113528^T=KCTC 49201^T) is the type strain. The genome of strain CPCC 205119^T consisted of one chromosome (4,843,235bp) containing 4,424 coding genes, 48 tRNA genes, five rRNA genes, three other ncRNA genes, and 101 pseudogenes, with G+C content of 74.7%. The whole-genome sequences analysis indicated that this species contained alkaline phosphatase genes (phoA/phoD), phosphate transport-related genes (phoU, phnC, phnD, phnE, phoB, phoH, phoP, phoR, pitH, ppk, pstA, pstB, pstC, and pstS), trehalose-phosphate synthase gene (otsA), trehalose 6-phosphate phosphatase gene (otsB) and other encoding genes for the properties that help the microorganisms to adapt to harsh environmental conditions prevalent in deserts. Strains of this species could solubilize tricalcium phosphate [Ca₃(PO₄)₂] and phytin, assimilate pyrophosphate, thiophosphate, dithiophosphate, phosphoenol pyruvate, 2-deoxy-d-glucose-6-phosphate, and cysteamine-S-phosphate.

Differences at Species Level and in Repertoires of Secondary Metabolite Biosynthetic Gene Clusters among Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) and Type Strains of S. coelicolor and Its Taxonomic Neighbors

Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) is used worldwide for genetic studies, and its complete genome sequence was published in 2002. However, as the whole genome of the type strain of S. coelicolor has not been analyzed, the relationship between S. coelicolor A3(2) and the type strain is not yet well known. To clarify differences in their biosynthetic potential, as well as their taxonomic positions, we sequenced whole genomes of S. coelicolor NBRC 12854T and type strains of its closely related species—such as Streptomyces daghestanicus, Streptomyces hydrogenans, and Streptomyces violascens—via PacBio. Biosynthetic gene clusters for polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides were surveyed by antiSMASH, followed by bioinformatic analyses. Type strains of Streptomyces albidoflavus, S. coelicolor, S. daghestanicus, S. hydrogenans, and S. violascens shared the same 16S rDNA sequence, but S. coelicolor A3(2) did not. S. coelicolor A3(2) and S. coelicolor NBRC 12854T can be classified as Streptomycesanthocyanicus and S. albidoflavus, respectively. In contrast, S. daghestanicus, S. hydrogenans, and S. violascens are independent species, despite their identical 16S rDNA sequences. S. coelicolor A3(2), S. coelicolor NBRC 12854T, S. daghestanicus NBRC 12762T, S. hydrogenans NBRC 13475T, and S. violascens NBRC 12920T each harbor specific polyketide synthase (PKS) and non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) gene clusters in their genomes, whereas PKS and NRPS gene clusters are well conserved between S. coelicolor A3(2) and S. anthocyanicus JCM 5058T, and between S. coelicolor NBRC 12854T and S. albidoflavus DSM 40455T, belonging to the same species. These results support our hypothesis that the repertoires of PKS and NRPS gene clusters are different between different species.

Impact of MtrA on phosphate metabolism genes and the response to altered phosphate conditions in Streptomyces

Phosphate metabolism is known to be regulated by the PhoPR regulatory system in Streptomyces and some other bacteria. In this study, we report that MtrA also regulates phosphate metabolism in Streptomyces. Our data showed that, in Streptomyces coelicolor, MtrA regulates not only phosphate metabolism genes such as phoA but also phoP under different phosphate conditions, including growth on rich complex media without added inorganic phosphate and on defined media with low or high concentrations of inorganic phosphate. Cross-regulation was also observed among mtrA, phoP and glnR under these conditions. We demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo binding of MtrA to the promoter regions of genes associated with phosphate metabolism and to the intergenic region between phoR and phoU, indicating that these phosphate metabolism genes are targets of MtrA. We further showed that MtrA in S. lividans and S. venezuelae has detectable regulatory effects on expression of phosphate metabolism genes. Additionally, the MtrA homologue from Corynebacterium glutamicum bound predicted MtrA sites of multiple phosphate metabolism genes, implying its potential for regulating phosphate metabolism in this species. Overall, our findings support MtrA as a major regulator for phosphate metabolism in Streptomyces and also potentially in other actinobacteria.