Biochemistry of Terpenes and Recent Advances in Plant Protection

Optimization of headspace high-capacity tool coupled to two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for mapping the volatile organic compounds of raw pistachios. A proof-of-concept on the classification ability by geographic origin

An optimized procedure for extracting and analyzing raw pistachio volatiles was developed through headspace sampling with high-capacity tools and subsequent analysis using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The examination of 18 pistachio samples belonging to different geographic areas led to the identification of a set of 99 volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Molecules were putatively identified using linear retention index, mass spectra similarity, and two-dimensional plot location. The impact of preprocessing and processing techniques on the aligned data matrix from a set of samples of different geographical origins, after removing contaminants, was evaluated. The combination of scaling with log-transformation, normalization with z-score, and data reduction with random forest machine learning algorithm generated a panel of 16 discriminatory VOC molecules. As a proof of concept, raw pistachios' VOC profile was employed for the first time to tentatively classify them based on their geographical origin.

Impact of thermal processing and emulsification methods on spice oleoresin blending: Insights for flavor release and emulsion stability

This study investigated the effect of heat treatments on the pungency and aroma profiles of a spice oleoresin blend, and the emulsion stability with different surfactants, encapsulating agents, and homogenization mechanisms. Total pungency increased with heat until 120 °C and drastically reduced at 150 °C. Thermal processing induced aroma release, and 46 compounds were identified at 90 °C, predominantly comprising sesquiterpenes. Tween 80 dispersed the highest oleoresin mass (6.21 ± 0.31 mg/mL) and reported the maximum emulsion stability index. The oleoresin percentage significantly influenced the emulsion stability, with 1% oleoresin producing the most stable emulsion. High-pressure homogenization applied on gum Arabic resulted in a greater encapsulation efficiency, exceeding 86%, and the lowest creaming index (4.70 ± 0.06%), while Hi-Cap 100 produced the best flow properties. The findings provide insights into incorporating lipophilic spice oleoresin blends in aqueous food systems and understanding the release of flavor compounds during thermal food processing.

Hypolipidemic activity of phytochemical combinations: A mechanistic review of preclinical and clinical studies

Hyperlipidemia, a condition characterized by elevated levels of lipids in the blood, poses a significant risk factor for various health disorders, notably cardiovascular diseases. Phytochemical compounds are promising alternatives to the current lipid-lowering drugs, which cause many undesirable effects. Based on in vivo and clinical studies, combining phytochemicals with other phytochemicals, prebiotics, and probiotics and their encapsulation in nanoparticles is more safe and effective for managing hyperlipidemia than monotherapy. To this end, the results obtained and the mechanisms of action of these combinations were examined in detail in this review.

Controlled in vivo intrinsic detrimental effect of d-Limonene channelized by influential proximal interaction through apoptosis and steatosis in embryonic zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Bioaccumulation of d-Limonene in environment due to the aggrandised usage of their natural sources like citrus food wastes and industrial day to day life products has raised concern to their biotoxicity to environment biotic health. Moreover, their after-usage discharge to aquatic system has enhanced the distress of posing threat and needs attention. This study entails mechanistic and molecular evaluation of in-vivo biotoxicity of d-Limonene in zebrafish embryo models. Experimental analysis excavated the controlled concentration-dependent morphological, physiological and cellular in-vivo impact of d-Limonene in zebrafish embryos through significant changes in oxidative stress, steatosis and apoptosis regulated via 6-fold and 5-fold mRNA expression change in p53 and Sod1 genes. Computational evaluation deduced the cellular mechanism of d-limonene biotoxicity as irregularities in oxidative stress, apoptosis and steatosis due of their intrinsic interaction with metabolic proteins like Zhe1a (-4.8 Kcal/mol), Sod1(-5.3 Kcal/mol), p53, caspase3 and apoa1 leading to influential change in structural and functional integrity of the metabolic proteins. The study unravelled the measured in-vivo biotoxicity of d-Limonene at cellular and molecular level to advocate the controlled usage of d-Limonene related natural and industrial product for a sustainable environmental health.

Therapeutic Potential of Nutraceuticals against Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) continues to be a major concern in clinical practice, thus necessitating a need for novel therapeutic approaches to alleviate its impact on hepatic function. This review investigates the therapeutic potential of nutraceuticals against DILI, focusing on examining the underlying molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways. In preclinical and clinical studies, nutraceuticals, such as silymarin, curcumin, and N-acetylcysteine, have demonstrated remarkable efficacy in attenuating liver injury induced by diverse pharmaceutical agents. The molecular mechanisms underlying these hepatoprotective effects involve modulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptotic pathways. Furthermore, this review examines cellular routes affected by these nutritional components focusing on their influence on hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and stellate cells. Key evidence highlights that autophagy modulation as well as unfolded protein response are essential cellular processes through which nutraceuticals exert their cytoprotective functions. In conclusion, nutraceuticals are emerging as promising therapeutic agents for mitigating DILI, by targeting different molecular pathways along with cell processes involved in it concurrently.

Natural compounds combined with imatinib as promising antileukemic therapy: An updated review

Natural products (NP) have been an alternative therapy for several diseases for centuries, and they also serve as an essential source of bioactive molecules, enhancing our drug discovery capacity. Among these NP, some phytochemicals have shown multiple biological effects, including anticancer activity, with higher effectiveness and less toxicity than actual treatments, suggesting their possible use on resilient human malignancies such as leukemia. Imatinib mesylate (Im) is a selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor widely used as an anticancer drug, the gold standard to attend chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Nevertheless, resistance to this drug in patients with CML renders it insufficient to eliminate cells with Philadelphia chromosome (BCR/ABL+). Moreover, recent studies show that imatinib can induce genotoxic and chromosomic damage in some in vitro and in vivo models. These facts urge finding new therapeutic alternatives to increase the effectiveness of antileukemic treatment. Recent research has shown that the combined effects of phytochemicals with imatinib can improve the cytotoxicity or resensitized the resistant cells to this drug in diverse leukemia cell lines. Independent mechanisms of action among phytochemicals and imatinib include BCR/ABL regulation, downregulation of transcription factors, inhibition of anti-apoptotic and activation of pro-apoptotic proteins, apoptosis induction dependent- and independent of ROS-overproduction, membrane functions disruption, induction of cell cycle arrest, and cell death. This review summarizes and discusses the synergic effect of some phytochemicals combined with imatinib on leukemia cells and the mechanism of action proposed for these combinations, looking to contribute to developing new effective alternatives for leukemia treatment.

Assessing the cytotoxicity of phenolic and terpene fractions extracted from Iraqi Prunus arabica against AMJ13 and SK-GT-4 human cancer cell lines

Background: Breast and esophageal cancer are the most aggressive and prominent causes of death worldwide. In addition, these cancers showed resistance to current chemotherapy regimens with limited success rates and fatal outcomes. Recently many studies reported the significant cytotoxic effects of phenolic and terpene fractions extracted from various Prunus species against different cancer cell lines. As a result, it has a good chance to be tested as a complement or replacement for standard chemotherapies. Methods: The study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of phenolic and terpene fractions extracted from Iraqi Prunus arabica on breast (AMJ13) and esophageal (SK-GT-4) cancer cell lines by using the MTT assay (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide). Analysis using the Chou-Talalay method was performed to assess the synergistic effect between the extracted fractions and chemotherapeutic agent (docetaxel). Moreover, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was conducted for the quantitative determination of different bioactive molecules of both phenolic and terpene fractions in the extract. Results: According to the findings, the treatment modalities significantly decreased cancer cell viability of AMJ13 and SK-GT-4 and had insignificant cytotoxicity on the normal cells (normal human fibroblast cell line) (all less than 50% cytotoxicity). Analysis with Chou-Talalay showed a strong synergism with docetaxel on both cancer cell lines (higher cytotoxicity even in low concentrations) and failed to induce cytotoxicity on the normal cells. Important flavonoid glycosides and terpenoids were detected by HPLC, in particularly, ferulic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, β-sitosterol, and campesterol. Conclusions: In conclusion, the extracted fractions selectively inhibited the proliferation of both cancer cell lines and showed minimal cytotoxicity on normal cells. These fractions could be naturally derived drugs for treating breast and esophageal cancers.

Chemometric analysis of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes of conifers

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and essential oils of conifers are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. This work aimed to analyze the VOCs of 30 conifer species representing the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae families. Samples were collected from arboreta in Hungary, and their chemical composition was determined by gas chromatography (SPME-GC/MS); then, chemometric analyses were performed using multivariate methods to identify characteristic VOCs of conifers. Here, we present results for monoterpene and sesquiterpene profiles of the examined conifer samples. The most abundant compounds detected were α-pinene, bornyl acetate, limonene, β-pinene, β-caryophyllene, β-myrcene, δ-3-carene, and β-phellandrene. The results showed that the following volatiles were characteristic of the conifer groups: sabinene (RRT=6.0) for the cupressoid group (which includes the Cupressaceae species), longifolene (RRT=15.0) and β-pinene (RRT=6.1) were characteristic of the pinoid group (including Picea, Pinus, and Pseudotsuga species), and camphene (RRT=5.5) and bornyl acetate (RRT=12.6) were characteristic of the abietoid group (including Abies, Cedrus, and Tsuga species). Our results on VOCs in the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae families contribute to the elucidation of biodiversity patterns of conifer species and, in addition, may support the industrial application of terpenes.

Metabolites-induced co-evolutionary warfare between plants, viruses, and their associated vectors: So close yet so far away

Agriculture and global food security encounter significant challenges due to viral threats. In the following decades, several molecular studies have focused on discovering biosynthetic pathways of numerous defensive and signaling compounds, as key regulators of plant interactions, either with viruses or their associated vectors. Nevertheless, the complexities of specialized metabolites mediated plant-virus-vector tripartite viewpoint and the identification of their co-evolutionary crossroads toward antiviral defense system, remain elusive. The current study reviews the various roles of plant-specialized metabolites (PSMs) and how plants use these metabolites to defend against viruses. It discusses recent examples of specialized metabolites that have broad-spectrum antiviral properties. Additionally, the study presents the co-evolutionary basis of metabolite-mediated plant-virus-insect interactions as a potential bioinspired approach to combat viral threats. The prospects also show promising metabolic engineering strategies aimed at discovering a wide range of PSMs that are effective in fending off viruses and their related vectors. These advances in understanding the potential role of PSMs in plant-virus interactions not only serve as a cornerstone for developing plant antiviral systems, but also highlight essential principles of biological control.

Terpenes in the management of chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a chronic and progressive systemic condition that characterizes irreversible alterations in the kidneys' function and structure over an extended period, spanning months to years. CKD is the one of the major causes of mortality worldwide. However, very limited treatment options are available in the market for management of the CKD. Diabetes and hypertension are the key risk factors for the progression of CKD. It is majorly characterised by glomerulosclerosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial fibrosis. Plants are considered safe and effective in treating various chronic conditions. A diverse group of phytoconstituents, including polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and terpenes, have found significant benefits in managing chronic ailments. Terpenes constitute a diverse group of plant compounds with various therapeutic benefits. Evidence-based pharmacological studies underscore the crucial role played by terpenes in preventing and managing CKD. These substances demonstrate the capacity to hinder detrimental pathways, such as oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrosis, thereby demonstrating benefit in renal dysfunction. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the roles and positive attributes of commonly occurring terpenes in managing the causes and risk factors of CKD and the associated conditions.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the potential of betulinic acid in cancer prevention and treatment

BACKGROUND

Betulinic acid (BA), which is a pentacyclic triterpenoid found in the bark of plane, birch, and eucalyptus trees, has emerged as a compound of significant interest in scientific research due to its potential therapeutic applications. BA has a range of well-documented pharmacological and biological effects, including antibacterial, immunomodulatory, diuretic, antiviral, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities. Although numerous research studies have explored the potential anticancer effects of BA, there is a noticeable gap in the literature, highlighting the need for a more up-to-date and comprehensive evaluation of BA's anticancer potential.

PURPOSE

The aim of this work is to critically assess the reported cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the cancer preventive and therapeutic effects of BA.

METHODS

Relevant research on the inhibitory effects of BA against cancerous cells was searched using Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines.

RESULTS

The anticancer properties of BA are mediated by the activation of cell death and cell cycle arrest, production of reactive oxygen species, increased mitochondrial permeability, modulation of nuclear factor-κB and Bcl-2 family signaling. Emerging evidence also underscores the combined anticancer effects of BA with other natural bioactive compounds or approved drugs. Notably, several novel BA nanoformulations have been found to exhibit encouraging antineoplastic activities.

CONCLUSION

BA, whether used alone or in combination, or as a form of nanoformulation, shows significant potential for cancer prevention and treatment. Nevertheless, further detailed studies are necessary to confirm the therapeutic effectiveness of this natural compound.

Unlocking Nature's Rhythms: Insights into Secondary Metabolite Modulation by the Circadian Clock

Plants, like many other living organisms, have an internal timekeeper, the circadian clock, which allows them to anticipate photoperiod rhythms and environmental stimuli to optimally adjust plant growth, development, and fitness. These fine-tuned processes depend on the interaction between environmental signals and the internal interactive metabolic network regulated by the circadian clock. Although primary metabolites have received significant attention, the impact of the circadian clock on secondary metabolites remains less explored. Transcriptome analyses revealed that many genes involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis exhibit diurnal expression patterns, potentially enhancing stress tolerance. Understanding the interaction mechanisms between the circadian clock and secondary metabolites, including plant defense mechanisms against stress, may facilitate the development of stress-resilient crops and enhance targeted management practices that integrate circadian agricultural strategies, particularly in the face of climate change. In this review, we will delve into the molecular mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms of phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and N-containing compounds.

Nanofibrous Conductive Sensor for Limonene: One-Step Synthesis via Electrospinning and Molecular Imprinting

Detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from different plant species and their organs can provide valuable information about plant health and environmental factors that affect them. For example, limonene emission can be a biomarker to monitor plant health and detect stress. Traditional methods for VOC detection encounter challenges, prompting the proposal of novel approaches. In this study, we proposed integrating electrospinning, molecular imprinting, and conductive nanofibers to fabricate limonene sensors. In detail, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyacrylic acid (PAA) served here as fiber and cavity formers, respectively, with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) enhancing conductivity. We developed one-step monolithic molecularly imprinted fibers, where S(-)-limonene was the target molecule, using an electrospinning technique. The functional cavities were fixed using the UV curing method, followed by a target molecule washing. This procedure enabled the creation of recognition sites for limonene within the nanofiber matrix, enhancing sensor performance and streamlining manufacturing. Humidity was crucial for sensor working, with optimal conditions at about 50% RH. The sensors rapidly responded to S(-)-limonene, reaching a plateau within 200 s. Enhancing fiber density improved sensor performance, resulting in a lower limit of detection (LOD) of 137 ppb. However, excessive fiber density decreased accessibility to active sites, thus reducing sensitivity. Remarkably, the thinnest mat on the fibrous sensors created provided the highest selectivity to limonene (Selectivity Index: 72%) compared with other VOCs, such as EtOH (used as a solvent in nanofiber development), aromatic compounds (toluene), and two other monoterpenes (α-pinene and linalool) with similar structures. These findings underscored the potential of the proposed integrated approach for selective VOC detection in applications such as precision agriculture and environmental monitoring.

Aerobiology of the Family Lamiaceae: Novel Perspectives with Special Reference to Volatiles Emission

Lamiaceae is a botanical family rich in aromatic species that are in high demand such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, sage, and thyme. It has great economical, ecological, ethnobotanical, and floristic importance. The aim of this work is to provide an updated view on the aerobiology of species from the family Lamiaceae, with an emphasis on novelties and emerging applications. From the aerobiology point of view, the greatest interest in this botanical family is related to the volatile organic compounds emitted by the plants and, to a much lesser extent, their pollen. Research has shown that the major volatile organic compounds emitted by the plants from this botanical family are monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. The most important monoterpenes reported across studies include α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, menthol, limonene, and γ-terpinene. Most reports tend to cover species from the subfamily Nepetoideae. Volatile oils are produced by glandular trichomes found on aerial organs. Based on general morphology, two main types are found in the family Lamiaceae, namely peltate and capitate trichomes. As a result of pollinator-mediated transfer of pollen, Lamiaceae species present a reduced number of stamens and quantity of pollen. This might explain the low probability of pollen presence in the air from these species. A preliminary synopsis of the experimental evidence presented in this work suggests that the interplay of the organic particles and molecules released by these plants and their environment could be leveraged for beneficial outcomes in agriculture and landscaping. Emerging reports propose their use for intercropping to ensure the success of fructification, increased yield of entomophilous crops, as well as in sensory gardens due to the therapeutic effect of volatiles.

Chemical Compositions and In Vitro Antioxidant Activities of the Essential Oils of Sawdust and Resin-Rich Bark from Azorean Cryptomeria japonica (Cupressaceae)

In the Azores archipelago (Portugal), forest operations and wood industry generate large amounts of Cryptomeria japonica biomass residues (CJBR), which can be used to produce valuable essential oils (EOs). In this study, we evaluated the chemical composition and antioxidant activities of EOs from Azorean C. japonica sawdust (CJS) and resin-rich bark (CJRRB). The CJS and CJRRB EOs, obtained via hydrodistillation, showed different yield values (0.27% vs. 0.80% v/w, dry weight) and also different chemical profiles, as assessed using GC/MS. A total of 64 and 85 components were identified in CJS and CJRRB EOs, representing 95.7% and 96.9% of the total composition, respectively. The major components in CJS EO were oxygenated sesquiterpenes (mainly α+β-eudesmol, 1-epicubenol, and cubebol), while in CJRRB EO, the major components were monoterpene hydrocarbons, including α-pinene, δ-3-carene, and limonene (66.6% vs. 6.4% for oxygenated sesquiterpenes and 0% vs. 64% for monoterpene hydrocarbons, respectively). Antioxidant activity was estimated using (i) two radical-based assays, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, and (ii) a lipid model assay, β-carotene-linoleic acid bleaching activity (BCBA). Both CJS and CJRRB EOs exhibited concentration-dependent antioxidant activities, and their DPPH, ABTS, and BCBA EC50 values were 1107 vs. 1275 µg/mL, 260 vs. 498 µg/mL, and 1764 vs. 662 µg/mL, respectively. The results indicate that both EOs were able to exert antioxidant activity via different mechanisms of action. Therefore, Azorean CJS and CJRRB may be sustainable sources for antioxidant compounds. This study expands the chemical and biological knowledge of CJBR EOs and, consequently, adds more value to the C. japonica EO industry.

Microbial regulation of plant secondary metabolites: Impact, mechanisms and prospects

Plant secondary metabolites possess a wide range of pharmacological activities and play crucial biological roles. They serve as both a defense response during pathogen attack and a valuable drug resource. The role of microorganisms in the regulation of plant secondary metabolism has been widely recognized. The addition of specific microorganisms can increase the synthesis of secondary metabolites, and their beneficial effects depend on environmental factors and plant-related microorganisms. This article summarizes the impact and regulatory mechanisms of different microorganisms on the main secondary metabolic products of plants. We emphasize the mechanisms by which microorganisms regulate hormone levels, nutrient absorption, the supply of precursor substances, and enzyme and gene expression to promote the accumulation of plant secondary metabolites. In addition, the possible negative feedback regulation of microorganisms is discussed. The identification of additional unknown microbes and other driving factors affecting plant secondary metabolism is essential. The prospects for further analysis of medicinal plant genomes and the establishment of a genetic operation system for plant secondary metabolism research are proposed. This study provides new ideas for the use of microbial resources for biological synthesis research and the improvement of crop anti-inverse traits for the use of microbial resources.

Michael Acceptors as Anti-Cancer Compounds: Coincidence or Causality?

Michael acceptors represent a class of compounds with potential anti-cancer properties. They act by binding to nucleophilic sites in biological molecules, thereby disrupting cancer cell function and inducing cell death. This mode of action, as well as their ability to be modified and targeted, makes them a promising avenue for advancing cancer therapy. We are investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying Michael acceptors and their interactions with cancer cells, in particular their ability to interfere with cellular processes and induce apoptosis. The anti-cancer properties of Michael acceptors are not accidental but are due to their chemical structure and reactivity. The electrophilic nature of these compounds allows them to selectively target nucleophilic residues on disease-associated proteins, resulting in significant therapeutic benefits and minimal toxicity in various diseases. This opens up new perspectives for the development of more effective and precise cancer drugs. Nevertheless, further studies are essential to fully understand the impact of our discoveries and translate them into clinical practice.

Functional Genomics of a Collection of Gammaproteobacteria Isolated from Antarctica

Antarctica, one of the most extreme environments on Earth, hosts diverse microbial communities. These microbes have evolved and adapted to survive in these hostile conditions, but knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying this process remains limited. The Italian Collection of Antarctic Bacteria (Collezione Italiana Batteri Antartici (CIBAN)), managed by the University of Messina, represents a valuable repository of cold-adapted bacterial strains isolated from various Antarctic environments. In this study, we sequenced and analyzed the genomes of 58 marine Gammaproteobacteria strains from the CIBAN collection, which were isolated during Italian expeditions from 1990 to 2005. By employing genome-scale metrics, we taxonomically characterized these strains and assigned them to four distinct genera: Pseudomonas, Pseudoalteromonas, Shewanella, and Psychrobacter. Genome annotation revealed a previously untapped functional potential, including secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters and antibiotic resistance genes. Phylogenomic analyses provided evolutionary insights, while assessment of cold-shock protein presence shed light on adaptation mechanisms. Our study emphasizes the significance of CIBAN as a resource for understanding Antarctic microbial life and its biotechnological potential. The genomic data unveil new horizons for insight into bacterial existence in Antarctica.

Opportunities, Challenges, and Scientific Progress in Hemp Crops

The resurgence of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has been propelled by changes in the legal framework governing its cultivation and use, increased demand for hemp-derived products, and studies recognizing the industrial and health benefits of hemp. This has led to the creation of novel high-cannabidiol, low-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol varieties, enabling hemp crop expansion worldwide. This review elucidates the recent implications for hemp cultivation in Europe, with a focus on the legislative impacts on the cultivation practices, prospective breeding efforts, and dynamic scientific landscape surrounding this crop. We also review the current cultivars' cannabinoid composition of the European hemp market and its major differences with that of the United States.

Chemical Basis for Determining the Allelopathic Potential of Invasive Plant Wall Barley (Hordeum murinum L. subsp. murinum)

The study investigated compounds present in the invasive grass Hordeum murinum L. subsp. murinum and tested the allelopathic potential of this plant against common meadow species Festuca rubra L. and Trifolium repens L. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) performed separately on the ears and stalks with leaves of wall barley revealed 32 compounds, including secondary metabolites, that may play an important role in allelopathy. Two compounds, N-butylbenzenesulfonamide (NBBS) and diphenylsulfone (DDS), were described for the first time for wall barley and the Poaceae family. The presence of 6,10,14-trimethylpentadecan-2-one (TMP) has also been documented. Aqueous extracts of H. murinum organs (ears and stalks with leaves) at concentrations of 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% were used to evaluate its allelopathic potential. Compared to the control, all extracts inhibited germination and early growth stages of meadow species. The inhibitory effect was strongest at the highest concentration for both the underground and aboveground parts of the seedlings of the meadow species tested. Comparing the allelopathic effect, Trifolium repens proved to be more sensitive. In light of the results of the study, the removal of wall barley biomass appears to be important for the restoration of habitats where this species occurs due to its allelopathic potential.

(-)-Fenchone Prevents Cysteamine-Induced Duodenal Ulcers and Accelerates Healing Promoting Re-Epithelialization of Gastric Ulcers in Rats via Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

(-)-Fenchone is a naturally occurring monoterpene found in the essential oils of Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Thuja occidentalis L., and Peumus boldus Molina. Pharmacological studies have reported its antinociceptive, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, and antioxidant activities.

METHODS

The preventive antiulcer effects of (-)-Fenchone were assessed through oral pretreatment in cysteamine-induced duodenal lesion models. Gastric healing, the underlying mechanisms, and toxicity after repeated doses were evaluated using the acetic acid-induced gastric ulcer rat model with oral treatment administered for 14 days.

RESULTS

In the cysteamine-induced duodenal ulcer model, fenchone (37.5-300 mg/kg) significantly decreased the ulcer area and prevented lesion formation. In the acetic acid-induced ulcer model, fenchone (150 mg/kg) reduced (p < 0.001) ulcerative injury. These effects were associated with increased levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), interleukin (IL)-10, and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). Furthermore, treatment with (-)-Fenchone (150 mg/kg) significantly reduced (p < 0.001) malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB). A 14-day oral toxicity investigation revealed no alterations in heart, liver, spleen, or kidney weight, nor in the biochemical and hematological parameters assessed. (-)-Fenchone protected animals from body weight loss while maintaining feed and water intake.

CONCLUSION

(-)-Fenchone exhibits low toxicity, prevents duodenal ulcers, and enhances gastric healing activities. Antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties appear to be involved in its therapeutic effects.

Mechanistic docking in terpene synthases using EnzyDock

Terpene Synthases (TPS) catalyze the formation of multicyclic, complex terpenes and terpenoids from linear substrates. Molecular docking is an important research tool that can further our understanding of TPS multistep mechanisms and guide enzyme design. Standard docking programs are not well suited to tackle the unique challenges of TPS, like the many chemical steps which form multiple stereo-centers, the weak dispersion interactions between the isoprenoid chain and the hydrophobic region of the active site, description of carbocation intermediates, and finding mechanistically meaningful sets of docked poses. To address these and other unique challenges, we developed the multistate, multiscale docking program EnzyDock and used it to study many TPS and other enzymes. In this review we discuss the unique challenges of TPS, the special features of EnzyDock developed to address these challenges and demonstrate its successful use in ongoing research on the bacterial TPS CotB2.

Metabolic engineering for enhanced terpenoid production: Leveraging new horizons with an old technique

Terpenoids are a vast class of plant specialized metabolites (PSMs) manufactured by plants and are involved in their interactions with environment. In addition, they add health benefits to human nutrition and are widely used as pharmaceutically active compounds. However, native plants produce a limited amount of terpenes restricting metabolite yield of terpene-related metabolites. Exponential growth in the plant metabolome data and the requirement of alternative approaches for producing the desired amount of terpenoids, has redirected plant biotechnology research to plant metabolic engineering, which requires in-depth knowledge and precise expertise about dynamic plant metabolic pathways and cellular physiology. Metabolic engineering is an assuring tool for enhancing the concentration of terpenes by adopting specific strategies such as overexpression of the key genes associated with the biosynthesis of targeted metabolites, controlling the modulation of transcription factors, downregulation of competitive pathways (RNAi), co-expression of the biosynthetic pathway genes in heterologous system and other combinatorial approaches. Microorganisms, fast-growing host plants (such as Nicotiana benthamiana), and cell suspension/callus cultures have provided better means for producing valuable terpenoids. Manipulation in the biosynthetic pathways responsible for synthesis of terpenoids can provide opportunities to enhance the content of desired terpenoids and open up new avenues to enhance their production. This review deliberates the worth of metabolic engineering in medicinal plants to resolve issues associated with terpenoid production at a commercial scale. However, to bring the revolution through metabolic engineering, further implementation of genome editing, elucidation of metabolic pathways using omics approaches, system biology approaches, and synthetic biology tactics are essentially needed.

Integrated Omics Analysis Reveals Key Pathways in Cotton Defense against Mirid Bug (Adelphocoris suturalis Jakovlev) Feeding

The recent dominance of Adelphocoris suturalis Jakovlev as the primary cotton field pest in Bt-cotton-cultivated areas has generated significant interest in cotton pest control research. This study addresses the limited understanding of cotton defense mechanisms triggered by A. suturalis feeding. Utilizing LC-QTOF-MS, we analyzed cotton metabolomic changes induced by A. suturalis, and identified 496 differential positive ions (374 upregulated, 122 downregulated) across 11 categories, such as terpenoids, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, isoflavones, etc. Subsequent iTRAQ-LC-MS/MS analysis of the cotton proteome revealed 1569 differential proteins enriched in 35 metabolic pathways. Integrated metabolome and proteome analysis highlighted significant upregulation of 17 (89%) proteases in the α-linolenic acid (ALA) metabolism pathway, concomitant with a significant increase in 14 (88%) associated metabolites. Conversely, 19 (73%) proteases in the fructose and mannose biosynthesis pathway were downregulated, with 7 (27%) upregulated proteases corresponding to the downregulation of 8 pathway-associated metabolites. Expression analysis of key regulators in the ALA pathway, including allene oxidase synthase (AOS), phospholipase A (PLA), allene oxidative cyclase (AOC), and 12-oxophytodienoate reductase3 (OPR3), demonstrated significant responses to A. suturalis feeding. Finally, this study pioneers the exploration of molecular mechanisms in the plant-insect relationship, thereby offering insights into potential novel control strategies against this cotton pest.

Citronellal: a natural aldehyde with important properties

Among the several terpenes existing in nature, Citronellal, a monoterpene aldehyde, deserves to be highlighted for its biological properties that have been pointed out in numerous studies. This work aimed to conduct a literature review on its biological properties. Citronellal is a prominent compound in the essential oils of Cymbopogon genus plants. Apart from being employed as a fragrance ingredient in aromas, fragrances, and cosmetics, it is also used as an intermediate in synthesising (-)-menthol. Various studies have demonstrated Citronellal's potential as an antibacterial compound, particularly anti-Staphylococcus and Escherichia bacteria. Citronellal also has antifungal properties against several fungi, especially fungi of the genus Candida. The studies found showed that Citronellal also has insecticidal, acaricidal, antiparasitic, anaesthetic, antiviral, antioxidant, antinociceptive, cardioprotective, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties.

The Effects of Heavy Metal Pollution on Soil Nitrogen Transformation and Rice Volatile Organic Compounds under Different Water Management Practices

One of the most concerning global environmental issues is the pollution of agricultural soils by heavy metals (HMs), especially cadmium, which not only affects human health through Cd-containing foods but also impacts the quality of rice. The soil's nitrification and denitrification processes, coupled with the release of volatile organic compounds by plants, raise substantial concerns. In this review, we summarize the recent literature related to the deleterious effects of Cd on both soil processes related to the N cycle and rice quality, particularly aroma, in different water management practices. Under both continuous flooding (CF) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) conditions, cadmium has been observed to reduce both the nitrification and denitrification processes. The adverse effects are more pronounced in alternate wetting and drying (AWD) as compared to continuous flooding (CF). Similarly, the alteration in rice aroma is more significant in AWD than in CF. The precise modulation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by Cd remains unclear based on the available literature. Nevertheless, HM accumulation is higher in AWD conditions compared to CF, leading to a detrimental impact on volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The literature concludes that AWD practices should be avoided in Cd-contaminated fields to decrease accumulation and maintain the quality of the rice. In the future, rhizospheric engineering and plant biotechnology can be used to decrease the transport of HMs from the soil to the plant's edible parts.

Identification of terpenoids as dihydropteroate synthase and dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors through structure-based virtual screening and molecular dynamic simulations

Bacterial infections are rising, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria has worsened the scenario, requiring extensive research to find alternative therapeutic agents. Terpenoids play an essential role in protecting plants from herbivores and pathogens. The present study was designed to focus on in silico evaluation of terpenoids for their affinity towards two necessary enzymes, i.e. DHFR and DHPS, which are involved in forming 5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydrofolate, a key component in bacterial DNA synthesis proteins. Additionally, to account for activity against resistant bacteria, their affinity towards the L28R mutant of DHFR was also assessed in the study. The structure-based drug design approach was used to screen the compound library of terpenes for their interaction with active sites of DHFR and DHPS. Further, compounds were screened based on their dock score, pharmacokinetic properties, and binding affinities. A total of five compounds for each target protein were screened, having dock scores better than their respective standard drug molecules. CNP0169378 (-8.4 kcal/mol) and CNP0309455 (-6.5 kcal/mol) have been identified as molecules with a higher affinity toward the targets of DHFR and DHPS, respectively. At the same time, one molecule CNP0298407 (-5.8 kcal/mol for DHPS, -7.6 kcal/mol for DHFR, -6.1 kcal/mol for the L28R variant), has affinity for both proteins (6XG5 and 6XG4). All the molecules have good pharmacokinetic properties. We further validated the docking study by binding free energy calculations using the MM/GBSA approach and molecular dynamics simulations.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Disparate Effects of Two Clerodane Diterpenes of Giant Goldenrod (Solidago gigantea Ait.) on Bacillus spizizenii

New substances with antimicrobial properties are needed to successfully treat emerging human, animal, or plant pathogens. Seven clerodane diterpenes, previously isolated from giant goldenrod (Solidago gigantea) root, were tested against Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus spizizenii and Rhodococcus fascians by measuring minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC), minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). Two of them, Sg3a (a dialdehyde) and Sg6 (solidagoic acid B), were proved to be the most effective and were selected for further study. Bacillus spizizenii was incubated with the two diterpenes for shorter (1 h) or longer (5 h) periods and then subjected to genome-wide transcriptional analyses. Only a limited number of common genes (28 genes) were differentially regulated after each treatment, and these were mainly related to the restoration of cell membrane integrity and to membrane-related transports. Changes in gene activity indicated that, among other things, K+ and Na+ homeostasis, pH and membrane electron transport processes may have been affected. Activated export systems can be involved in the removal of harmful molecules from the bacterial cells. Inhibition of bacterial chemotaxis and flagellar assembly, as well as activation of genes for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, were observed as a general response. Depending on the diterpenes and the duration of the treatments, down-regulation of the protein synthesis-related, oxidative phosphorylation, signal transduction and transcription factor genes was found. In other cases, up-regulation of the genes of oxidation-reduction processes, sporulation and cell wall modification could be detected. Comparison of the effect of diterpenes with the changes induced by different environmental and nutritional conditions revealed several overlapping processes with stress responses. For example, the Sg6 treatment seems to have caused a starvation-like condition. In summary, there were both common and diterpene-specific changes in the transcriptome, and these changes were also dependent on the length of treatments. The results also indicated that Sg6 exerted its effect more slowly than Sg3a, but ultimately its effect was greater.

Comparative analysis of sorghum (C4) and rice (C3) plant headspace volatiles induced by artificial herbivory

Acute stress responses include release of defensive volatiles from herbivore-attacked plants. Here we used two closely related monocot species, rice as a representative C3 plant, and sorghum as a representative C4 plant, and compared their basal and stress-induced headspace volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Although both plants emitted similar types of constitutive and induced VOCs, in agreement with the close phylogenetic relationship of the species, several mono- and sesquiterpenes have been significantly less abundant in headspace of sorghum relative to rice. Furthermore, in spite of generally lower VOC levels, some compounds, such as the green leaf volatile (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and homoterpene DMNT, remained relatively high in the sorghum headspace, suggesting that a separate mechanism for dispersal of these compounds may have evolved in this plant. Finally, a variable amount of several VOCs among three sorghum cultivars of different geographical origins suggested that release of VOCs could be used as a valuable resource for the increase of sorghum resistance against herbivores.

Engineering yeast for the production of plant terpenoids using synthetic biology approaches

Covering: 2011-2022The low amounts of terpenoids produced in plants and the difficulty in synthesizing these complex structures have stimulated the production of terpenoid compounds in microbial hosts by metabolic engineering and synthetic biology approaches. Advances in engineering yeast for terpenoid production will be covered in this review focusing on four directions: (1) manipulation of host metabolism, (2) rewiring and reconstructing metabolic pathways, (3) engineering the catalytic activity, substrate selectivity and product specificity of biosynthetic enzymes, and (4) localizing terpenoid production via enzymatic fusions and scaffolds, or subcellular compartmentalization.

A comprehensive review on the chemical constituents, sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis and biological activities of Sarcandra glabra

Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nakai is a perennial evergreen herb categorised within the Sarcandra Gardner genus under the Chloranthaceae family. Indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions of East Asia and India, this species is extensively distributed across China, particularly in the southern regions (Sichuan, Yunnan, and Jiangxi). In addition to its high ornamental value, S. glabra has a rich history of use in traditional Chinese medicine, evident through its empirical prescriptions for various ailments like pneumonia, dysentery, fractures, bruises, numbness, amenorrhea, rheumatism, and other diseases. Besides, modern pharmacological studies have revealed various biological activities, such as antitumour, anti-bacterial, anti-viral anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. The diverse chemical constituents of S. glabra have fascinated natural product researchers since the 1900s. To date, over 400 compounds including terpenoids, coumarins, lignans, flavonoids, sterols, anthraquinones, organic acids, and organic esters have been isolated and characterised, some featuring unprecedented structures. This review comprehensively examines the current understanding of S. glabra's phytochemistry and pharmacology, with emphasis on the chemistry and biosynthesis of its unique chemotaxonomic marker, the lindenane-type sesquiterpenoids.

An overview of food lipids toward food lipidomics

Increasing evidence regarding lipids' beneficial effects on human health has changed the common perception of consumers and dietary officials about the role(s) of food lipids in a healthy diet. However, lipids are a wide group of molecules with specific nutritional and bioactive properties. To understand their true nutritional and functional value, robust methods are needed for accurate identification and quantification. Specific analytical strategies are crucial to target specific classes, especially the ones present in trace amounts. Finding a unique and comprehensive methodology to cover the full lipidome of each foodstuff is still a challenge. This review presents an overview of the lipids nutritionally relevant in foods and new trends in food lipid analysis for each type/class of lipids. Food lipid classes are described following the LipidMaps classification, fatty acids, endocannabinoids, waxes, C8 compounds, glycerophospholipids, glycerolipids (i.e., glycolipids, betaine lipids, and triglycerides), sphingolipids, sterols, sercosterols (vitamin D), isoprenoids (i.e., carotenoids and retinoids (vitamin A)), quinones (i.e., coenzyme Q, vitamin K, and vitamin E), terpenes, oxidized lipids, and oxylipin are highlighted. The uniqueness of each food group: oil-, protein-, and starch-rich, as well as marine foods, fruits, and vegetables (water-rich) regarding its lipid composition, is included. The effect of cooking, food processing, and storage, in addition to the importance of lipidomics in food quality and authenticity, are also discussed. A critical review of challenges and future trends of the analytical approaches and computational methods in global food lipidomics as the basis to increase consumer awareness of the significant role of lipids in food quality and food security worldwide is presented.

The Capsicum terpenoid biosynthetic module is affected by spider-mite herbivory

In response to herbivory, Capsicum annuum leaves adapt their specialized metabolome that may protect the plant against herbivore feeding either directly or indirectly through volatile metabolites acting as cues for natural enemies of the herbivore. The volatile blend of spider-mite infested leaves differs from non-challenged leaves predominantly by a higher contribution of mono- and sesquiterpenes. In addition to these terpenoids released into the headspace, the terpenoid composition of the leaves alters upon herbivory. All this suggests an important role for terpenoids and their biosynthetic machinery in the defence against herbivory. Here, we show that the C. annuum genome contains a terpene synthase (TPS) gene family of 103 putative members of which structural analysis revealed that 27 encode functional enzymes. Transcriptome analysis showed that several TPS loci were differentially expressed upon herbivory in leaves of two C. annuum genotypes, that differ in susceptibility towards spider mites. The relative expression of upstream biosynthetic genes from the mevalonate and the methylerythritol phosphate pathway also altered upon herbivory, revealing a shift in the metabolic flux through the terpene biosynthetic module. The expression of multiple genes potentially acting downstream of the TPSs, including cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, UDP-glucosyl transferases, and transcription factors strongly correlated with the herbivory-induced TPS genes. A selection of herbivory-induced TPS genes was functionally characterized through heterologous expression and the products that these enzymes catalysed matched with the volatile and non-volatile terpenoids induced in response to herbivory.

Endophytic fungal community of Rosa damascena Mill. as a promising source of indigenous biostimulants: Elucidating its spatial distribution, chemical diversity, and ecological functions

The role of endophytes in maintaining healthy plant ecosystems and holding promise for agriculture and food security is deeply appreciated. In the current study, we determine the community structure, spatial distribution, chemical diversity, and ecological functions of fungal endophytes of Rosa damascena growing in the North-Western Himalayas. Culture-dependent methods revealed that R. damascena supported a rich endophyte diversity comprising 32 genera and 68 OTUs. The diversity was governed by climate, altitude, and tissue type. Species of Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Diaporthe were the core endophytes of the host plant consisting of 48.8% of the endophytes collectively. The predominant pathogen of the host was Alternaria spp., especially A. alternata. GC-MS analyses affirmed the production of diverse arrays of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by individual endophytes. Among the primary rose oil components, Diaporthe melonis RDE257, and Periconia verrucosa RDE85 produced phenyl ethyl alcohol (PEA) and benzyl alcohol (BA). The endophytes displayed varied levels of plant growth-promoting, colonization, and anti-pathogenic traits. Between the selected endophytes, P. verrucosa and D. melonis significantly potentiated plant growth and the flavonoids and chlorophyll content in the host. The potential of these two endophytes and their metabolites PEA and BA was confirmed on Nicotiana tabacum. The treatments of the metabolites and individual endophytes enhanced the growth parameters in the model plant significantly. The results imply that P. verrucosa and D. melonis are potential plant growth enhancers and their activity may be partially due to the production of PEA and BA. Thus, R. damascena harbors diverse endophytes with potential applications in disease suppression and host growth promotion. Further investigations at the molecular level are warranted to develop green endophytic agents for sustainable cultivation of R. damascena and biocontrol of leaf spot disease.

Ralstonia solanacearum Suppresses Tomato Root Growth by Downregulation of a Wall-Associated Receptor Kinase

The root architecture of a range of host plants is altered in response to Ralstonia solanacearum infection. This work aimed to identify host genes involved in root development during R. solanacearum infection. A deficient mutant of the type III secretion system regulator hrpB was created in R. solanacearum GMI1000. The hrpB mutant was impaired in virulence but showed a similar suppressive effect as wild-type GMI1000 on tomato root development. Based on comparative transcriptome analysis, 209 genes were found that showed the same changed expression pattern in GMI1000 and hrpB mutant infected roots relative to uninoculated roots. Among them, the wall-associated receptor kinase WAKL20 was substantially downregulated in GMI1000 and hrpB mutant infected roots. Knockdown of WAKL20 led to a shorter primary root length and fewer lateral roots in tomato as well as in Nicotiana benthamiana. The WAKL20 is a pivotal target suppressed by R. solanacearum to shape the altered root development during infection.

Development of Essential Oil Delivery Systems by 'Click Chemistry' Methods: Possible Ways to Manage Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Recently, rare diseases have received attention due to the need for improvement in diagnosed patients' and their families' lives. Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a rare, severe, progressive, muscle-wasting disease. Today, the therapeutic standard for treating DMD is corticosteroids, which cause serious adverse side effects. Nutraceuticals, e.g., herbal extracts or essential oils (EOs), are possible active substances to develop new drug delivery systems to improve DMD patients' lives. New drug delivery systems lead to new drug effects, improved safety and accuracy, and new therapies for rare diseases. Herbal extracts and EOs combined with click chemistry can lead to the development of safer treatments for DMD. In this review, we focus on the need for novel drug delivery systems using EOs as the therapy for DMD and the potential use of click chemistry for drug delivery systems. New EO complex drug delivery systems may offer a new approach for improving muscle conditions and mental health issues associated with DMD. However, further research should identify the potential of these systems in the context of DMD. In this review, we discuss possibilities for applying EOs to DMD before implementing expensive research in a theoretical way.

Exploring the leishmanicidal potential of terpenoids: a comprehensive review on mechanisms of cell death

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease with a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from visceral to cutaneous, with millions of new cases and thousands of deaths reported each year. The species of Leishmania and the immune response of the host determine the severity of the disease. Leishmaniasis remains challenging to diagnose and treat, and there is no vaccine available. Several studies have been conducted on the use of herbal medicines for the treatment of leishmaniasis. Natural products can provide an inexhaustible source of chemical diversity with therapeutic potential. Terpenes are a class of natural products derived from a single isoprene unit, a five-carbon compound that forms the basic structure of isoprenoids. This review focuses on the most important and recent advances in the treatment of parasites of the genus Leishmania with different subclasses of terpenes. Several mechanisms have been proposed in the literature, including increased oxidative stress, immunomodulatory role, and induction of different types of parasite cell death. However, this information needs to be brought together to provide an overview of how these compounds can be used as therapeutic tools for drug development and as a successful adjuvant strategy against Leishmania sp.

Genome-material costs and functional trade-offs in the autopolyploid Solidago gigantea (giant goldenrod) series

PREMISE

Increased genome-material costs of N and P atoms inherent to organisms with larger genomes have been proposed to limit growth under nutrient scarcities and to promote growth under nutrient enrichments. Such responsiveness may reflect a nutrient-dependent diploid versus polyploid advantage that could have vast ecological and evolutionary implications, but direct evidence that material costs increase with ploidy level and/or influence cytotype-dependent growth, metabolic, and/or resource-use trade-offs is limited.

METHODS

We grew diploid, autotetraploid, and autohexaploid Solidago gigantea plants with one of four ambient or enriched N:P ratios and measured traits related to material costs, primary and secondary metabolism, and resource-use.

RESULTS

Relative to diploids, polyploids invested more N and P into cells, and tetraploids grew more with N enrichments, suggesting that material costs increase with ploidy level. Polyploids also generally exhibited strategies that could minimize material-cost constraints over both long (reduced monoploid genome size) and short (more extreme transcriptome downsizing, reduced photosynthesis rates and terpene concentrations, enhanced N-use efficiencies) evolutionary time periods. Furthermore, polyploids had lower transpiration rates but higher water-use efficiencies than diploids, both of which were more pronounced under nutrient-limiting conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

N and P material costs increase with ploidy level, but material-cost constraints might be lessened by resource allocation/investment mechanisms that can also alter ecological dynamics and selection. Our results enhance mechanistic understanding of how global increases in nutrients might provide a release from material-cost constraints in polyploids that could impact ploidy (or genome-size)-specific performances, cytogeographic patterning, and multispecies community structuring.

Natural Compounds of Fungal Origin with Antimicrobial Activity-Potential Cosmetics Applications

The phenomenon of drug resistance in micro-organisms necessitates the search for new compounds capable of combating them. Fungi emerge as a promising source of such compounds as they produce a wide range of secondary metabolites with bacteriostatic or fungistatic activity. These compounds can serve as alternatives for commonly used antibiotics. Furthermore, fungi also accumulate compounds with antiviral activity. This review focuses on filamentous fungi and macrofungi as sources of antimicrobial compounds. The article describes both individual isolated compounds and extracts that exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity. These compounds are produced by the fruiting bodies and mycelium, as well as the biomass of mycelial cultures. Additionally, this review characterizes the chemical compounds extracted from mushrooms used in the realm of cosmetology; specifically, their antimicrobial activity.

Chemical, Aroma and Pro-Health Characteristics of Kaffir Lime Juice-The Approach Using Optimized HS-SPME-GC-TOFMS, MP-OES, 3D-FL and Physiochemical Analysis

The study aimed to provide the chemical, aroma and prohealth characteristics of the kaffir lime juice. A procedure using solid-phase microextraction with gas chromatography (SPME-GC-TOFMS) was optimized and validated for the determination of terpenes of kaffir lime. Main physicochemical parameters: pH, vitamin C, citric acid and °Brix were evaluated. Micro- and macro elements were determined using microwave plasma optic emission spectrometry (MP-OES). The binding of kaffir lime terpenes to human serum albumin (HSA) was investigated by fluorescence spectroscopy (3D-FL). β-Pinene and Limonene were selected as the most abundant terpenes with the concentration of 1225 ± 35 and 545 ± 16 µg/g, respectively. The values of citric acid, vitamin C, °Brix and pH were 74.74 ± 0.50 g/kg, 22.31 ± 0.53 mg/100 mL, 10.35 ± 0.70 and 2.406 ± 0.086 for, respectively. Iron, with a concentration of 16.578 ± 0.029 mg/kg, was the most abundant microelement. Among the macroelements, potassium (8121 ± 52 mg/kg) was dominant. Kaffir lime binding to HSA was higher than β-Pinene, which may indicate the therapeutic effect of the juice. Kaffir lime juice is a source of terpenes with good aromatic and bioactive properties. Fluorescence measurements confirmed its therapeutic effect. Kaffir lime juice is also a good source of citric acid with potential industrial application. The high content of minerals compared to other citruses increases its prohealth value.

Terpenes: Modulating anti-inflammatory signaling in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) are autoimmune diseases characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation. Considered a western disease, IBD incidence in newly developed countries is skyrocketing. Accordingly, global prevalence is steadily increasing. There are two major IBD phenotypes, ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). UC manifests as uninterrupted inflammation localized in the colon and rectum. Meanwhile, CD presents as interrupted inflammation that can occur throughout the digestive tract. As a result, therapeutics have focused on anti-inflammatory approaches for its treatment. Unfortunately, only 50% of patients benefit from current Food and Drug Administration approved treatments, and all are associated with serious adverse effects. Thus, there is a need for safer and novel therapeutics to increase the efficacy in this population. One aspect that is critical in understanding IBD is how food and phytochemicals therein may be associated with modifying the pathogenesis of IBD. A variety of retrospective and prospective studies, and clinical trials have shown benefits of plant-rich diets on the prevention and symptomatic improvement of IBD. The Mediterranean diet is rich in vegetables, fruits, legumes, and herbs; and characterized by the abundance of anti-inflammatory phytochemicals. An understudied phytochemical class enriched in this diet is terpenes; isoprene-based molecules are widely available in Mediterranean herbs and citrus fruits. Various terpenes have been evaluated in different IBD models. However, some present contradictory or inconclusive results. Therefore, in this review we evaluated preclinical studies of terpenes modulating basic inflammatory signaling related to IBD.

The synthesis of Paris saponin VII mainly occurs in leaves and is promoted by light intensity

Unraveling the specific organs and tissues involved in saponin synthesis, as well as the light regulatory mechanisms, is crucial for improving the quality of artificially cultivated medicinal materials of Paris plants. Paris saponin VII (PS VII), a high-value active ingredient, is found in almost all organs of Paris plant species. In this study, we focused on Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Franch.) Hand. - Mzt. (PPY) and found that PS VII synthesis predominantly occurs in leaves and is increased by high light intensity. This intriguing discovery has unveiled the potential for manipulating non-traditional medicinal organ leaves to improve the quality of medicinal organ rhizomes. The analysis of the impact of organ differences on saponin concentration in P. polyphylla var. chinensis (Franch.) Hara (PPC), P. fargesii Franch. (PF), and PPY revealed consistency among the three Paris species and was mainly dominated by PS VII. Notably, the leaves and stems exhibited much higher proportions of PS VII than other organs, accounting for 80-90% of the four main saponins. Among the three Paris species, PPY had the highest concentration of PS VII and was selected for subsequent experiments. Further investigations on saponin subcellular localization, temporal variation, and stem wound fluid composition demonstrated that PS VII is synthesized in mesophyll cells, released into the intercellular space through exocytosis, and then transported to the rhizome via vascular tissue. These findings confirm the significant role of leaves in PS VII synthesis. Additionally, a 13C-glucose feeding to trace PS VII biosynthesis revealed that only PS VII in the leaves exhibited incorporation of the labeled carbon, despite conducting 13C-glucose feeding in leaves, stems, rhizomes, and roots. Thus, the leaves are indeed the primary organ for PS VII synthesis in PPY. Furthermore, compared with plants under 100 μmol m-2 s-1, plants under 400 μmol m-2 s-1 exhibited a higher PS VII concentration, particularly in the upper epidermal cells of the leaves. We propose that high light intensity promotes PS VII synthesis in leaves through three mechanisms: (1) increased availability of substrates for saponin synthesis; (2) protection of leaves from high light damage through enhanced saponin synthesis; and (3) enhanced compartmentalization of saponins within the leaves, which in turn feedback regulates saponin synthesis.

Chios Mastic Gum: Chemical Profile and Pharmacological Properties in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: From the Past to the Future

Chios mastic gum, the product of the tree Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, has been used for more than 2500 years in traditional Greek medicine for treating several diseases, thanks to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of its components. Despite the long-time use of mastic in gastroenterology and in particular in chronic-inflammation-associated diseases, to date, the literature lacks reviews regarding this topic. The aim of the present work is to summarize available data on the effects of P. lentiscus on inflammatory bowel disease. A comprehensive review of this topic could drive researchers to conduct future studies aimed at deeply investigating P. lentiscus effects and hypothesizing a mechanism of action. The present review, indeed, schematizes the possible bioactive components of mastic gum. Particular care is given to P. lentiscus var. Chia medicaments' and supplements' chemical compositions and their pharmacological action in inflammatory bowel disease.

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Potential Pathogen Resistance in Cannabis sativa

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is one of the earliest cultivated crops, valued for producing a broad spectrum of compounds used in medicinal products and being a source of food and fibre. Despite the availability of its genome sequences, few studies explore the molecular mechanisms involved in pathogen defense, and the underlying biological pathways are poorly defined in places. Here, we provide an overview of Cannabis defence responses against common pathogens, such as Golovinomyces spp., Fusarium spp., Botrytis cinerea and Pythium spp. For each of these pathogens, after a summary of their characteristics and symptoms, we explore studies identifying genes involved in Cannabis resistance mechanisms. Many studies focus on the potential involvement of disease-resistance genes, while others refer to other plants however whose results may be of use for Cannabis research. Omics investigations allowing the identification of candidate defence genes are highlighted, and genome editing approaches to generate resistant Cannabis species based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology are discussed. According to the emerging results, a potential defence model including both immune and defence mechanisms in Cannabis plant-pathogen interactions is finally proposed. To our knowledge, this is the first review of the molecular mechanisms underlying pathogen resistance in Cannabis.

Assessing the cytotoxicity of phenolic and terpene fractions extracted from Iraqi Prunus arabica on AMJ13 and SK-GT-4 human cancer cell lines

Background: Breast and esophageal cancer are the most aggressive and prominent causes of death worldwide. In addition, these cancers showed resistance to current chemotherapy regimens with limited success rates and fatal outcomes. Recently many studies reported the significant cytotoxic effects of phenolic and terpene fractions extracted from various Prunus species against different cancer cell lines. As a result, it has a good chance to be tested as a complement or replacement for standard chemotherapies. Methods: The study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of phenolic and terpene fractions extracted from Iraqi Prunus arabica on breast (AMJ13) and esophageal (SK-GT-4) cancer cell lines by using the MTT assay (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide). Analysis using the Chou-Talalay method was performed to assess the synergistic effect between the extracted fractions and chemotherapeutic agent (docetaxel). Moreover, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was conducted for the quantitative determination of different bioactive molecules of both phenolic and terpene fractions in the extract. Results: According to the findings, the treatment modalities significantly decreased cancer cell viability of AMJ13 and SK-GT-4 and had insignificant cytotoxicity on the normal cells (normal human fibroblast cell line) (all less than 50% cytotoxicity). Analysis with Chou-Talalay showed a strong synergism with docetaxel on both cancer cell lines (higher cytotoxicity even in low concentrations) and failed to induce cytotoxicity on the normal cells. Important flavonoid glycosides and terpenoids were detected by HPLC, in particularly, ferulic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, β-sitosterol, and campesterol. Conclusions: In conclusion, the extracted fractions selectively inhibited the proliferation of both cancer cell lines and showed minimal cytotoxicity on normal cells. These fractions could be naturally derived drugs for treating breast and esophageal cancers.

A Review of the Changes Produced by Extrusion Cooking on the Bioactive Compounds from Vegetal Sources

The demand for healthy ready-to-eat foods like snacks is increasing. Physical modification of vegetal food matrices through extrusion generates significant changes in the chemical composition of the final product. There is a great variety of food matrices that can be used in extrusion, most of them being based on cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, or seeds. The aim of this review was to summarize the main effects of the extrusion process on the bioactive compounds content, namely phenolics, terpenes, vitamins, minerals, and fibers of vegetal mixes, as well as on their biological activity. The literature reported contradictory results regarding the changes in bioactive compounds after extrusion, mainly due to the differences in the processing conditions, chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and nutritional value of the extruded material and quantification methods. The thermolabile phenolics and vitamins were negatively affected by extrusion, while the fiber content was proved to be enhanced. Further research is needed regarding the interactions between bioactive components during extrusion, as well as a more detailed analysis of the impact of extrusion on the terpenes since there are few papers dealing with this aspect.

Production of secondary metabolites using tissue culture-based biotechnological applications

Plants are the sources of many bioactive secondary metabolites which are present in plant organs including leaves, stems, roots, and flowers. Although they provide advantages to the plants in many cases, they are not necessary for metabolisms related to growth, development, and reproduction. They are specific to plant species and are precursor substances, which can be modified for generations of various compounds in different plant species. Secondary metabolites are used in many industries, including dye, food processing and cosmetic industries, and in agricultural control as well as being used as pharmaceutical raw materials by humans. For this reason, the demand is high; therefore, they are needed to be obtained in large volumes and the large productions can be achieved using biotechnological methods in addition to production, being done with classical methods. For this, plant biotechnology can be put in action through using different methods. The most important of these methods include tissue culture and gene transfer. The genetically modified plants are agriculturally more productive and are commercially more effective and are valuable tools for industrial and medical purposes as well as being the sources of many secondary metabolites of therapeutic importance. With plant tissue culture applications, which are also the first step in obtaining transgenic plants with having desirable characteristics, it is possible to produce specific secondary metabolites in large-scale through using whole plants or using specific tissues of these plants in laboratory conditions. Currently, many studies are going on this subject, and some of them receiving attention are found to be taken place in plant biotechnology and having promising applications. In this work, particularly benefits of secondary metabolites, and their productions through tissue culture-based biotechnological applications are discussed using literature with presence of current studies.

Combination of Taurine and Black Pepper Extract as a Treatment for Cardiovascular and Coronary Artery Diseases

The shift in modern dietary regimens to "Western style" and sedentary lifestyles are believed to be partly responsible for the increase in the global burden of cardiovascular diseases. Natural products have been used throughout human history as treatments for a plethora of pathological conditions. Taurine and, more recently, black pepper have gained attention for their beneficial health effects while remaining non-toxic even when ingested in excess. Taurine, black pepper, and the major terpene constituents found in black pepper (i.e., β-caryophyllene; α-pinene; β-pinene; α-humulene; limonene; and sabinene) that are present in PhytoCann BP^® have been shown to have cardioprotective effects based on anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, anti-hypertensive and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms. This comprehensive review of the literature focuses on determining whether the combination of taurine and black pepper extract is an effective natural treatment for reducing cardiovascular diseases risk factors (i.e., hypertension and hyperhomocysteinemia) and for driving anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms to combat coronary artery disease, heart failure, myocardial infarction, and atherosclerotic disease.

A Metabolome Analysis and the Immunity of Phlomis purpurea against Phytophthora cinnamomi

Phlomis purpurea grows spontaneously in the southern Iberian Peninsula, namely in cork oak (Quercus suber) forests. In a previous transcriptome analysis, we reported on its immunity against Phytophthora cinnamomi. However, little is known about the involvement of secondary metabolites in the P. purpurea defense response. It is known, though, that root exudates are toxic to this pathogen. To understand the involvement of secondary metabolites in the defense of P. purpurea, a metabolome analysis was performed using the leaves and roots of plants challenged with the pathogen for over 72 h. The putatively identified compounds were constitutively produced. Alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, glucosinolates, polyketides, prenol lipids, phenylpropanoids, sterols, and terpenoids were differentially produced in these leaves and roots along the experiment timescale. It must be emphasized that the constitutive production of taurine in leaves and its increase soon after challenging suggests its role in P. purpurea immunity against the stress imposed by the oomycete. The rapid increase in secondary metabolite production by this plant species accounts for a concerted action of multiple compounds and genes on the innate protection of Phlomis purpurea against Phytophthora cinnamomi. The combination of the metabolome with the transcriptome data previously disclosed confirms the mentioned innate immunity of this plant against a devastating pathogen. It suggests its potential as an antagonist in phytopathogens' biological control. Its application in green forestry/agriculture is therefore possible.

Antibacterial and Antifungal Terpenes from the Medicinal Angiosperms of Asia and the Pacific: Haystacks and Gold Needles

This review identifies terpenes isolated from the medicinal Angiosperms of Asia and the Pacific with antibacterial and/or antifungal activities and analyses their distribution, molecular mass, solubility, and modes of action. All data in this review were compiled from Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, ChemSpider, PubChem, and library searches from 1968 to 2022. About 300 antibacterial and/or antifungal terpenes were identified during this period. Terpenes with a MIC ≤ 2 µg/mL are mostly amphiphilic and active against Gram-positive bacteria, with a molecular mass ranging from about 150 to 550 g/mol, and a polar surface area around 20 Ų. Carvacrol, celastrol, cuminol, dysoxyhainic acid I, ent-1β,14β-diacetoxy-7α-hydroxykaur-16-en-15-one, ergosterol-5,8-endoperoxide, geranylgeraniol, gossypol, 16α-hydroxy-cleroda-3,13 (14)Z-diene-15,16-olide, 7-hydroxycadalene, 17-hydroxyjolkinolide B, (20R)-3β-hydroxy-24,25,26,27-tetranor-5α cycloartan-23,21-olide, mansonone F, (+)-6,6'-methoxygossypol, polygodial, pristimerin, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol are chemical frameworks that could be candidates for the further development of lead antibacterial or antifungal drugs.