Donepezil Regulates LPS and Aβ-Stimulated Neuroinflammation through MAPK/NLRP3 Inflammasome/STAT3 Signaling

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Colchicine─Aryl/Alkyl Amine Hybrids as Potential Noncytotoxic Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Identification of SBN-284 as a Dual Inhibitor of Cholinesterases and NLRP3 Inflammasome

Colchicine, one of the oldest anti-inflammatory natural products still used clinically, inhibits NF-κB signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Despite its cytotoxicity and narrow therapeutic range, colchicine continues to intrigue medicinal chemists exploring its anti-inflammatory potential. This study aimed to investigate the colchicine scaffold for its role in Alzheimer's disease by targeting neuroinflammation and cholinesterases. Molecular docking revealed that colchicine's hydrophobic trimethoxyphenyl framework can potentially bind to the peripheral anionic site of cholinesterases. Hybrid structures combining colchicine with aryl/alkyl amines were designed to bind both peripheral and catalytic sites of cholinesterases. We describe here the design, synthesis, and in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation of these colchicine-aryl/alkyl amine hybrids, along with their in silico interactions with the cholinesterase active site gorge. Nontoxic analogs demonstrating strong cholinesterase binding affinity were further evaluated for their anticholinesterase and antineuroinflammatory activities. The colchicine-donepezil hybrid, SBN-284 (3x), inhibited both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase as well as the NLRP3 inflammasome complex at low micromolar concentrations. It achieved this through noncompetitive inhibition, occupying the active site gorge and interacting with both peripheral and catalytic anionic sites of cholinesterases. Analog 3x was shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and exhibited no toxicity to neuronal cells, primary macrophages, or epithelial fR2 cells. These findings highlight the potential of this lead compound for further preclinical investigation as a promising anti-Alzheimer agent.

Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasomes: A Trojan Horse Strategy for Intervention in Neurological Disorders

Recently, a growing focus has been on identifying critical mechanisms in neurological diseases that trigger a cascade of events, making it easier to target them effectively. One such mechanism is the inflammasome, an essential component of the immune response system that plays a crucial role in disease progression. The NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome is a subcellular multiprotein complex that is widely expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and can be activated by a variety of external and internal stimuli. When activated, the NLRP3 inflammasome triggers the production of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18) and facilitates rapid cell death by assembling the inflammasome. These cytokines initiate inflammatory responses through various downstream signaling pathways, leading to damage to neurons. Therefore, the NLRP3 inflammasome is considered a significant contributor to the development of neuroinflammation. To counter the damage caused by NLRP3 inflammasome activation, researchers have investigated various interventions such as small molecules, antibodies, and cellular and gene therapy to regulate inflammasome activity. For instance, recent studies indicate that substances like micro-RNAs (e.g., miR-29c and mR-190) and drugs such as melatonin can reduce neuronal damage and suppress neuroinflammation through NLRP3. Furthermore, the transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells resulted in a significant reduction in the levels of pyroptosis-related proteins NLRP3, caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18. However, it would benefit future research to have an in-depth review of the pharmacological and biological interventions targeting inflammasome activity. Therefore, our review of current evidence demonstrates that targeting NLRP3 inflammasomes could be a pivotal approach for intervention in neurological disorders.

Donepezil promotes skin flap survival through activation of the HIF-1α/VEGF signalling pathway

Flaps are mainly used to repair wounds in the clinical setting but can sometimes experience ischaemic necrosis postoperatively. This study investigated whether donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, can enhance the survival rate of flaps. We randomly allocated 36 rats into control, low-dose (3 mg/kg/day), and high-dose (5 mg/kg/day) groups. On Postoperative day 7, we assessed flap viability and calculated the mean area of viable flap. After euthanizing the rats, we employed immunological and molecular biology techniques to examine the changes in flap tissue vascularization, apoptosis, autophagy, and inflammation. Donepezil enhanced the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor and vascular endothelial growth factor to facilitate angiogenesis. In addition, it elevated the expression of LC3B, p62, and beclin to stimulate autophagy. Furthermore, it increased the expression of Bcl-2 while reducing the expression of Bax, thus inhibiting apoptosis. Finally, it had anti-inflammatory effects by reducing the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. The results suggest that donepezil can enhance the viability of randomly generated skin flaps by upregulating HIF-1α/VEGF signalling pathway, facilitating vascularization, inducing autophagy, suppressing cell apoptosis, and mitigating inflammation within the flap tissue.

Donepezil protects against cyclophosphamide-induced premature ovarian failure in mice: A focus on proinflammatory cytokines and NLRP3/TLR-4/NF-κB interplay

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Cyclophosphamide (CP) chemotherapy is a significant iatrogenic component of premature ovarian failure (POF). The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential protective effects of donepezil, a centrally acting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, on CP-induced POF in mice.

METHODS

40 female Swiss albino mice were split into 5 equal groups: group 1 (control), group 2 (CP-POF); induced by intraperitoneal injection of CP on 8th day of the experiment, and group (3-5); mice received oral donepezil daily (1, 2, or 4 mg/kg, respectively) 8 days before CP injection. Mice were euthanized after 24 h of CP injection, and blood samples were collected to assay serum anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) levels. Ovarian tissues were dissected, and the right ovary was processed for further assays of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interlukin-6 (IL-6), nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor family, the Pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), while the left one was processed for histopathological and immunohistochemical examination of nuclear factor-Kappa beta (NF-κB) and caspase-3.

RESULTS

Donepezil, in a dose-dependent manner particularly (4 mg/kg), has an inhibitory action on NO (40 ± 2.85 vs. 28.20 ± 2.23, P < 0.001), proinflammatory cytokines (P < 0.001), the TLR-4/ NF-κB / NLRP3 inflammasome pathway (P < 0.001), and apoptosis (P < 0.001), with a significant elevation in the AMH levels (4.57 ± 1.08 vs. 8.57 ± 0.97, P < 0.001) versus CP-POF group.

CONCLUSION

Donepezil may be a potential protective agent against CP-induced POF in mice, but further research is needed to fully understand its therapeutic function experimentally and clinically.

Therapeutic effects of orexin-A in sepsis-associated encephalopathy in mice

BACKGROUND

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) causes acute and long-term cognitive deficits. However, information on the prevention and treatment of cognitive dysfunction after sepsis is limited. The neuropeptide orexin-A (OXA) has been shown to play a protective role against neurological diseases by modulating the inflammatory response through the activation of OXR1 and OXR2 receptors. However, the role of OXA in mediating the neuroprotective effects of SAE has not yet been reported.

METHODS

A mouse model of SAE was induced using cecal ligation perforation (CLP) and treated via intranasal administration of exogenous OXA after surgery. Mouse survival, in addition to cognitive and anxiety behaviors, were assessed. Changes in neurons, cerebral edema, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and brain ultrastructure were monitored. Levels of pro-inflammatory factors (IL-1β, TNF-α) and microglial activation were also measured. The underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated by proteomics analysis and western blotting.

RESULTS

Intranasal OXA treatment reduced mortality, ameliorated cognitive and emotional deficits, and attenuated cerebral edema, BBB disruption, and ultrastructural brain damage in mice. In addition, OXA significantly reduced the expression of the pro-inflammatory factors IL-1β and TNF-α, and inhibited microglial activation. In addition, OXA downregulated the expression of the Rras and RAS proteins, and reduced the phosphorylation of P-38 and JNK, thus inhibiting activation of the MAPK pathway. JNJ-10,397,049 (an OXR2 blocker) reversed the effect of OXA, whereas SB-334,867 (an OXR1 blocker) did not.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that the intranasal administration of moderate amounts of OXA protects the BBB and inhibits the activation of the OXR2/RAS/MAPK pathway to attenuate the outcome of SAE, suggesting that OXA may be a promising therapeutic approach for the management of SAE.

In silico and pharmacokinetic studies of glucomoringin from Moringa oleifera root for Alzheimer's disease like pathology

Aim: The aim of this research is to investigate the potential of glucomoringin, derived from Moringa oleifera, as a therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease through in silico analysis. Materials & methods: This study employs in silico or computational methodologies, including pkCSM, Swiss ADME, OSIRIS® property explorer, PASS online web resource and MOLINSPIRATION® software, to predict the pharmacokinetic characteristics and biological activity of glucomoringin. Results & conclusion: Molecular docking indicates strong binding to I-1β and the pharmacokinetic profile shows cytochrome P450 enzyme inhibition, prompting further research for dosing strategies. Toxicological predictions affirm safety, while bioactivity assessments demonstrate versatility in modulating essential pathways. glucomoringin's potential for Alzheimer's treatment, emphasizing the need for additional empirical research.

Transcranial Magneto-Acoustic Stimulation Protects Synaptic Rehabilitation from Amyloid-Beta Plaques via Regulation of Microglial Functions

Transcranial magneto-acoustic stimulation (TMAS), which is characterized by high spatiotemporal resolution and high penetrability, is a non-invasive neuromodulation technology based on the magnetic-acoustic coupling effect. To reveal the effects of TMAS treatment on amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaque and synaptic plasticity in Alzheimer's disease, we conducted a comparative analysis of TMAS and transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) based on acoustic effects in 5xFAD mice and BV2 microglia cells. We found that the TMAS-TUS treatment effectively reduced amyloid plaque loads and plaque-associated neurotoxicity. Additionally, TMAS-TUS treatment ameliorated impairments in long-term memory formation and long-term potentiation. Moreover, TMAS-TUS treatment stimulated microglial proliferation and migration while enhancing the phagocytosis and clearance of Aβ. In 5xFAD mice with induced microglial exhaustion, TMAS-TUS treatment-mediated Aβ plaque reduction, synaptic rehabilitation improvement, and the increase in phospho-AKT levels were diminished. Overall, our study highlights that stimulation of hippocampal microglia by TMAS treatment can induce anti-cognitive impairment effects via PI3K-AKT signaling, providing hope for the development of new strategies for an adjuvant therapy for Alzheimer's disease.

Comprehensive Analysis of Predictive Value and the potential therapeutic target of NLRP3 inflammasome in glioma based on tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Glioma exhibits high recurrence rates and poor prognosis. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome plays a crucial role in inflammation. There is a lack of research exploring the NLRP3 in glioma.

METHODS

We used several databases, networks, Western blotting, multiple immunofluorescence staining to analyze the role of NLRP3 in inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME).

RESULTS

NLRP3 is higher-expression in glioma with a low mutation load. NLRP3 expression is linked to the infiltration of immune cells, chemokines, immunomodulators, and the TME. Signaling pathways, co-expression genes and interacting proteins contribute to the up-regulation of NLRP3. Patients responding to immunotherapy positively tend to have lower NLRP3 expression relating to the overall survival based on nomogram. Sensitivity to molecular medicines is observed in relation to NLRP3.

CONCLUSION

The NLRP3 inflammasome plays a pivotal role in TME which could serve as a higher predictive value biomarker and therapeutic target for glioma treatment.

Network pharmacology analysis and experimental verification of the antitumor effect and molecular mechanism of isocryptomerin on HepG2 cells

Isocryptomerin (ISO) is a flavonoid isolated from the natural medicine Selaginellae Herba, which has various pharmacological activities. This study investigated the antitumor effect and underlying molecular mechanism of ISO on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) HepG2 cells. The cell viability assay revealed that ISO has a considerable killing effect on HCC cell lines. The apoptosis assay showed that ISO induced mitochondria-dependent apoptosis through the Bad/cyto-c/cleaved (cle)-caspase-3/cleaved (cle)-PARP pathway. The network pharmacological analysis found 13 key target genes, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), AKT, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling pathways were strongly associated with ISO against HCC. Further verification of the results showed that ISO induced apoptosis by increasing p-p38 and p-JNK expression and decreasing p-EGFR, p-SRC, p-ERK, and p-STAT3 expression. Furthermore, ISO induced G0/G1 phase arrest by downregulating p-AKT, Cyclin D, and CDK 4 expression and upregulating p21 and p27 expression in HepG2 cells. Moreover, ISO inhibited HepG2 cell migration by decreasing p-GSK-3β, β-catenin, and N-cadherin expression and increasing E-cadherin expression. Additionally, ISO promoted ROS accumulation in HepG2 cells, and ISO-induced apoptosis, arrest cell cycle, and inhibition of migration were reversed by an ROS scavenger, N-acetyl- l-cysteine. Overall, ISO induced cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest and inhibited cell migration by ROS-mediated EGFR, AKT, and MAPK signaling pathways in HepG2 cells.

The Effect of Donepezil Hydrochloride in the Twitcher Mouse Model of Krabbe Disease

Krabbe disease (KD) is a rare demyelinating disorder characterized by demyelination caused by mutations in the GALC gene, resulting in toxic accumulation of psychosine. Psychosine has been identified as detrimental to oligodendrocytes, leading to demyelination through diverse hypothesized pathways. Reducing demyelination is essential to maintain neurological function in KD; however, therapeutic interventions are currently limited. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEi) are commonly used for symptomatic management of Alzheimer's Disease and are suggested to have potential disease-modifying effects, including regulating myelin state. In particular, donepezil, an AChEi, has demonstrated promising effects in cellular and animal models, including promotion of the expression of myelin-related genes and reduction of glial cell reactivity. This drug also acts as an agonist for sigma-1 receptors (Sig-1R), which are implicated in demyelination diseases. In the context of drug repurposing, here, we demonstrate that administration of donepezil has protective effects in the twitcher mouse model of KD. We provide data showing that donepezil preserves myelin and reduces glial cell reactivity in the brains of twitcher mice. Moreover, donepezil also improves behavioral phenotypes and increases lifespan in twitcher animals. These findings suggest that donepezil, with its dual activity as an AChE inhibitor and Sig-1R agonist, may hold promise as a therapeutic candidate for demyelinating diseases, including KD.

The synergistic effect of nanocurcumin and donepezil on Alzheimer's via PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway modulating

Alzheimer's disease (AD) hallmarks include amyloid-βeta (Aβ) and tau proteins aggregates, neurite degeneration, microglial activation with cognitive impairment. Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B/Glycogen synthase kinase-3-beta (PI3K/AKT/GSK-3) pathway is essential for neuroprotection, cell survival and proliferation by blocking apoptosis. This study aimed to assess protective role of nanocurcumin (NCMN) as strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent with elucidating its synergistic effects with Donepezil as acetylcholinesterase inhibitor on AD in rats via modulating PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway. The experiment was performed on 70 male Wistar albino rats divided into seven groups (control, NCMN, Donepezil, AD-model, Donepezil co-treatment, NCMN only co-treatment, and NCMN+Donepezil combined treatment). Behavioral and biochemical investigations as cholinesterase activity, oxidative stress (malondialdehyde, reduced glutathione, nitric oxide, superoxidedismutase, and catalase), tumor necrosis factor-alpha, Tau, β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1), Phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten), mitogen-activated protein kinase-1 (MAPK-1), Glycogen synthase kinase-3-beta (GSK-3β) and toll-like receptor-4 were evaluated. Treatment with NCMN improved memory, locomotion, neuronal differentiation by activating PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway. These results were confirmed by histological studies in hippocampus.

Galantamine mitigates testicular injury and disturbed spermatogenesis in adjuvant arthritic rats via modulating apoptosis, inflammatory signals, and IL-6/JAK/STAT3/SOCS3 signaling

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) affects the joints and the endocrine system via persistent immune system activation. RA patients have a higher frequency of testicular dysfunction, impotence, and decreased libido. This investigation aimed to evaluate the efficacy of galantamine (GAL) on testicular injury secondary to RA. Rats were allocated into four groups: control, GAL (2 mg/kg/day, p.o), CFA (0.3 mg/kg, s.c), and CFA + GAL. Testicular injury indicators, such as testosterone level, sperm count, and gonadosomatic index, were evaluated. Inflammatory indicators, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), p-Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB p65), and anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10), were assessed. Cleaved caspase-3 expression was immunohistochemically investigated. Protein expressions of Janus kinase (JAK), signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT3), and Suppressors of Cytokine Signaling 3 (SOCS3) were examined by Western blot analysis. Results show that serum testosterone, sperm count, and gonadosomatic index were increased significantly by GAL. Additionally, GAL significantly diminished testicular IL-6 while improved IL-10 expression relative to CFA group. Furthermore, GAL attenuated testicular histopathological abnormalities by CFA and downregulated cleaved caspase-3 and NF-κB p65 expressions. It also downregulated JAK/STAT3 cascade with SOCS3 upregulation. In conclusion, GAL has potential protective effects on testicular damage secondary to RA via counteracting testicular inflammation, apoptosis, and inhibiting IL-6/JAK/STAT3/SOCS3 signaling.

HIF-1α serves as a co-linker between AD and T2DM

Alzheimer's disease (AD)-related brain deterioration is linked to the type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) features hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance. Hypoxia as a common risk factor for both AD and T2DM. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) acts as the main regulator of the hypoxia response and may be a key target in the comorbidity of AD and T2DM. HIF-1α expression is closely related to hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and inflammation. Tissue oxygen consumption disrupts HIF-1α homeostasis, leading to increased reactive oxygen species levels and the inhibition of insulin receptor pathway activity, causing neuroinflammation, insulin resistance, abnormal Aβ deposition, and tau hyperphosphorylation. HIF-1α activation also leads to the deposition of Aβ by promoting the abnormal shearing of amyloid precursor protein and inhibiting the degradation of Aβ, and it promotes tau hyperphosphorylation by activating oxidative stress and the activation of astrocytes, which further exasperates AD. Therefore, we believe that HIF-α has great potential as a target for the treatment of AD. Importantly, the intracellular homeostasis of HIF-1α is a more crucial factor than its expression level.

Alzheimer Disease Treatment With Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors and Incident Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Importance

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a serious and common ophthalmologic disorder that is hypothesized to result, in part, from inflammatory reactions in the macula. Alzheimer disease (AD) treatment, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), have anti-inflammatory effects and it remains unclear if they modify the risk of AMD.

Objective

To investigate the association between AChEI medications and the incidence of AMD.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This propensity score-matched retrospective cohort study took place at health care facilities within the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system from January 2000 through September 2023. Participants included patients diagnosed with AD between ages 55 and 80 years with no preexisting diagnosis of AMD in the VA database.

Exposure

AChEIs prescription dispensed as pharmacologic treatments for AD.

Main Outcomes and Measure

The first diagnosis of AMD.

Results

A total of 21 823 veterans with AD (mean [SD] age, 72.3 [6.1] years; 21 313 male participants [97.7%] and 510 female participants [2.3%]) were included. Propensity score-matched Cox model reveals each additional year of AChEI treatment was associated with a 6% lower hazard of AMD (hazard ratio, 0.94; 95% CI, (0.89-0.99).

Conclusions and Relevance

This observational study reports a small reduction in the risk of AMD among veterans with AD receiving AChEIs. Randomized clinical trials would be needed to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship and further research is required to validate these findings across diverse populations.

Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Stroke Pathobiology: Current Therapeutic Avenues and Future Perspective

Neuroinflammation is a key pathophysiological feature of stroke-associated brain injury. A local innate immune response triggers neuroinflammation following a stroke via activating inflammasomes. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has been heavily implicated in stroke pathobiology. Following a stroke, several stimuli have been suggested to trigger the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Recent studies have advanced the understanding and revealed several new players regulating NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation. This article discussed recent advancements in NLRP3 assembly and highlighted stroke-induced mitochondrial dysfunction as a major checkpoint to regulating NLRP3 activation. The NLRP3 inflammasome activation leads to caspase-1-dependent maturation and release of IL-1β, IL-18, and gasdermin D. In addition, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome activation and downstream signaling has been shown to attenuate brain infarction and improve the neurological outcome in experimental models of stroke. Several drug-like small molecules targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome are in different phases of development as novel therapeutics for various inflammatory conditions, including stroke. Understanding how these molecules interfere with NLRP3 inflammasome assembly is paramount for their better optimization and/or development of newer NLRP3 inhibitors. In this review, we summarized the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome and discussed the recent advances in understanding the upstream regulators of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation following stroke. Additionally, we critically examined the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated signaling in stroke pathophysiology and the development of therapeutic modalities to target the NLRP3 inflammasome-related signaling for stroke treatment.

In-depth analyses of lncRNA and circRNA expression in the hippocampus of LPS-induced AD mice by Byu d Mar 25

Byu d Mar 25 (BM25) has been verified to have neuroprotective effects in Alzheimer's disease (AD) mice. However, the molecular mechanism remains unclear. We aimed to investigate the expression profiling of lncRNAs and circRNAs by microarray analysis. Six hippocampus from LPS-mediated AD mice model treated with (normal saline (NS) (n = 3) and AD mice model treated with BM25 (n = 3) were selected. Microarray analysis was performed to detect the expression profiles of lncRNAs and circRNAs in hippocampus. Differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs, mRNAs and circRNAs were identified through scatter plot and volcano plot filtering with a threshold of fold-change ≥2 and P  ≤ 0.05. Co-expression network is analyzed by Circos software. Cis - and Trans - regulation were analyzed using RIsearch-2.0 and FEELNC softwares. LncRNA-transcription factors (TFs) and LncRNA-Target-TFs network were analyzed by Clusterprofiler software. The prediction of miRNAs bind to circRNAs were performed with miRNAbase. A total of 113 DElncRNAs, 117 DEmRNAs, and 4 DEcircRNAs were detected. The pathway analysis showed the mRNAs that correlated with lncRNAs were involved in apoptosis, inflammatory mediator regulation of TRP channels, NF-kappa B and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. The lncRNA-TFs network analysis suggested the lncRNAs were mostly regulated by Ncoa1, Phf5a, Klf6, Lmx1b, and Pax3. Additionally, lncRNA-target-TFs network analysis indicated the GATA6, Junb, Smad1, Twist1, and Mafb mostly regulate the same lncRNAs: XR_001783430.1 and NR_051982.1. Furthermore, 480 miRNAs were predicted binding to 4 identified circRNAs. The BM25 may affect AD by regulating the expression of lncRNAs and circRNAs, which could regulate the expressions of mRNAs or miRNAs by LncRNA-Target-TFs network.

Quantification of COX-2 Level in Alzheimer's Disease Patients to Develop Potential Blood-Based Biomarker for Early Diagnosis and Therapeutic Target

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease and symptoms develop gradually over many years. The current direction for medication development in AD is focused on neuro-inflammation and oxidative stress. Amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition activates microglia leading to neuro-inflammation and neurodegeneration induced by activation of COX-2 via NFκB p50 in glioblastoma cells.

Objective

The study aimed to evaluate the concentration of COX-2 and NFκB p50 in serum of AD, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and geriatric control (GC) and to establish a blood-based biomarker for early diagnosis and its therapeutic implications.

Methods

Proteins and their mRNA level in blood of study groups were measured by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), respectively. The level of protein was further validated by western blot. The binding study of designed peptide against COX-2 by molecular docking was verified by SPR. The rescue of neurotoxicity by peptide was also checked by MTT assay on SH-SY5Y cells (neuroblastoma cell line).

Results

Proteins and mRNA were highly expressed in AD and MCI compared to GC. However, COX-2 decreases with disease duration. The peptide showed binding affinity with COX-2 with low dissociation constant in SPR and rescued the neurotoxicity of SH-SY5Y cells by decreasing the level of Aβ, tau, and pTau proteins.

Conclusions

It can be concluded that COX-2 protein can serve as a potential blood-based biomarker for early detection and can be a good platform for therapeutic intervention for AD.

Advances in the study of the effects of gut microflora on microglia in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a central nervous system (CNS) degenerative disorder, is caused by various factors including β-amyloid toxicity, hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, oxidative stress, and others. The dysfunction of microglia has been associated with the onset and advancement of different neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders, such as AD. The gut of mammals harbors a vast and complex population of microorganisms, commonly referred to as the microbiota. There's a growing recognition that these gut microbes are intrinsically intertwined with mammalian physiology. Through the circulation of metabolites, they establish metabolic symbiosis, enhance immune function, and establish communication with different remote cells, including those in the brain. The gut microbiome plays a crucial part in influencing the development and performance of microglia, as indicated by recent preclinical studies. Dysbiosis of the intestinal flora leads to alterations in the microglia transcriptome that regulate the interconversion of microglia subtypes. This conversation explores recent research that clarifies how gut bacteria, their byproducts, and harmful elements affect the activation and characteristics of microglia. This understanding opens doors to innovative microbial-based therapeutic strategies for early identification and treatment goals in AD.

NLRP3 inflammasome in cognitive impairment and pharmacological properties of its inhibitors

Cognitive impairment is a multifactorial and multi-step pathological process that places a heavy burden on patients and the society. Neuroinflammation is one of the main factors leading to cognitive impairment. The inflammasomes are multi-protein complexes that respond to various microorganisms and endogenous danger signals, helping to initiate innate protective responses in inflammatory diseases. NLRP3 inflammasomes produce proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin IL-1β and IL-18) by activating caspase-1. In this review, we comprehensively describe the structure and functions of the NLRP3 inflammasome. We also explore the intrinsic relationship between the NLRP3 inflammasome and cognitive impairment, which involves immune cell activation, cell apoptosis, oxidative stress, mitochondrial autophagy, and neuroinflammation. Finally, we describe NLRP3 inflammasome antagonists as targeted therapies to improve cognitive impairment.

The function of astrocytes and their role in neurological diseases

Astrocytes have countless links with neurons. Previously, astrocytes were only considered a scaffold of neurons; in fact, astrocytes perform a variety of functions, including providing support for neuronal structures and energy metabolism, offering isolation and protection and influencing the formation, function and elimination of synapses. Because of these functions, astrocytes play an critical role in central nervous system (CNS) diseases. The regulation of the secretiory factors, receptors, channels and pathways of astrocytes can effectively inhibit the occurrence and development of CNS diseases, such as neuromyelitis optica (NMO), multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease. The expression of aquaporin 4 in AS is directly related to NMO and indirectly involved in the clearance of Aβ and tau proteins in AD. Connexin 43 has a bidirectional effect on glutamate diffusion at different stages of stroke. Interestingly, astrocytes reduce the occurrence of PD through multiple effects such as secretion of related factors, mitochondrial autophagy and aquaporin 4. Therefore, this review is focused on the structure and function of astrocytes and the correlation between astrocytes and CNS diseases and drug treatment to explore the new functions of astrocytes with the astrocytes as the target. This, in turn, would provide a reference for the development of new drugs to protect neurons and promote the recovery of nerve function.

Inflammatory signaling pathways in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease with inhibitors, natural products and metabolites (Review)

The intricate nature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis poses a persistent obstacle to drug development. In recent times, neuroinflammation has emerged as a crucial pathogenic mechanism of AD, and the targeting of inflammation has become a viable approach for the prevention and management of AD. The present study conducted a comprehensive review of the literature between October 2012 and October 2022, identifying a total of 96 references, encompassing 91 distinct pharmaceuticals that have been investigated for their potential impact on AD by inhibiting neuroinflammation. Research has shown that pharmaceuticals have the potential to ameliorate AD by reducing neuroinflammation mainly through regulating inflammatory signaling pathways such as NF‑κB, MAPK, NLRP3, PPARs, STAT3, CREB, PI3K/Akt, Nrf2 and their respective signaling pathways. Among them, tanshinone IIA has been extensively studied for its anti‑inflammatory effects, which have shown significant pharmacological properties and can be applied clinically. Thus, it may hold promise as an effective drug for the treatment of AD. The present review elucidated the inflammatory signaling pathways of pharmaceuticals that have been investigated for their therapeutic efficacy in AD and elucidates their underlying mechanisms. This underscores the auspicious potential of pharmaceuticals in ameliorating AD by impeding neuroinflammation.

Levistilide A ameliorates neuroinflammation via inhibiting JAK2/STAT3 signaling for neuroprotection and cognitive improvement in scopolamine-induced Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease associated with cognitive impairment and dementia, which has become a major public health problem. There are no effective therapeutic agents used to treat AD in clinic for the extremely complex pathogenesis. Here we identify Levistilide A (LA), one of the major active natural terpene lactone constituents from Chinese herbal medicine Angelicae sinensis and Chuanxiong Rhizoma, as a potent neuroinflammation inhibitor for neuroprotection and cognitive improvement of AD. We show that LA suppresses neuronal apoptosis, restores cholinergic system function, and lowers neuroinflammation in vivo to improve scopolamine (SCOP)-induced learning and memory deficits. In addition, LA inhibits the release of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, while increasing the production of IL-4 and IL-10 for anti-inflammatory effects in LPS or Aβ-induced BV2 and HMC3 cells. Furthermore, the conditioned medium (CM) from LA-treated BV2 or HMC3 cells enhances the viability of SH-SY5Y and HT-22 cells, and LA reverses M1 to M2 phenotype transformation of BV2 and HMC3 cells accompanied by the inhibited Iba-1 expression and mRNA level of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and NOS2, and the increased expression of ARG1, CD206 and CD163. Mechanistically, we analyze JAK2/STAT3 signaling as possible targets of LA using network pharmacology approaches, and further experimentally validate that LA inhibits the phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3, and STAT3 expression within nucleus both in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, we identify LA as a potential neuroinflammation inhibitor for neuroprotection and cognitive improvement, which is expected to be a candidate for AD therapy.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived rapid drug screening system for Alzheimer's disease for the identification of novel drugs

A reliable and efficient in vitro model is needed to screen drugs for Alzheimer's disease (AD), as many drugs are currently in the developmental stage. To address this, we developed an in vitro model using amniotic membrane-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AM-MSCs) to screen novel drugs for AD. We differentiated AM-MSCs into neurons and degenerated them using beta amyloid1-42 (Aß). We then tested AD drugs, which are commercially available such as donepezil, rivastigmine, memantine, citicoline, and two novel drugs, that is, probucol, an anti-hyperlipidaemic drug, and NMJ-2, a cinnamic acid analogue for their potential to protect the cells against neurodegeneration. We used gene expression and immunofluorescence staining to assess the neuroprotective ability of these drugs. We also measured the ability of these drugs to reduce lactate dehydrogenase, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide levels, as well as their ability to stabilize the mitochondrial membrane potential and increase acetylcholine (ACh) levels. The AD drugs and novel drugs reduced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress, stabilized mitochondrial membrane potential, and restored ACh levels. Furthermore, they reduced BACE1 expression, with a concomitant increase in the expression of cholinergic markers. This AM-MSCs-based AD-like model has immense potential to be an accurate human model and an alternative to animal models for testing a large number of lead compounds in a short time. Our results also suggest that the novel drugs probucol and NMJ-2 may protect against Aß-induced neurodegeneration.

Therapeutic Intervention of Neuroinflammatory Alzheimer Disease Model by Inhibition of Classical Complement Pathway with the Use of Anti-C1r Loaded Exosomes

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease associated with memory decline, cognitive impairment, amyloid plaque formation and tau tangles. Neuroinflammation has been shown to be a precursor to apparent amyloid plaque accumulation and subsequent synaptic loss and cognitive decline. In this study, the ability of a novel, small molecule, T-ALZ01, to inhibit neuroinflammatory processes was analyzed. T-ALZ01, an inhibitor of complement component C1r, demonstrated a significant reduction in the levels of the inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 and TNF-α in vitro. An LPS-induced animal model, whereby animals were injected intraperitoneally with 0.5 mg/kg LPS, was used to analyze the effect of T-ALZ01 on neuroinflammation in vivo. Moreover, exosomes (nanosized, endogenous extracellular vehicles) were used as drug delivery vehicles to facilitate intranasal administration of T-ALZ01 across the blood-brain barrier. T-ALZ01 demonstrated significant reduction in degenerating neurons and the activation of resident microglia and astrocytes, as well as inflammatory markers in vivo. This study demonstrates a significant use of small molecule complement inhibitors via exosome drug delivery as a possible therapeutic in disorders characterized by neuroinflammation, such AD.

Microglia mediated neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases: A review on the cell signaling pathways involved in microglial activation

Microglia, the immune sentinels of the central nervous system (CNS), have emerged to be the central players in many neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. Recent studies on large genome databases and omics studies in fact provide support to the idea that microglial cells could be the drivers of these diseases. Microglial cells have the capacity to undergo morphological and phenotypic transformations depending on its microenvironment. From the homeostatic ramified state, they can shift their phenotypes between the two extremes, known as the proinflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, with intermediate transitional states, characterized by different transcriptional signature and release of inflammatory mediators. The temporal regulation of the release of the inflammatory factors are critical for damage control and steering the microglia back towards homeostatic conditions. A dysregulation in these can lead to excessive tissue damage and neuronal death. Therefore, targeting the cell signaling pathways that are the underpinnings of microglial modulations are considered to be an important avenue for treatment of various neurodegenerative diseases. In this review we have discussed various signaling pathways that trigger microglial activation from its ramified state and highlight the mechanisms of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation that are associated with various neurodegenerative diseases. Most of the cellular factors that drive microglia towards a proinflammatory phenotype are components of the immune system signaling pathways and cell proliferation, along with certain ion channels. The anti-inflammatory phenotype is mainly elicited by purinoceptors, metabolic receptors and other receptors that primarily suppress the production proinflammatory mediators.

Ginkgolide attenuates memory impairment and neuroinflammation by suppressing the NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway in Alzheimer's disease

The NLRP3 inflammasome is involved in the neuroinflammatory pathway of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aim of this study is to explore the roles and underlying mechanisms of ginkgolide (Baiyu®) on amyloid precursor protein (APP)/presenilin 1 (PS1) transgenic mice and a murine microglial cell line, BV-2. In the present study, the APP/PS1 mice were administered with ginkgolide, followed by a Morris water maze test. The mice were then euthanized to obtain brain tissue for histological and Aβ analysis. Additionally, BV-2 cells were pretreated with ginkgolide and then incubated with Aβ1-42 peptide. NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1 mRNA and protein expression in brain tissue of mice and BV-2 cells were quantified by real-time PCR and western blotting, as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 levels by lucigenin technique and ELISA. Compared with the APP/PS1 mice, ginkgolide-treated mice demonstrated the shortened escape latency, reduced plaques, less inflammatory cell infiltration and neuron loss in the hippocampi of APP/PS1 mice. The levels of NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, ROS, IL-1β, and IL-18 were also decreased in the brain tissue of APP/PS1 mice or Aβ1-42-treated BV-2 cells following ginkgolide treatment. Ginkgolide exerted protective effects on AD, at least partly by inactivating the NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway.

Therapeutic Effects of Combination of Nebivolol and Donepezil: Targeting Multifactorial Mechanisms in ALS

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord. Although the disease's pathophysiological mechanism remains poorly understood, multifactorial mechanisms affecting motor neuron loss converge to worsen the disease. Although two FDA-approved drugs, riluzole and edaravone, targeting excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, respectively, are available, their efficacies are limited to extending survival by only a few months. Here, we developed combinatorial drugs targeting multifactorial mechanisms underlying key components in ALS disease progression. Using data analysis based on the genetic information of patients with ALS-derived cells and pharmacogenomic data of the drugs, a combination of nebivolol and donepezil (nebivolol-donepezil) was identified for ALS therapy. Here, nebivolol-donepezil markedly reduced the levels of cytokines in the microglial cell line, inhibited nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) nucleus translocation in the HeLa cell and substantially protected against excitotoxicity-induced neuronal loss by regulating the PI3K-Akt pathway. Nebivolol-donepezil significantly promoted the differentiation of neural progenitor cells (NPC) into motor neurons. Furthermore, we verified the low dose efficacy of nebivolol-donepezil on multiple indices corresponding to the quality of life of patients with ALS in vivo using SOD1G93A mice. Nebivolol-donepezil delayed motor function deterioration and halted motor neuronal loss in the spinal cord. Drug administration effectively suppressed muscle atrophy by mitigating the proportion of smaller myofibers and substantially reducing phospho-neurofilament heavy chain (pNF-H) levels in the serum, a promising ALS biomarker. High-dose nebivolol-donepezil significantly prolonged survival and delayed disease onset compared with vehicle-treated mice. These results indicate that the combination of nebivolol-donepezil efficiently prevents ALS disease progression, benefiting the patients' quality of life and life expectancy.

Anti-inflammatory role of gold nanoparticles in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes memory and cognitive dysfunction and reduces a person's decision-making and reasoning functions. AD is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly. Patients with AD have increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the nervous system, and the sustained inflammatory response impairs neuronal function. Meanwhile, long-term use of anti-inflammatory drugs can reduce the incidence of AD to some extent. This confirms that anti-neuroinflammation may be an effective treatment for AD. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are an emerging nanomaterial with promising physicochemical properties, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. AuNPs reduce neuroinflammation by inducing macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, blocking leukocyte adhesion, and decreasing oxidative stress. Therefore, AuNPs are gradually attracting the interest of scholars and are used for treating inflammatory diseases and drug delivery. Herein, we explored the role and mechanism of AuNPs in treating neuroinflammation in AD. The use of AuNPs for treating AD is a topic worth exploring in the future, not only to help solve a global public health problem but also to provide a reference for treating other neuroinflammatory diseases.

Novel Combination of Choline with Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, and Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wetts Reduced Oxidative Stress in Microglia Cells, Promoting Neuroprotection

Memory deficit is one of the major negative outcomes of chronic stress. Cholinergic system modulates memory not only through the neuronal cells, but also via interactions with non-neuronal cells, suggesting that microglia can influence synaptic function and plasticity, contributing to cognition and memory function. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (WS) and Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst (BM), are traditional herbal medicinal products used for the temporary relief of symptoms of stress. The aim of this study was to investigate whether choline (CLN) activity could be enhanced via an association with adaptogens: WS and BM extracts. First, we optimized an in vitro model of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-induced oxidative stress on microglial BV2 cells. CRH 100 nM reduced BV2 cell viability and induced morphological changes and neurotoxicity after 24 h of microglia stimulation. Moreover, it induced an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and dysregulated antioxidant protein (i.e., SIRT-1 and NRF-2). The association between choline and adaptogens (CBW) 10 μg/mL counteracted the effect of CRH on BV2 cells and reduced the neurotoxicity produced by BV2 CRH-conditioned medium in the SH-SY5Y cell lines. CBW 200 mg/kg produced an ameliorative effect on recognition memory in the novel object recognition test (NORT) test in mice. In conclusion, combining choline with adaptogen plant extracts might represent a promising intervention in chronic stress associated with memory disturbances through the attenuation of microglia-induced oxidative stress.

Exploring the role of COX-2 in Alzheimer's disease: Potential therapeutic implications of COX-2 inhibitors

This review highlights the potential role of cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme (COX-2) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the potential therapeutic use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the management of AD. In addition to COX-2 enzymes role in inflammation, the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, the review emphasizes that COXs-2 have a crucial role in normal synaptic activity and plasticity, and have a relationship with acetylcholine, tau protein, and beta-amyloid (Aβ) which are the main causes of Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the review points out that COX-2 enzymes have a relationship with kinase enzymes, including Cyclin Dependent Kinase 5 (CDK5) and Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β (GSK3β), which are known to play a role in tau phosphorylation and are strongly associated with Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, the use of drugs like NSAIDs may be a hopeful approach for managing AD. However, results from studies examining the effectiveness of NSAIDs in treating AD have been mixed and further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which COX-2 and NSAIDs may be involved in the development and progression of AD and to identify new therapeutic strategies.

Observing Extracellular Vesicles Originating from Endothelial Cells in Vivo Demonstrates Improved Astrocyte Function Following Ischemic Stroke via Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogens

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) obtained from endothelial cells (ECs) have significant therapeutic potential in the clinical management of individuals with ischemic stroke (IS) because they effectively treat ischemic stroke in animal models. However, because molecular probes with both high labeling efficiency and tracer stability are lacking, monitoring the actions of EC-EVs in the brain remains difficult. The specific intracellular targets in the brain that EC-EVs act on to produce their protective effects are still unknown, greatly impeding their use in clinical settings. For this research, we created a probe that possessed aggregation-induced emission (AIE) traits (namely, TTCP), enabling the effective labeling of EC-EVs while preserving their physiological properties. In vitro, TTCP simultaneously had a higher EC-EV labeling efficiency and better tracer stability than the commercial EV tags PKH-67 and DiI. In vivo, TTCP precisely tracked the actions of EC-EVs in a mouse IS model without influencing their protective effects. Furthermore, through the utilization of TTCP, it was determined that astrocytes were the specific cells affected by EC-EVs and that EC-EVs exhibited a safeguarding impact on astrocytes following cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. These protective effects encompassed the reduction of the inflammatory reaction and apoptosis as well as the enhancement of cell proliferation. Further analysis showed that miRNA-155-5p carried by EC-EVs is responsible for these protective effects via regulation of the c-Fos/AP-1 pathway; this information provided a strategy for IS therapy. In conclusion, TTCP has a high EC-EV labeling efficiency and favorable in vivo tracer stability during IS therapy. Moreover, EC-EVs are absorbed by astrocytes during cerebral I/R injury and promote the restoration of neurological function through the regulation of the c-Fos/AP-1 signaling pathway.

Nattokinase prevents β-amyloid peptide (Aβ1-42) induced neuropsychiatric complications, neuroinflammation and BDNF signalling disruption in mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by abnormal accumulation of extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neuronal damage. Although AD is typically considered a cognitive neurodegenerative disorder, almost all people diagnosed with AD develop neuropsychiatric complications at some stage in their life span. The present study investigated the effect of chronic Nattokinase (NK) administration on β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ1-42) induced neuropsychiatric conditions (depression-like behaviour, anxiety, and memory impairment) in mice. Aβ1-42 peptide injected mice demonstrated depression, anxiety, and impairment of cognitive abilities evaluated as increased immobility time in forced swim test (FST), decreased open arm time/entries in elevated plus maze (EPM) and reference and working memory error in radial arm maze (RAM) respectively with elevation in Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), reduction in Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) immunocontent within the hippocampus. Chronic administration of NK (50-100 mg/kg, i.p.) from day 8-27, prevented depression-like behaviour, anxiety, and memory impairment and normalized the neurochemical alteration within the hippocampus of mice injected with Aβ1-42 peptide. The effect of NK on psychiatric complications, learning, and memory was comparable to peripheral donepezil treatment. This study suggests that NK improves learning, memory impairment, and neuropsychiatric complications possibly through the downregulation of neuroinflammatory pathways and restoring BDNF signalling in AD.

Combined Donepezil with Astaxanthin via Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Effective Delivery to Brain for Alzheimer's Disease in Rat Model

Introduction

Donepezil (DPL), a specific acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, is used as a first-line treatment to improve cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and it might have a disease modifying effect. Astaxanthin (AST) is a natural potent antioxidant with neuroprotective, anti-amyloidogenic, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed to prepare nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) co-loaded with donepezil and astaxanthin (DPL/AST-NLCs) and evaluate their in vivo efficacy in an AD-like rat model 30 days after daily intranasal administration.

Methods

DPL/AST-NLCs were prepared using a hot high-shear homogenization technique, in vitro examined for their physicochemical parameters and in vivo evaluated. AD induction in rats was performed by aluminum chloride. The cortex and hippocampus were isolated from the brain of rats for biochemical testing and histopathological examination.

Results

DPL/AST-NLCs showed z-average diameter 149.9 ± 3.21 nm, polydispersity index 0.224 ± 0.017, zeta potential -33.7 ± 4.71 mV, entrapment efficiency 81.25 ±1.98% (donepezil) and 93.85 ±1.75% (astaxanthin), in vitro sustained release of both donepezil and astaxanthin for 24 h, spherical morphology by transmission electron microscopy, and they were stable at 4-8 ± 2°C for six months. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed that donepezil and astaxanthin were molecularly dispersed in the NLC matrix in an amorphous state. The DPL/AST-NLC-treated rats showed significantly lower levels of nuclear factor-kappa B, malondialdehyde, β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1, caspase-3, amyloid beta (Aβ1‑42), and acetylcholinesterase, and significantly higher levels of glutathione and acetylcholine in the cortex and hippocampus than the AD-like untreated rats and that treated with donepezil-NLCs. DPL/AST-NLCs showed significantly higher anti-amyloidogenic, antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects, resulting in significant improvement in the cortical and hippocampal histopathology.

Conclusion

Nose-to-brain delivery of DPL/AST-NLCs is a promising strategy for the management of AD.

Network pharmacology and experimental verification to explore the anti-migraine mechanism of Yufeng Ningxin Tablet

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Yufeng Ningxin Tablet (YNT) is a traditional Chinese medicine formula, that has been used clinically to treat migraine for many years. It is composed of one herb Pueraria lobata var. lobata (Willd.) Ohwi (Relevant Chinese name: Gegen). Previously, it has been recorded by traditional Chinese doctor that Gegen could be used as medicine to treat migraine. However, the underlying mechanism of action remains to be investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

It was to explore the effect and mechanism of YNT on migraine based on network pharmacology and experimental verification.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

First, with the network pharmacology, the effective chemical components and target genes of YNT were filtrated, the YNT-compound-migraine-targets network was constructed. The protein-protein interaction network (PPI) and literature reports were combined to identify potential targets of YNT in the treatment of migraine. Then, the representative compounds of YNT were characterized by LC-MS/MS and the major effect components were identified. Finally, the prediction results of network pharmacology were verified by animal and cell experiments.

RESULTS

7 bioactive components of YNT could act on 97 migraine potential targets. The 5 bioactive components could be characterized comprehensively of YNT. The key therapeutic targets and pathways were collected including 5-HT, CGRP, inflammation and nociceptive factors, and NF-κB signaling pathway. Animal experiments showed that YNT could increase the expression level of 5-HT and reduce the expression of CGRP, NF-κB, c-fos and IL-1β. YNT could inhibit LPS-induced neuroinflammation by NF-κB in BV2 cells in vitro. Western blotting analysis results showed YNT inhibited the NF-κB and phospho-NF-κB levels.

CONCLUSIONS

It is the first time to verify the consistency between the metabolic components of YNT by LC-MS/MS and the active components predicted by network pharmacology. Meanwhile, the potential mechanism of YNT in the treatment of migraine was studied by combining network pharmacology and in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Methylene blue reduces the serum levels of interleukin-6 and inhibits STAT3 activation in the brain and the skin of lipopolysaccharide-administered mice

It is valuable to search for novel and economical agents for inhibiting STAT3 activation and blocking increases in IL-6 levels, due to the important roles of STAT3 and IL-6 in inflammation. Since Methylene Blue (MB) has shown therapeutical potential for multiple diseases, it has become increasingly important to investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects of MB on inflammation. Using a mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the effects of MB on inflammation, obtaining the following findings: First, MB administration attenuated the LPS-induced increases in the serum levels of IL-6; second, MB administration attenuated LPS-induced STAT3 activation of the brain; and third, MB administration attenuated LPS-induced STAT3 activation of the skin. Collectively, our study has suggested that MB administration can decrease the levels of IL-6 and STAT3 activation - two important factors in inflammation. Since MB is a clinically used and relatively economical drug, our findings have suggested therapeutic potential of MB for multiple inflammation-associated diseases due to its effects on STAT3 activation and IL-6 levels.

Parthenolide alleviates microglia-mediated neuroinflammation via MAPK/TRIM31/NLRP3 signaling to ameliorate cognitive disorder

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Neuroinflammation, mainly mediated by microglia, is involved in the evolution of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Parthenolide (PTL) has diverse pharmacological effects such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress. However, whether PTL can modulate microglia-mediated neuroinflammation to improve cognitive impairment in amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) mice is unclear.

METHODS

LPS/IFN-γ-induced BV2 and HMC3 microglia were used for in vitro experiments; the roles of PTL on anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, phagocytic activity, and neuroprotection were assessed by inflammatory cytokines assays, dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, phagocytosis, and cell counting kit-8 assays. Western blot and immunofluorescence（IF） were used to examine related molecular mechanisms. In vivo, IF and western blot were applied in LPS-treated wild-type (WT) mice and APP/PS1 mice models. The Morris water maze test was performed to evaluate the effects of PTL on cognitive disorders.

RESULTS

In vitro, PTL dramatically suppressed proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α release and increased IL-10 levels. Moreover, PTL decreased reactive oxygen species and restored microglial phagocytic activities via the AKT/MAPK/ NF-κB signaling pathway. Importantly, we discovered that PTL obviously enhanced TRIM31 expression and siTRIM31 elevated proinflammatory cytokine levels. Furthermore, we determined that the anti-inflammatory role of PTL was mostly TRIM31/NLRP3 signaling-dependent. In vivo, PTL alleviated microgliosis and astrogliosis in LPS-treated WT and APP/PS1 mice. Additionally, PTL significantly ameliorated memory and learning deficits in cognitive behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

PTL improved cognitive and behavioral dysfunction, inhibited neuroinflammation, and showed potent anti-neuroinflammatory activity and neuroprotective effects by improving the MAPK/TRIM31/NLRP3 axis. Our study emphasized the therapeutic potential of PTL for improving cognitive disorders during AD progression.

The potential effects of festidinol treatment against the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis in D-galactose and aluminum chloride-induced Alzheimer's-like pathology in mouse brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that causes cognitive and memory decline. Neuroinflammation is currently considered as being an important pathology in AD. NLRP3, the nucleotide-binding and oligomerization (NOD) domain-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain (PYD)-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a critical component of the innate immune response, which plays a key role in the development and progression of AD. Therefore, the NLRP3 inflammasome is one of the target treatments for AD. This study aimed to investigate the effect of festidinol, a flavanol isolated from Dracaena conferta, against NLRP3 inflammasome and blood-brain barrier damage in D-galactose and aluminum chloride-induced mice. The induced mice received D-galactose (150 mg/kg) and aluminum chloride (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for 90 days to generate cognitive impairment. Festidinol (30 mg/kg) and donepezil (5 mg/kg) were given by oral gavage for 90 days along with the induction. Then, learning and memory behavior, and molecular and morphological changes in the brain, which related to NLRP3 inflammasome, pyroptosis and the blood-brain barrier were measured. The results indicated that festidinol markedly decreased the escape latency and increased the time in the target quadrant in the Morris water maze test. Furthermore, festidinol significantly decreased the ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. Festidinol also markedly decreased the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), gasdermin-D, N-terminal (GSDMD-N) and caspase-3. Pertinent to the blood-brain barrier, festidinol only decreased tumor necrosis factor-α and matrix metallopeptidase-9, but did not restore the tight junction components. In conclusion, festidinol can restore learning and memory and provide a protective effect against the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis.

Non-prophylactic resveratrol-mediated protection of neurite integrity under chronic hypoxia is associated with reduction of Cav1.2 channel expression and calcium overloading

Cellular hypoxia is a major cause of oxidative stress, culminating in neuronal damage in neurodegenerative diseases. Numerous ex vivo studies have implicated that hypoxia episodes leading to disruption of Ca²⁺ homeostasis and redox status contribute to the progression of various neuropathologies and cell death. Isolation and maintenance of primary cell culture being cost-intensive, the details of the time course relationship between Ca²⁺ overload, L-type Ca²⁺ channel function, and neurite retraction under chronic and long-term hypoxia remain undefined. In order to explore the effect of oxidative stress and Ca²⁺ overload on neurite length, first, we developed a 5-day-long neurite outgrowth model using N2a cell line. Second, we propose a chronic hypoxia model to investigate the modulation of the L-type Ca²⁺ channel (Cav1.2) and oxidative resistance gene (OXR1) expression level during the process of neurite retraction and neuronal damage over 32 h. Thirdly, we developed a framework for quantitative analysis of cytosolic Ca²⁺, superoxide formation, neurite length, and constriction formation in individual cells using live imaging that provides an understanding of molecular targets. Our findings suggest that an increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ is a feature of an early phase of hypoxic stress. Further, we demonstrate that augmentation in the L-type channel leads to amplification in Ca²⁺ overload, ROS accumulation, and a reduction in neurite length during the late phase of hypoxic stress. Next, we demonstrated that non-prophylactic treatment of resveratrol leads to the reduction of calcium overloading under chronic hypoxia via lowering of L-type channel expression. Finally, we demonstrate that resveratrol-mediated reduction of Cav1.2 channel and STAT3 expression are associated with retention of neurite integrity. The proposed in vitro model assumes significance in the context of drug designing and testing that demands monitoring of neurite length and constriction formations by imaging before animal testing.

Neuroprotective Effects of Savinin on LPS-Induced Neuroinflammation In Vivo via Regulating MAPK/NF-κB Pathway and NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

The traditional herb Eleutherococcus henryi Oliv. is commonly used to treat inflammatory conditions including rheumatism, arthritis, and hepatitis, as well as mental fatigue and amnesia, according to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory. Savinin is a natural lignan obtained from the roots of E. henryi. The present study was undertaken to determine whether savinin can relieve LPS-induced neuroinflammation and if so, what the mechanism is. Groups of male C57BL/6 mice were administered savinin (5, 10, 20 mg/kg) and DEX (10 mg/kg) by gavage once daily for a continuous 7 days. On the 5th day of continuous pre-administration, LPS (2.5 mg/kg) was injected into the lateral ventricles of the mice for modeling 48 h. We found that treatment with savinin decreased the levels of neuroinflammatory cytokines and histopathological alterations dramatically. Consequently, it improved the LPS-induced neuroinflammatory response in mice. Furthermore, savinin inhibited the up-regulated expression of related proteins in the activated MAPK/NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways caused by LPS. Docking studies demonstrated the binding of savinin to three receptors (MAPK, NF-κB and NLRP3) using a well-fitting mode. These findings suggest that savinin may suppress neuroinflammation induced by LPS in vivo via modulating MAPK/NF-κB and NLRP3 signaling pathways.

Unique, Specific CART Receptor-Independent Regulatory Mechanism of CART(55-102) Peptide in Spinal Nociceptive Transmission and Its Relation to Dipeptidyl-Peptidase 4 (DDP4)

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptides are involved in several physiological and pathological processes, but their mechanism of action is unrevealed due to the lack of identified receptor(s). We provided evidence for the antihyperalgesic effect of CART(55-102) by inhibiting dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 (DPP4) in astrocytes and consequently reducing neuroinflammation in the rat spinal dorsal horn in a carrageenan-evoked inflammation model. Both naturally occurring CART(55-102) and CART(62-102) peptides are present in the spinal cord. CART(55-102) is not involved in acute nociception but regulates spinal pain transmission during peripheral inflammation. While the full-length peptide with a globular motif contributes to hyperalgesia, its N-terminal inhibits this process. Although the anti-hyperalgesic effects of CART(55-102), CART(55-76), and CART(62-76) are blocked by opioid receptor antagonists in our inflammatory models, but not in neuropathic Seltzer model, none of them bind to any opioid or G-protein coupled receptors. DPP4 interacts with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signalling in spinal astrocytes and enhances the TLR4-induced expression of interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha contributing to inflammatory pain. Depending on the state of inflammation, CART(55-102) is processed in the spinal cord, resulting in the generation of biologically active isoleucine-proline-isoleucine (IPI) tripeptide, which inhibits DPP4, leading to significantly decreased glia-derived cytokine production and hyperalgesia.

Rosmarinic acid potentiates and detoxifies tacrine in combination for Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

There is no doubt that Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the greatest threats facing mankind today. Within the next few decades, Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) will be the most widely used treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The withdrawal of the first generation AChEIs drug Tacrine (TAC)/ Cognex from the market as a result of hepatotoxicity has always been an interesting case study. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a natural compound of phenolic acids that has pharmacological activity for inhibiting Alzheimer's disease, as well as liver protection.

PURPOSE AND STUDY DESIGN

In this study, we determined that RA can reduce the hepatotoxicity of TAC, and both of them act synergistically to inhibit the progression of AD in mice.

METHODS

In addition to the wild type mice (WT) group, the 6-month-old APP/PS1 (APPswe/PSEN1dE9) double-transgenic (Tg) mice were randomly divided into 6 groups: Tg group, TAC group, RA group, TAC+Silymarin (SIL) group, TAC+RA-L (Rosmarinic Acid Low Dose) goup and TAC+RA-H (Rosmarinic Acid High Dose) group. A series of experiments were carried out, including open field test, Morris water maze test, Hematoxylin - Eosin (HE) staining, Nissl staining, biochemical analysis, immunofluorescence analysis, western blotting analysis and so on.

RESULTS

RA combined with TAC could enter the brain tissue of AD mice, and the combination of drugs could better improve the cognitive behavior and brain pathological damage of AD mice, reduce the expression of A β oligomer, inhibit the deposition of A β, inhibit the activity of AChE and enhance the level of Ach in hippocampus. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that RA could alleviate the hepatotoxicity or liver injury induced by TAC. The Western blot analysis of the liver of AD mice showed that RA combined with TAC might inhibit the apoptosis of Bcl-2/Bax, reduce the programmed apoptosis mediated by caspase-3 and reduce the burden of liver induced by TAC, could inhibit the development of liver apoptosis by alleviating the hepatotoxicity of TAC and inhibiting the phosphorylation of JNK.

CONCLUSION

The potential drug combination that combines rosmarinic acid with tacrine could reduce tacrine's hepatotoxicity as well as enhance its therapeutic effect on Alzheimer's disease.

NLRP3 Inflammasome: An Emerging Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is currently the most prevalent neurological disease, and no effective and practical treatments and therapies exist. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-, leucine-rich repeat-, and pyrin domain- containing receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is vital in the human innate immune response. However, when the NLRP3 inflammasome is overactivated by persistent stimulation, several immune-related diseases, including AD, atherosclerosis, and obesity, result. This review will focus on the composition and activation mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome, the relevant mechanisms of involvement in the inflammatory response to AD, and AD treatment targeting NLRP3 inflammasome. This review aims to reveal the pathophysiological mechanism of AD from a new perspective and provide the possibility of more effective and novel strategies for preventing and treating AD.

Pre-ischemic exercise prevents inflammation and apoptosis by inhibiting MAPK pathway in ischemic stroke

Introduction

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is a major mechanism of acute brain damage in ischemic stroke. Pre-ischemic exercise is an effective method to reduce ischemic injury. However, the regulation by pre-ischemic exercise of MAPK pathway and associated mechanisms in animal models remains unclear.

Materials and methods

In this study, Male SD rats were randomly divided into sham group, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) group, and exercise plus MCAO (EX + MCAO) group for 21 days, and then was established by MCAO. Longa score was used to measure neurological deficits at 0, 1, 2, and 3 days after MCAO. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was used to observe the brain injury. The expression of MAPK pathway was quantified by western blot. The M1 microglia protein was quantified by western blot and immunofluorescence, and the level of inflammatory factor was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TUNEL staining and western blot were used to measure apoptosis.

Results

In the current study, we observed that pre-ischemic exercise effectively decreased infarct volume, neurological deficit score and brain injury in MCAO rats through suppressing the activation of p-JNK and p-ERK1/2. Further investigation revealed that pre-ischemic exercise decreased M1 microglia activation and the serum level of TNF-α and IL-1β. In addition, the increased number of TUNEL-positive cells and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio also were reversed by pre-ischemic exercise.

Conclusions

Pre-ischemic exercise can alleviate inflammatory response and apoptosis by inhibiting the MAPK pathway in MCAO rats.

Combination of Donepezil and Memantine Attenuated Cognitive Impairment Induced by Mixed Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: an In Silico Study

Little is known about the effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and the combination of memantine and donepezil on the pathogenesis of cognitive impairment. Here, we aimed to identify in silico the molecular mechanisms of the combination of memantine and donepezil that combat cognitive impairment induced by nine common EDCs using GeneMania, AutoDock Vina, Metascape, SwissADME, MIENTURNET, and miRNAsong. We observed that the mixture of memantine and donepezil had therapeutic effects on mixed EDC-induced cognitive impairment via five genes (TNF, ACHE, BAX, IL1B, and CASP3). With ACHE and TNF, donepezil and memantine both had a high docking score, respectively. The predominant connections among five mutual genes were physical interactions (77.6%). The major pathways associated with memantine and donepezil countering cognitive impairment generated by mixed EDCs were discovered to be "AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications," "pro-survival signaling of neuroprotectin D1," and "non-alcoholic fatty liver disease." The miRNAs and transcription factors implicated in memantine and donepezil protecting against mixed EDCs were hsa-miR-128-3p and hsa-miR-34a-5p, NFKB1, NFKB2, IRF8, and E2F4. The sponges' tertiary structure predictions for two major miRNAs were provided. The physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of memantine and donepezil highlighted the need for a therapeutic combination of these medications to treat cognitive impairment.

Fucoidan ameliorates LPS-induced neuronal cell damage and cognitive impairment in mice

The incidence of cognitive impairment is rising globally, but there is no effective therapy. Recent studies showed that fucoidan (Fuc), a sulfated polysaccharide enriched in brown algae, is widely used due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and prebiotic effects. However, the effects and mechanisms of Fuc on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuronal cell damage and cognitive impairment in mice need to be explored further. In the present study, we found that Fuc treatment protected HT22 cells from LPS-induced damage by inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes. Fuc exerted neuroprotective effects in mice with LPS-induced cognitive impairment by ameliorating neuroinflammation, promoting neurogenesis, and reducing blood-brain barrier and intestinal barrier permeability. Mechanistically, Fuc supplement significantly restructured the gut microbiota composition, which may be related to glucose and fructose metabolism. In conclusion, Fuc ameliorated LPS-induced neuronal cell damage and cognitive impairment in mice, suggesting that Fuc may be a medicinal and food homologous functional agent to improve cognitive function.

Sesamol Attenuates Scopolamine-Induced Cholinergic Disorders, Neuroinflammation, and Cognitive Deficits in Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease, characterized by memory loss and cognitive deficits accompanied by neuronal damage and cholinergic disorders. Sesamol, a lignan component in sesame oil, has been proven to have neuroprotective effects. This research aimed to investigate the preventive effects of sesamol on scopolamine (SCOP)-induced cholinergic disorders in C57BL/6 mice. The mice were pretreated with sesamol (100 mg/kg/d, p.o.) for 30 days. Behavioral tests indicated that sesamol supplement prevented SCOP-induced cognitive deficits. Sesamol enhanced the expression of neurotrophic factors and postsynaptic density (PSD) in SCOP-treated mice, reversing neuronal damage and synaptic dysfunction. Importantly, sesamol could balance the cholinergic system by suppressing the AChE activity and increasing the ChAT activity and M1 mAChR expression. Sesamol treatment also inhibited the expression of inflammatory factors and overactivation of microglia in SCOP-treated mice. Meanwhile, sesamol improved the antioxidant enzyme activity and suppressed oxidative stress in SCOP-treated mice and ameliorated the oxidized cellular status and mitochondrial dysfunction in SCOP-treated SH-SY5Y cells. In conclusion, these results indicated that sesamol attenuated SCOP-induced cognitive dysfunction via balancing the cholinergic system and reducing neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.

Inhibiting EGFR/HER-2 ameliorates neuroinflammatory responses and the early stage of tau pathology through DYRK1A

The FDA-approved EGFR/HER2 inhibitor varlitinib inhibits tumor growth and is used in cancer treatment. However, the neuroinflammatory response associated with EGFR/HER2 and its underlying mechanism have not been elucidated. This study evaluates the impact of varlitinib on LPS- and tau-mediated neuroinflammatory responses for the first time. In BV2 microglial cells, varlitinib reduced LPS-stimulated il-1β and/or inos mRNA levels and downstream AKT/FAK/NF-kB signaling. Importantly, varlitinib significantly diminished LPS-mediated microglial nlrp3 inflammasome activation in BV2 microglial cells. In primary astrocytes, varlitinib downregulated LPS-evoked astroglial il-1β mRNA levels, AKT signaling, and nlrp3 inflammasome activation. In LPS-treated wild-type mice, varlitinib significantly reduced LPS-stimulated glial activation and IL-1β/NLRP3 inflammasome formation. Moreover, varlitinib significantly reduced micro- and astroglial activation and tau hyperphosphorylation in 3-month-old tau-overexpressing PS19 mice by downregulating tau kinase DYRK1A levels. However, in 6-month-old tau-overexpressing PS19 mice, varlitinib only significantly diminished astroglial activation and tau phosphorylation at Thr212/Ser214. Taken together, our findings suggest that varlitinib has therapeutic potential for LPS- and tau-induced neuroinflammatory responses and the early stages of tau pathology.

Polyhydric Stigmastane-Type Steroids Derivative from Vernonia amygdalina and Their Anti-Neuroinflammatory Activity

Vernonia amygdalina Del. is a traditional medicinal plant and vegetable originating from tropical Africa. The phytochemical investigation of V. amygdalina led to eight undescribed polyhydric stigmastane-type steroids, vernonin M–T (1–8). Their gross structures and stereochemistry were elucidated by HR-ESI-MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectra, X-ray diffraction, quantum chemical computation of the ECD spectrum, and the in situ dimolybdenum CD method. The anti-neuroinflammatory activity of the isolated compounds was performed in BV-2 microglia cells. As a result, compound 1 displayed a notable anti-neuroinflammatory effect via suppressing the LPS-induced IκB degradation and restricting the activation of the PI3K/AKT and p38 MAPK pathways.

Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Model of Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms of Action, Research Application and Future Directions for Its Use

Despite advances in antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory therapies, inflammation and its consequences still remain a significant problem in medicine. Acute inflammatory responses are responsible for directly life-threating conditions such as septic shock; on the other hand, chronic inflammation can cause degeneration of body tissues leading to severe impairment of their function. Neuroinflammation is defined as an inflammatory response in the central nervous system involving microglia, astrocytes, and cytokines including chemokines. It is considered an important cause of neurodegerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a strong immunogenic particle present in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It is a major triggering factor for the inflammatory cascade in response to a Gram-negative bacteria infection. The use of LPS as a strong pro-inflammatory agent is a well-known model of inflammation applied in both in vivo and in vitro studies. This review offers a summary of the pathogenesis associated with LPS exposure, especially in the field of neuroinflammation. Moreover, we analyzed different in vivo LPS models utilized in the area of neuroscience. This paper presents recent knowledge and is focused on new insights in the LPS experimental model.

Gondoic acid alleviates LPS‑induced Kupffer cells inflammation by inhibiting ROS production and PKCθ/ERK/STAT3 signaling pathway

Kupffer cells (KCs) is the main macrophage in liver, and its inflammation is related to liver diseases. It has been shown that inflammatory macrophages are accompanied by changes in monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content. However, the effect of gondoic acid (GA) on inflammation and its underlying mechanism have not been described. In the current study, we demonstrated that GA significantly inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory factors in LPS-exposed KCs. Further research found that GA reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and enhanced the expression of antioxidant genes. Meanwhile, GA obviously blocked the LPS-stimulated PKCθ/ERK/STAT3 signaling pathways to alleviate the inflammatory responses. These results demonstrated for the first time that GA improves KCs inflammation through the inhibition of ROS production and PKCθ/ERK/STAT3 signaling pathway, the results assist in the potential development of functional foods or prodrugs based on the GA rich plant oils.