Dysregulation of TGFβ1 Activity in Cancer and Its Influence on the Quality of Anti-Tumor Immunity

Multiple aspects of matrix stiffness in cancer progression

The biophysical and biomechanical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM) are crucial in the processes of cell differentiation and proliferation. However, it is unclear to what extent tumor cells are influenced by biomechanical and biophysical changes of the surrounding microenvironment and how this response varies between different tumor forms, and over the course of tumor progression. The entire ensemble of genes encoding the ECM associated proteins is called matrisome. In cancer, the ECM evolves to become highly dysregulated, rigid, and fibrotic, serving both pro-tumorigenic and anti-tumorigenic roles. Tumor desmoplasia is characterized by a dramatic increase of α-smooth muscle actin expressing fibroblast and the deposition of hard ECM containing collagen, fibronectin, proteoglycans, and hyaluronic acid and is common in many solid tumors. In this review, we described the role of inflammation and inflammatory cytokines, in desmoplastic matrix remodeling, tumor state transition driven by microenvironment forces and the signaling pathways in mechanotransduction as potential targeted therapies, focusing on the impact of qualitative and quantitative variations of the ECM on the regulation of tumor development, hypothesizing the presence of matrisome drivers, acting alongside the cell-intrinsic oncogenic drivers, in some stages of neoplastic progression and in some tumor contexts, such as pancreatic carcinoma, breast cancer, lung cancer and mesothelioma.

Virtual Screening, Molecular Docking, and Dynamic Simulations Revealed TGF-β1 Potential Inhibitors to Curtail Cervical Cancer Progression

Cervical cancer is one of the main causes of cancer death in women globally, and its epidemiology is similar to that of a low-infectious venereal illness. Many sexual partners and early age at first intercourse have been demonstrated to have a significant influence on risk. TGF-β1 is a multifunctional cytokine that is required for cervical carcinoma metastasis, tumor development, progression, and invasion. The TGF-β1 signaling system plays a paradoxical function in cancer formation, suppressing early-stage tumor growth while increasing tumor progression and metastasis. Importantly, TGF-β1 and TGF-β receptor 1 (TGF-βR1), two components of the TGF-β signaling system, are substantially expressed in a range of cancers, including breast cancer, colon cancer, gastric cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The current study aims to investigate possible inhibitors targeting TGF-β1 using molecular docking and dynamic simulations. To target TGF-β1, we used anti-cancer drugs and small molecules. MVD was utilized for virtual screening, and the highest scoring compound was then subjected to MD simulations using Schrodinger software package v2017-1 (Maestro v11.1) to identify the most favorable lead interactions against TGF-β1. The Nilotinib compound has shown the least XP Gscore of -2.581 kcal/mol, 30ns MD simulations revealing that the Nilotinib- TGF-β1 complex possesses the lowest energy of -77784.917 kcal/mol. Multiple parameters, including Root Mean Square Deviation, Root Mean Square Fluctuation, and Intermolecular Interactions, were used to analyze the simulation trajectory. Based on the results; we conclude that the ligand nilotinib appears to be a promising prospective TGF-β1inhibitor for reducing TGF-β1 expression ad halting cervical cancer progression.

Mapping Cellular Interactions from Spatially Resolved Transcriptomics Data

Cell-cell communication (CCC) is essential to how life forms and functions. However, accurate, high-throughput mapping of how expression of all genes in one cell affects expression of all genes in another cell is made possible only recently, through the introduction of spatially resolved transcriptomics technologies (SRTs), especially those that achieve single cell resolution. However, significant challenges remain to analyze such highly complex data properly. Here, we introduce a Bayesian multi-instance learning framework, spacia, to detect CCCs from data generated by SRTs, by uniquely exploiting their spatial modality. We highlight spacia's power to overcome fundamental limitations of popular analytical tools for inference of CCCs, including losing single-cell resolution, limited to ligand-receptor relationships and prior interaction databases, high false positive rates, and most importantly the lack of consideration of the multiple-sender-to-one-receiver paradigm. We evaluated the fitness of spacia for all three commercialized single cell resolution ST technologies: MERSCOPE/Vizgen, CosMx/Nanostring, and Xenium/10X. Spacia unveiled how endothelial cells, fibroblasts and B cells in the tumor microenvironment contribute to Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and lineage plasticity in prostate cancer cells. We deployed spacia in a set of pan-cancer datasets and showed that B cells also participate in PDL1/PD1 signaling in tumors. We demonstrated that a CD8+ T cell/PDL1 effectiveness signature derived from spacia analyses is associated with patient survival and response to immune checkpoint inhibitor treatments in 3,354 patients. We revealed differential spatial interaction patterns between γδ T cells and liver hepatocytes in healthy and cancerous contexts. Overall, spacia represents a notable step in advancing quantitative theories of cellular communications.

Differential regulation of fibronectin expression and fibrillogenesis by autocrine TGF-β1 signaling in malignant and benign mammary epithelial cells

Remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a key hallmark of cancer progression. A critical component of ECM remodeling is the assembly of the glycoprotein fibronectin (FN) into insoluble fibrils, which provide a scaffold for invading vascular endothelial cells and escaping cancer cells, as well as a framework for collagen deposition and oncogenic cytokine tethering. FN fibril assembly is induced by Transforming Growth Factor-β1 (TGF-β1), which was originally identified for its role in malignant transformation. Addition of exogenous TGF-β1 drives FN fibril assembly while also upregulating endogenous TGF-β1 expression and autocrine signaling. In the current study, we sought to determine if autocrine TGF-β1 signaling plays a role in FN fibril formation in either MCF10A mammary epithelial cells, which behave similarly to healthy epithelia, or malignant MDA- MB-231 breast cancer cells. Our results show two interesting findings: first, malignant MDA-MB- 231 cells assemble less FN into fibrils, despite expressing and secreting more soluble FN; second, autocrine TGF-β1 signaling is required for FN fibril formation in MCF10A epithelial cells, even in the presence of exogenous, active TGF-β1. This suggests that autocrine TGF-β1 is signaling through distinct pathways from active exogenous TGF-β1. We hypothesized that this signaling was mediated by interactions between the TGF-β1 latency associated peptide (LAP) and αv integrins; indeed, incubating MCF10As with soluble LAP, even in the absence of the active TGF-β1 ligand, partially recovered FN fibril assembly. Taken together, these data suggests that autocrine TGF-β1 plays a critical role in FN fibril assembly, and this interaction is mediated by LAP-integrin signaling.

MFSD2A potentiates gastric cancer response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy by reprogramming the tumor microenvironment to activate T cell response

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) immunotherapy in various cancers, including gastric cancer (GC), needs to be potentiated by more effective targeting to enhance therapeutic efficacy or identifying accurate biomarkers to predict clinical responses. Here, we attempted to identify molecules predicting or/and promoting anti-PD-1 therapeutic response in advanced GC (AGC).

METHODS

The transcriptome of AGC tissues from patients with different clinical responses to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy and GC cells was analyzed by RNA sequencing. The protein and mRNA levels of the major facilitator superfamily domain containing 2A (MFSD2A) in GC cells were assessed via quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. Additionally, the regulation of anti-PD-1 response by MFSD2A was studied in tumor-bearing mice. Cytometry by Time-of-Flight, multiple immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry assays were used to explore immunological responses. The effects of MFSD2A on lipid metabolism in mice cancer tissue and GC cells was detected by metabolomics.

RESULTS

Higher expression of MFSD2A in tumor tissues of AGC patients was associated with better response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Moreover, MFSD2A expression was lower in GC tissues compared to adjacent normal tissues, and its expression was inversely correlated with GC stage. The overexpression of MFSD2A in GC cells enhanced the efficacy of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in vivo by reprogramming the tumor microenvironment (TME), characterized by increased CD8+ T cell activation and reduced its exhaustion. MFSD2A inhibited transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) release from GC cells by suppressing cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2)-prostaglandin synthesis, which consequently reprogrammed TME to promote anti-tumor T cell activation.

CONCLUSIONS

MFSD2A potentially serves as a predictive biomarker for anti-PD-1 immunotherapy response in AGC patients. MFSD2A may be a promising therapeutic target to potentiate the efficacy of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy by reprogramming the TME to promote T cells activation.

Characterization of tumor microenvironment in glioblastoma multiforme identifies ITGB2 as a key immune and stromal related regulator in glial cell types

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive form of brain tumor characterized by inter and intra-tumor heterogeneity and complex tumor microenvironment. To uncover the molecular targets in this milieu, we systematically identified immune and stromal interactions at the glial cell type level that leverages on RNA-sequencing data of GBM patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas. The perturbed genes between the high vs low immune and stromal scored patients were subjected to weighted gene co-expression network analysis to identify the glial cell type specific networks in immune and stromal infiltrated patients. The intramodular connectivity analysis identified the highly connected genes in each module. Combining it with univariable and multivariable prognostic analysis revealed common vital gene ITGB2, between the immune and stromal infiltrated patients enriched in microglia and newly formed oligodendrocytes. We found following unique hub genes in immune infiltrated patients; COL6A3 (microglia), ITGAM (oligodendrocyte precursor cells), TNFSF9 (microglia), and in stromal infiltrated patients, SERPINE1 (microglia) and THBS1 (newly formed oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells). To validate these hub genes, we used external GBM patient single cell RNA-sequencing dataset and this identified ITGB2 to be significantly enriched in microglia, newly formed oligodendrocytes, T-cells, macrophages and adipocyte cell types in both immune and stromal datasets. The tumor infiltration analysis of ITGB2 showed that it is correlated with myeloid dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, B-cells, fibroblasts and adipocytes. Overall, the systematic screening of tumor microenvironment components at glial cell types uncovered ITGB2 as a potential target in primary GBM.

Interplay of Transforming Growth Factor-Beta 1 and 3 in the Pathogenesis of Oral Submucous Fibrosis and Its Malignant Transformation: An Immunohistochemical Study

Introduction Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic and potentially malignant oral condition that poses a significant public health issue due to its insidious nature. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) is a key player in the pathogenesis of OSF and is responsible for fibrosis. This study aims to investigate the relationship between the expression of TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 in OSF and its malignant transformation by using immunohistochemistry. Materials and method The present study comprised of 120 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples, which included 20 normal oral mucosa (NOM), 80 OSF (20 each of stage 1- 4), and 20 oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) (10 each of OSCC with and without OSF), and were stained for TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 by immunohistochemistry. Data were analyzed using R software version 4.1.2, GraphPad Prism 9.3.1 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA) and Excel (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA). Results TGF-β1 immunoexpression was negative in NOM with no significant difference among OSF and OSCC (with or without OSF). TGF-β3 was significantly higher in OSCC (with or without OSF) than in OSF, and no significant difference was noted between OSF and NOM and between OSCC and NOM. A significant increase was seen in TGF-β3 compared to TGF-β1 in NOM, OSF (stage 1- 4), and OSCC with and without OSF. Conclusion TGF-β3 has higher immunoexpression levels than TGF-β1 in NOM, OSF, and OSCC. We speculate that quantitative or qualitative TGF- β3 may be inadequate to prevent or attenuate fibrosis in OSF patients. There is also a modicum of probability that TGF-β3 has a preventive rather than causative role in OSF pathogenesis. The role of TGF-β3 in OSF needs further clarification.

Association between Cardiovascular Response and Inflammatory Cytokines in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients

Cardiovascular disease is an essential comorbidity in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and represents an independent risk factor for increased mortality. Therefore, careful monitoring of cardiovascular disease is crucial in the healthcare of NSCLC patients. Inflammatory factors have previously been associated with myocardial damage in NSCLC patients, but it remains unclear whether serum inflammatory factors can be utilized to assess the cardiovascular health status in NSCLC patients. A total of 118 NSCLC patients were enrolled in this cross-sectional study, and their baseline data were collected through a hospital electronic medical record system. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to measure the serum levels of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), interleukin (IL)-18, IL-1β, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF). Statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS software. Multivariate and ordinal logistic regression models were constructed. The data revealed an increased serum level of LIF in the group using tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI)-targeted drugs compared to non-users (p < 0.001). Furthermore, serum TGF-β1 (area under the curve, AUC: 0.616) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT) (AUC: 0.720) levels were clinically evaluated and found to be correlated with pre-clinical cardiovascular injury in NSCLC patients. Notably, the serum levels of cTnT and TGF-β1 were found to indicate the extent of pre-clinical cardiovascular injury in NSCLC patients. In conclusion, the results suggest that serum LIF, as well as TGFβ1 together with cTnT, are potential serum biomarkers for the assessment of cardiovascular status in NSCLC patients. These findings offer novel insights into the assessment of cardiovascular health and underscore the importance of monitoring cardiovascular health in the management of NSCLC patients.

Protein conformation stabilized by newly formed turns for thermal resilience

Thermally stable or resilient proteins are usually stabilized at intermediate states during thermal stress to prevent irreversible denaturation. However, the mechanism by which their conformations are stabilized to resist high temperature remains elusive. Herein, we investigate the conformational and thermal stability of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), a key signaling molecule in numerous biological pathways. We report that the TGF-β1 molecule is thermally resilient as it gradually denatures during thermal treatment when the temperature increases to 90°C-100°C but recovers native folding when the temperature decreases. Using this protein as a model, further studies show the maintenance of its bioactive functional properties after thermal stress, as demonstrated by differentiation induction of NIH/3T3 fibroblasts and human mesenchymal stem cells into myofibroblasts and chondrocytes, respectively. Molecular dynamic simulations revealed that although the protein's secondary structure is unstable under thermal stress, its conformation is partially stabilized by newly formed turns. Given the importance and/or prevalence of TGF-β1 in biological processes, potential therapeutics, and the human diet, our findings encourage consideration of its thermostability for biomedical applications and nutrition.

Differential proteomic expression in indolent vulvar lichen sclerosus, transforming vulvar lichen sclerosus and normal vulvar tissue

Vulvar lichen sclerosus (VLS) confers approximately 3% risk of malignant transformation to vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC). We used unbiased proteomic methods to identify differentially expressed proteins in tissue of patients with VLS who developed VSCC compared to those who did not. We used laser capture microdissection- and nanoLC-tandem mass spectrometry to assess protein expression in individuals in normal vulvar tissue (NVT, n = 4), indolent VLS (no VSCC after at least 5 years follow-up, n = 5) or transforming VSCC (preceding VSCC, n = 5). Interferon-γ and antigen-presenting pathways are overexpressed in indolent and transforming VLS compared to NVT. There was differential expression of malignancy-related proteins in transforming VLS compared to indolent VLS (CAV1 overexpression, AKAP12 underexpression), particularly in the EIF2 translation pathway, which has been previously implicated in carcinogenesis. Results of this study provide additional molecular evidence supporting the concept that VLS is a risk factor for VSCC and highlights possible future biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets.

Qin Huang formula enhances the effect of Adriamycin in B-cell lymphoma via increasing tumor infiltrating lymphocytes by targeting toll-like receptor signaling pathway

Background

As an original traditional Chinese medicinal formula, Qin Huang formula (QHF) is used as adjuvant therapy for treating lymphoma in our hospital and has proven efficacy when combined with chemotherapy. However, the underlying mechanisms of QHF have not been elucidated.

Methods

A network pharmacological-based analysis method was used to screen the active components and predict the potential mechanisms of QHF in treating B cell lymphoma. Then, a murine model was built to verify the antitumor effect of QHF combined with Adriamycin (ADM) in vivo. Finally, IHC, ELISA, ¹⁸F-FDG PET-CT scan, and western blot were processed to reveal the intriguing mechanism of QHF in treating B cell lymphoma.

Results

The systemic pharmacological study revealed that QHF took effect following a multiple-target and multiple-pathway pattern in the human body. In vivo study showed that combination therapy with QHF and ADM potently inhibited the growth of B cell lymphoma in a syngeneic murine model, and significantly increased the proportion of tumor infiltrating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, the level of CXCL10 and IL-6 was significantly increased in the combination group. Finally, the western blot exhibited that the level of TLR2 and p38 MAPK increased in the combination therapy group.

Conclusion

QHF in combination of ADM enhances the antitumor effect of ADM via modulating tumor immune microenvironment and can be a combination therapeutic strategy for B cell lymphoma patients.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03660-8.

Genes of the Ubiquitin Proteasome System Qualify as Differential Markers in Malignant Glioma of Astrocytic and Oligodendroglial Origin

We have mined public genomic datasets to identify genes coding for components of the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) that may qualify as potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets in the three major glioma types, astrocytoma (AS), glioblastoma (GBM), and oligodendroglioma (ODG). In the Sun dataset of glioma (GEO ID: GSE4290), expression of the genes UBE2S and UBE2C, which encode ubiquitin conjugases important for cell-cycle progression, distinguished GBM from AS and ODG. KEGG analysis showed that among the ubiquitin E3 ligase genes differentially expressed, the Notch pathway was significantly over-represented, whereas among the E3 ligase adaptor genes the Hippo pathway was over-represented. We provide evidence that the UPS gene contributions to the Notch and Hippo pathway signatures are related to stem cell pathways and can distinguish GBM from AS and ODG. In the Sun dataset, AURKA and TPX2, two cell-cycle genes coding for E3 ligases, and the cell-cycle gene coding for the E3 adaptor CDC20 were upregulated in GBM. E3 ligase adaptor genes differentially expressed were also over-represented for the Hippo pathway and were able to distinguish classic, mesenchymal, and proneural subtypes of GBM. Also over-expressed in GBM were PSMB8 and PSMB9, genes encoding subunits of the immunoproteasome. Our transcriptome analysis provides a strong rationale for UPS members as attractive therapeutic targets for the development of more effective treatment strategies in malignant glioma. Ubiquitin proteasome system and glioblastoma: E1-ubiquitin-activating enzyme, E2-ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, E3-ubiquitin ligase. Ubiquitinated substrates of E3 ligases may be degraded by the proteasome. Expression of genes for specific E2 conjugases, E3 ligases, and genes for proteasome subunits may serve as differential markers of subtypes of glioblastoma.

Discovering biomarkers for hormone-dependent tumors: in silico study on signaling pathways implicated in cell cycle and cytoskeleton regulation

Malignancies dependent on hormone homeostasis include breast, ovary, cervical, prostate, testis and uterine tumors. Hormones are involved in signal transduction which orchestrate processes, such as apoptosis, proliferation, cell cycle or cytoskeleton organization. Currently, there is a need for novel biomarkers which would help to diagnose cancers efficiently. In this study, the genes implicated in signaling that is important in hormone-sensitive carcinogenesis were investigated regarding their prognostic significance. Data of seven cancer cohorts were collected from FireBrowse. 54 gene sets implicated in specific pathways were browsed through MSig database. Profiling was assessed via Monocle3, while gene ontology through PANTHER. For confirmation, correlation analysis was performed using WGCNA. Protein-protein networks were visualized via Cytoscape and impact of genes on survival, as well as cell cycle or cytoskeleton-related prognostic signatures, was tested. Several differences in expression profile were identified, some of them allowed to distinguish histology. Functional annotation revealed that various regulation of cell cycle, adhesion, migration, apoptosis and angiogenesis underlie these differences. Clinical traits, such as histological type or cancer staging, were found during evaluation of module-trait relationships. Of modules, the TopHubs (COL6A3, TNR, GTF2A1, NKX3-1) interacted directly with, e.g., PDGFB, ITGA10, SP1 or AKT3. Among TopHubs and interacting proteins, many showed an impact on hazard ratio and affected the cell cycle or cytoskeleton-related prognostic signatures, e.g., COL1A1 or PDGFB. In conclusion, this study laid the foundation for further hormone-sensitive carcinogenesis research through identification of genes which prove that crosstalk between cell cycle and cytoskeleton exists, opening avenues for future therapeutic strategies.

Cell Trafficking at the Intersection of the Tumor-Immune Compartments

Migration is an essential cellular process that regulates human organ development and homeostasis as well as disease initiation and progression. In cancer, immune and tumor cell migration is strongly associated with immune cell infiltration, immune escape, and tumor cell metastasis, which ultimately account for more than 90% of cancer deaths. The biophysics and molecular regulation of the migration of cancer and immune cells have been extensively studied separately. However, accumulating evidence indicates that, in the tumor microenvironment, the motilities of immune and cancer cells are highly interdependent via secreted factors such as cytokines and chemokines. Tumor and immune cells constantly express these soluble factors, which produce a tightly intertwined regulatory network for these cells' respective migration. A mechanistic understanding of the reciprocal regulation of soluble factor-mediated cell migration can provide critical information for the development of new biomarkers of tumor progression and of tumor response to immuno-oncological treatments. We review the biophysical andbiomolecular basis for the migration of immune and tumor cells and their associated reciprocal regulatory network. We also describe ongoing attempts to translate this knowledge into the clinic.

Cancer-Induced Metabolic Rewiring of Tumor Endothelial Cells

Simple Summary

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from preexisting ones, is a complex and demanding biological process that plays an important role in physiological, as well as pathological conditions, including cancer. During tumor growth, the induction of angiogenesis allows tumor cells to grow, invade, and metastasize. Recent evidence supports endothelial cell metabolism as a critical regulator of angiogenesis. However, whether and how tumor endothelial cells rewire their metabolism in cancer remains elusive. In this review, we discussed the metabolic signatures of tumor endothelial cells and their symbiotic, competitive, and mechanical metabolic interactions with tumor cells. We also discussed the recent works that may provide a rationale for attractive metabolic targets and strategies for developing specific therapies against tumor angiogenesis.

Abstract

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. If left untreated, tumors tend to grow and spread uncontrolled until the patient dies. To support this growth, cancer cells need large amounts of nutrients and growth factors that are supplied and distributed to the tumor tissue by the vascular system. The aberrant tumor vasculature shows deep morphological, molecular, and metabolic differences compared to the blood vessels belonging to the non-malignant tissues (also referred as normal). A better understanding of the metabolic mechanisms driving the differences between normal and tumor vasculature will allow the designing of new drugs with a higher specificity of action and fewer side effects to target tumors and improve a patient’s life expectancy. In this review, we aim to summarize the main features of tumor endothelial cells (TECs) and shed light on the critical metabolic pathways that characterize these cells. A better understanding of such mechanisms will help to design innovative therapeutic strategies in healthy and diseased angiogenesis.

Role of Biological Mediators of Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Breast Cancer Progression

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BRCA) has become the most common cancer worldwide. The tumor microenvironment (TME) in the breast exerts a crucial role in promoting BRCA initiation, progression, and metastasis. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the primary component of tumor-infiltrating immune cells through biological mediators which convert TME into malignant tumors. Combinations of these biological mediators can promote tumor growth, metastasis, angiogenesis, immune suppression, and limit the anti-tumor activity of conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

OBJECTIVES

The present study aimed to highlight the functions of several biological mediators in the breast which generate TME into malignant tumors. Furthermore, this review offers a rationale for TAM-targeted therapy as a novel treatment strategy for BRCA Results: this review emphasizes TAM-associated biological mediators of TME viz., cancer-associated fibroblasts, endothelial cells, adipocytes, tumor-derived exosomes, extracellular matrix, and other immune cells, which facilitates TME into malignant tumors. Evidence suggests that the increased infiltration of TAMs and elevated expression of TAM-related genes are associated with a poor prognosis of BRCA. Based on these findings, TAM-targeted therapeutic strategies, including inhibitors of CSF-1/CSF-1R, CCL2/CCR2, CCL5-CCR5, bisphosphonate, nanoparticle, and exosomal-targeted delivery have been developed, and are currently being employed in intervention trials.

CONCLUSION

This review concludes the roles of biological mediators of TME interact with TAMs in BRCA that provide a rationale for TAM-targeted therapy as a novel treatment approach for BRCA.

4-(N)-Docosahexaenoyl 2', 2'-difluorodeoxycytidine induces immunogenic cell death in colon and pancreatic carcinoma models as a single agent

PURPOSE

Docosahexaenoyl difluorodeoxycytidine (DHA-dFdC) is an amide with potent, broad-spectrum antitumor activity. In the present study, DHA-dFdC's ability to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) was tested using CT26 mouse colorectal cancer cells, an established cell line commonly used for identifying ICD inducers, as well as Panc-02 mouse pancreatic cancer cells.

METHODS

The three primary surrogate markers of ICD (i.e., calreticulin (CRT) surface translocation, ATP release, and high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) release) were measured in vitro. To confirm DHA-dFdC's ability to induce ICD in vivo, the gold standard mouse vaccination studies were conducted using both CT26 and Panc-02 models. Additionally, the effect of DHA-dFdC on tumor response to anti-programmed cell death protein 1 monoclonal antibody (anti-PD-1 mAb) were tested in mice with pre-established Panc-02 tumors. RNA sequencing experiments were conducted on PANC-1 human pancreatic cancer cells treated with DHA-dFdC, dFdC, or vehicle control in vitro.

RESULTS

DHA-dFdC elicited CRT surface translocation and ATP and HMGB1 release in both cell lines. Immunization of mice with CT26 or Panc-02 cells pretreated with DHA-dFdC prevented or delayed the development of corresponding secondary live challenge tumor. DHA-dFdC enabled Panc-02 tumors to respond to anti-PD-1 mAb. RNA sequencing experiments revealed that DHA-dFdC and dFdC differentially impacted genes related to the KRAS, TP53, and inflammatory pathways, and DHA-dFdC enriched for the unfolded protein response (UPR) compared to control, providing insight into DHA-dFdC's potential mechanism of inducing ICD.

CONCLUSION

DHA-dFdC is a bona fide ICD inducer and can render pancreatic tumors responsive to anti-PD-1 mAb therapy.

In vitro transcriptome response to propolis in differentiated SH-SY5Y neurons

Propolis is the extract of a resinous compound that protects plants from both cold and microorganism attack and has gained a strong and sticky property because it is transformed after being collected by honey bees. Up to date, many studies have shown that propolis exhibited various beneficial biological activities, such as antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, antimutagenic, and antitumor effects. Recent reports propounded the in vitro and in vivo neuroprotective effect of propolis; however, the exact molecular genetic mechanisms are still unclear. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the toxicogenomic and beneficial properties, including cytotoxic, antioxidant, apoptotic/necrotic as well as genotoxic effects of propolis (1.56-200 µg/ml) on differentiated SH-SY5Y neuronal cells. Additionally, microarray analysis was conducted on cell cultures following propolis application to explore gene differentiation. Differentially expressed genes were further analyzed using string software to characterize protein-protein interactions between gene pathways. Our results revealed that propolis applications could not have a prominent effect on cell viability even at concentrations up to 200 µg/ml. The highest propolis concentration induced apoptotic rather than necrotic cell death. The alterations in gene expression profiles, including CYP26A1, DHRS2, DHRS3, DYNC1I1, IGF2, ITGA4, SVIL, TGFβ1, and TGM2 could participate in the neuroprotective effects of propolis. In conclusion, propolis supplementation exerted remarkable advantageous; thus, it may offer great potential as a natural component in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Whole-genome gene expression pattern following propolis application was investigated for the first time in neuronal cell culture to fill a gap in the literature about propolis toxicogenomics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Propolis is a very rich product in terms of benefits. In addition to its antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory content, it is known to have preventive and therapeutic properties for many different ailments. On the other hand, molecular mechanisms of propolis on gene expression differentiations haven't been investigated until now. Moreover, gene expression pattern is vital for all living organisms to maintain homeostasis. Thus, we conduct an experiment series for analyzing gene expression differentiation effects on neuronal cells to understand beneficial properties of propolis. Hence, it could be possible to comment on the use of propolis as a nutritional factor and beneficial diet.

Identification of an Immune-Related Long Noncoding RNA Pairs Model to Predict Survival and Immune Features in Gastric Cancer

Background: Gastric cancer (GC) remains one of the most malignant tumors around the world, and an accurate model that reliably predicts survival and therapeutic efficacy is urgently needed. As a novel predictor for prognosis in a variety of cancers, immune-related long noncoding RNA pairs (IRlncRNAPs) have been reported to predict tumor prognosis. Herein, we integrated an IRlncRNAPs model to predict the clinical outcome, immune features, and chemotherapeutic efficacy of GC.

Methods: Based on the GC data obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and the Immunology Database and Analysis Portal (ImmPort), differentially expressed immune-related long noncoding RNAs (DEIRlncRNAs) were identified. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression and Cox regression analysis were used to select the most appropriate overall survival (OS)-related IRlncRNAPs to develop a prognostic signature. The riskScore of each sample was calculated by comparing the long noncoding RNA expression level in each IRlncRNAP. Based on the riskScore for each patient, GC patients were divided into high- and low-risk groups. Then, the correlation of the signature and riskScore with OS, clinical features, immune cell infiltration, immune-related gene (IRG) expression and chemotherapeutic efficacy in GC was analyzed.

Results: A total of 107 DEIRlncRNAs were identified which formed 4297 IRlncRNAPs. Fifteen OS-related IRlncRNAPs were selected to develop a prognostic model. GC patients could be accurately classified into high- and low-risk groups according to the riskScore of the prognostic model. The 1-, 2-, 3-, and 5-year receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for the riskScore were drawn and the area under the curve (AUC) values were found to be 0.788, 0.810, 0.825, and 0.868, respectively, demonstrating a high sensitivity and accuracy of this prognostic signature. Moreover, the immune-related riskScore was an independent risk factor. Patients showed a poorer outcome within the high-risk group. In addition, the riskScore was found to be significantly correlated with the clinical features, immune infiltration status, IRG expression, and chemotherapeutic efficacy in GC.

Conclusion: The prognostic model of IRlncRNAPs offers great promise in predicting the prognosis, immune infiltration status, and chemotherapeutic efficacy in GC, which might be helpful for the selection of chemo- and immuno-therapy of GC.

Inflammation, Extracellular Matrix Remodeling, and Proteostasis in Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer is a multifaceted and complex pathology characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation and decreased apoptosis. Most cancers are recognized by an inflammatory environment rich in a myriad of factors produced by immune infiltrate cells that induce host cells to differentiate and to produce a matrix that is more favorable to tumor cells’ survival and metastasis. As a result, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is changed in terms of macromolecules content, degrading enzymes, and proteins. Altered ECM components, derived from remodeling processes, interact with a variety of surface receptors triggering intracellular signaling that, in turn, cancer cells exploit to their own benefit. This review aims to present the role of different aspects of ECM components in the tumor microenvironment. Particularly, we highlight the effect of pro- and inflammatory factors on ECM degrading enzymes, such as metalloproteases, and in a more detailed manner on hyaluronan metabolism and the signaling pathways triggered by the binding of hyaluronan with its receptors. In addition, we sought to explore the role of extracellular chaperones, especially of clusterin which is one of the most prominent in the extracellular space, in proteostasis and signaling transduction in the tumor microenvironment. Although the described tumor microenvironment components have different biological roles, they may engage common signaling pathways that favor tumor growth and metastasis.

Bone marrow/bone pre-metastatic niche for breast cancer cells colonization: The role of mesenchymal stromal cells

Breast cancer is one of the most common oncological pathologies in women worldwide. While its early diagnosis has considerably improved, about 70 % of advanced patients develop bone metastases with a high mortality rate. Several authors demonstrated that primary breast cancer cells prepare their future metastatic niche -known as the pre-metastatic niche- to turn it into an "optimal soil" for colonization. The role of the different cellular components of the bone marrow/bone niche in bone metastasis has been well described. However, studying the changes that occur in this microenvironment before tumor cells arrival has become a novel research field. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to describe the current knowledge about the modulation of the normal bone marrow/bone niche by the primary breast tumor, in particular, highlighting the role of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells in transforming this soil into a pre-metastatic niche for breast cancer cells colonization.

Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in the Breast Tumor Microenvironment

Years of investigation have shed light on a theory in which breast tumor epithelial cells are under the effect of the stromal microenvironment. This review aims to discuss recent findings concerning the phenotypic and functional characteristics of cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and their involvement in tumor evolution, as well as their potential implications for anti-cancer therapy. In this manuscript, we reviewed that CAFs play a fundamental role in initiation, growth, invasion, and metastasis of breast cancer, and also serve as biomarkers in the clinical diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis of this disease.

TGFβ1: An Indicator for Tumor Immune Microenvironment of Colon Cancer From a Comprehensive Analysis of TCGA

Background

Tumor microenvironment (TME) and tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs) greatly participate in the genesis and development of colon cancer (CC). However, there is little research exploring the dynamic modulation of TME.

Methods

We analyzed the proportion of immune/stromal component and TICs in the TME of 473 CC samples and 41 normal samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database through ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms. Correlation analysis was conducted to evaluate the association between immune/stromal component in the TME and clinicopathological characteristics of CC patients. The difference analysis was performed to obtain the differentially expressed genes (DEGs). These DEGs were further analyzed by GO and KEGG enrichment analyses, PPI network, and COX regression analysis. Transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) was finally overlapped from the above analysis. Paired analysis and GSEA were carried out to understand the role of TGFβ1 in colon cancer. The intersection between the difference analysis and correlation analysis was conducted to learn the association between TGFβ1 and TICs.

Results

Our results showed that the immune component in the TME was negatively related with the stages of CC. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that 1,110 DEGs obtained from the difference analysis were mainly enriched in immune-related activities. The intersection analysis between PPI network and COX regression analysis indicated that TGFβ1 was significantly associated with the communication of genes in the PPI network and the survival of CC patients. In addition, TGFβ1 was up-regulated in the tumor samples and significantly related with poor prognosis of CC patients. Further GSEA suggested that genes in the TGFβ1 up-regulated group were enriched in immune-related activities and the function of TGFβ1 might depend on the communications with TICs, including T cells CD4 naïve and T cells regulatory.

Conclusion

The expression of TGFβ1 might be an indicator for the tumor immune microenvironment of CC and serve as a prognostic factor. Drugs targeting TGFβ1 might be a potential immunotherapy for CC patients in the future.

Thrombin-PAR1 signaling in pancreatic cancer promotes an immunosuppressive microenvironment

Essentials Elimination of PDAC tumor cell PAR1 increased cytotoxic T cells and reduced tumor macrophages. PAR1KO PDAC cells are preferentially eliminated from growing tumors. Thrombin-PAR1 signaling in PDAC tumor cells drives an immunosuppressive gene signature. Csf2 and Ptgs2 are thrombin-PAR1 downstream immune suppressor genes in PDAC tumor cells. ABSTRACT: Background Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by a prothrombotic state and a lack of host antitumor immune responsiveness. Linking these two key features, we previously demonstrated that tumor-derived coagulation activity promotes immune evasion. Specifically, thrombin-protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1) signaling in mouse PDAC cells drives tumor growth by evading cytotoxic CD8a+ cells. Methods Syngeneic mixed cell tumor growth, transcriptional analyses, and functional tests of immunosuppressive response genes were used to identify cellular and molecular immune evasion mechanisms mediated by thrombin-PAR-1 signaling in mouse PDAC tumor cells. Results Elimination of tumor cell PAR1 in syngeneic graft studies increased cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) infiltration and decreased tumor-associated macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. Co-injection of PAR1-expressing and PAR1-knockout (PAR-1KO ) tumor cells into immunocompetent mice resulted in preferential elimination of PAR-1KO cells from developing tumors, suggesting that PAR1-dependent immune evasion is not reliant on CTL exclusion. Transcriptomics analyses revealed no PAR1-dependent changes in the expression of immune checkpoint proteins and no difference in major histocompatibility complex-I cell surface expression. Importantly, thrombin-PAR1 signaling in PDAC cells upregulated genes linked to immunosuppression, including Csf2 and Ptgs2. Functional analyses confirmed that both Csf2 and Ptgs2 are critical for PDAC syngeneic graft tumor growth and overexpression of each factor partially restored tumor growth of PAR1KO cells in immunocompetent mice. Conclusions Our results provide novel insight into the mechanisms of a previously unrecognized pathway coupling coagulation to PDAC immune evasion by identifying PAR1-dependent changes in the tumor microenvironment, a PAR1-driven immunosuppressive gene signature, and Csf2 and Ptgs2 as critical PAR1 downstream targets.

A preliminary study of cytokine gene polymorphism effects on Saudi patients with colorectal cancer

OBJECTIVE

 To determine the possible associations of polymorphisms in interleukin (IL)-8 (rs4073 T/A), IL-10 (rs1800896 A/G), IL-22 (rs1179251 C/G and rs2227485 C/T), IL-27 (rs17855750 T/G), and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFß1) (rs1800469 C/T) with colorectal cancer (CRC) susceptibility in Saudi patients.

METHODS

The case-control study was carried out between July 2019 and January 2020 in King Khaled University Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A total of 70 patients with CRC and 70 healthy controls were included  in  the  study.  Single nucleotide polymorphisms of promoter regions were determined using TaqMan genotyping assays.

RESULTS

 A statistically significant reduction in CRC risk was identified for carriers of the IL-10 (rs1800896 A/G) AG genotype, IL-22 (rs1179251 C/G) G allele, IL-27 (rs17855750 T/G) G allele and TGFß1 (rs1800469 C/T) CT and TT genotype. While IL-10 (rs1800896 A/G) AA genotype and TGFß1 (rs1800469 C/T) CC genotype were significantly associated with increased susceptibility to CRC. No significant associations were identified between the cytokine polymorphisms of IL-8 (rs4073 T/A) and IL-22 (rs2227485 C/T), and CRC risk. Conclusion: Our findings indicate a significant impact of IL-10 (rs1800896 A/G), IL-22 (rs1179251 C/G), IL-27 (rs17855750 T/G) and TGF-ß1 (rs1800469 C/T) polymorphisms on risk of CRC; while the IL-8 (rs4073 T/A) and IL-22 (rs2227485 C/T) and polymorphisms were not associated with CRC risk.

Inhibition of lovastatin- and docosahexaenoic acid-initiated autophagy in triple negative breast cancer reverted resistance and enhanced cytotoxicity

AIMS

Autophagy plays a complex role in breast cancer by suppressing or improving the efficiency of treatment. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell line (MDA-MB-231) is associated with aggressive response and developing therapy resistance. MDA-MB-231 cells depend on autophagy for survival. Also, the potential benefits of autophagy inhibition in ameliorating developed chemotherapy resistance towards MDA-MB-231 remains to be elucidated. Despite showing anti-tumorigenic activities, the use of lovastatin and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for treating different types of cancers is still limited. We aimed to investigate the protective effect of autophagy inhibition by chloroquine (CQ) in MDA-MB-231 cells resistance treated with lovastatin or DHA.

MAIN METHODS

MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with 30 μM lovastatin and/or 100 μM DHA for 48 h plus 20 μM CQ. Autophagic flux was assessed in association with the expression of multidrug resistance gene 1 (MDR1), transforming growth factor beta 1 gene (TGF-β1), and autophagy-related 7 gene (ATG7).

KEY FINDINGS

Both drugs exhibited dose-dependent cytotoxicity, enhanced the autophagic flux represented by increased LC3BII protein concentration and decreased p62 protein concentration, and up-regulated the expression of MDR1, TGF-β1, and ATG7 genes. CQ addition enhanced the cytotoxicity of drugs and inhibited the autophagic flux which is detected by higher levels of LC3BII and p62 correlated with the reverted MDR1, TGF-β1 and ATG7 genes expression.

SIGNIFICANCE

Autophagy inhibition by CQ showed an ameliorative effect on lovastatin- and DHA-induced resistance and enhanced their cytotoxicity, providing a promising strategy in breast cancer therapy.

Systems biology approach suggests new miRNAs as phenotypic stability factors in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular programme on which epithelial cells undergo a phenotypic transition to mesenchymal ones acquiring metastatic properties such as mobility and invasion. TGF-β signalling can promote the EMT process. However, the dynamics of the concentration response of TGF-β-induced EMT is not well explained. In this work, we propose a logical model of TGF-β dose dependence of EMT in MCF10A breast cells. The model outcomes agree with experimentally observed phenotypes for the wild-type and perturbed/mutated cases. As important findings of the model, it predicts the coexistence of more than one hybrid state and that the circuit between TWIST1 and miR-129 is involved in their stabilization. Thus, miR-129 should be considered as a phenotypic stability factor. The circuit TWIST1/miR-129 associates with ZEB1-mediated circuits involving miRNAs 200, 1199, 340, and the protein GRHL2 to stabilize the hybrid state. Additionally, we found a possible new autocrine mechanism composed of the circuit involving TGF-β, miR-200, and SNAIL1 that contributes to the stabilization of the mesenchymal state. Therefore, our work can extend our comprehension of TGF-β-induced EMT in MCF10A cells to potentially improve the strategies for breast cancer treatment.

Tumor Cell-Derived TGFβ1 Attenuates Antitumor Immune Activity of T Cells via Regulation of PD-1 mRNA

Dysfunction in T-cell antitumor activity contributes to the tumorigenesis, progression, and poor outcome of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), with this dysfunction resulting from high expression of programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) in T cells. However, the molecular mechanisms maintaining high PD-1 expression in T cells have not been fully investigated in ccRCC. Here, we describe a mechanism underlying the regulation of PD-1 at the mRNA level and demonstrated its impact on T-cell dysfunction. Transcriptomic analysis identified a correlation between TGFβ1 and PD-1 mRNA levels in ccRCC samples. The mechanism underlying the regulation of PD-1 mRNA was then investigated in vitro and in vivo using syngeneic tumor models. We also observed that TGFβ1 had prognostic significance in patients with ccRCC, and its expression was associated with PD-1 mRNA expression. CcRCC-derived TGFβ1 activated P38 and induced the phosphorylation of Ser¹⁰ on H3, which recruited p65 to increase SRSF3 and SRSF5 expression in T cells. As a result, the half-life of PD-1 mRNA in T cells was prolonged. SRSF3 coordinated with NXF1 to induce PD-1 mRNA extranuclear transport in T cells. We then demonstrated that TGFβ1 could induce SRSF3 expression to restrict the antitumor activity of T cells, which influenced immunotherapy outcomes in ccRCC mouse models. Our findings highlight that tumor-derived TGFβ1 mediates immune evasion and has potential as a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target in ccRCC.See related Spotlight on p. 1464.

Simultaneous Single Cell Gene Expression and EGFR Mutation Analysis of Circulating Tumor Cells Reveals Distinct Phenotypes in NSCLC

While cancer cell populations are known to be highly heterogeneous within a tumor, the current gold standard of tumor profiling is through a tumor biopsy. These biopsies are invasive and prone to missing these clones due to spatial heterogeneity, and this bulk analysis approach can miss information from rare subpopulations. To noninvasively investigate tumor cell heterogeneity, a streamlined workflow is developed to scrutinize rare cells, such as circulating tumor cells (CTCs), for simultaneous analysis of mutations and gene expression profiles at the single cell level. This powerful workflow overcomes low-input limitations of single cell analysis techniques. The utility of this multiplexed workflow to unravel inter- and intra-patient heterogeneity is demonstrated using non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) CTCs (n = 58) from six epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutant positive NSCLC patients. CTCs are isolated using a high-throughput microfluidic technology, the Labyrinth, and their EGFR mutation status and gene expression profiles are characterized.

Altered expression of TGF-β1 and TGF-βR2 in tissue samples compared to blood is associated with food habits and survival in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

In the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) signaling pathway, TGF-β1 and TGF-β receptor 2 (TGF-βR2) are essential regulatory components which play an important role in different type of cancer. Expressions of TGF-β1 and TGF-βR2 were done by real-time qPCR in both biopsy and blood samples collected from esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) patients (n = 76). The expression profiles were correlated with different lifestyle factors and clinicopathological parameters. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and Cox regression analysis were performed to estimate survival and hazard outcomes of different parameters. TGF-β1 showed upregulation in 91% tissue samples (2.84 ± 1.34*) and 55% blood samples (2.43 ± 1.24*) whereas expression of TGF-βR2 showed downregulation in 89% tissue samples (0.27 ± 0.23*) and 75% blood samples (0.30 ± 0.26*). Among all the parameters, TGF-β1 expression is significant with histopathology grade, consumption of betel nut and smoked food whereas TGF-βR2 expression is significant only with dysphagia grade in both blood and tissue samples and while analyzing both male and female patients separately. Consuming alcohol and hot food, difference in tumor stage and metastasis were found to have statistically significant (P < 0.05) impact on survival and mortality of male patients while consuming hot food, tobacco, metastasis and TGF-βR2 expression in tissue level were found to associate with survival and mortality of female patients. Expression of both TGF-β1 and TGF-βR2 in tissue samples may be prospective biomarkers for screening of ESCC among the Northeast population. Survival outcomes and hazard analysis supports the importance of some clinicopathological and lifestyle factors on ESCC development, whereas expression study depicts association of change in expression of the studied genes in ESCC patients. *Mean fold change.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts: how do they contribute to metastasis?

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are activated fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment. They are one of the most prominent cell types in the stroma and produce large amounts of extracellular matrix molecules, chemokines, cytokines and growth factors. Importantly, CAFs promote cancer progression and metastasis by multiple pathways. This, together with their genetic stability, makes them an interesting target for cancer therapy. However, CAF heterogeneity and limited knowledge about the function of the different CAF subpopulations in vivo, are currently major obstacles for identifying specific molecular targets that are of value for cancer treatment. In this review, we discuss recent major findings on CAF development and their metastasis-promoting functions, as well as open questions to be addressed in order to establish successful cancer therapies targeting CAFs.

Immune checkpoint blockade therapy for cancer: An overview of FDA-approved immune checkpoint inhibitors

Although T lymphocytes have long been appreciated for their role in the immunosurveillance of cancer, it has been the realization that cancer cells may ultimately escape a response from tumor-reactive T cells that has ignited efforts to enhance the efficacy of anti-tumor immune responses. Recent advances in our understanding of T cell immunobiology have been particularly instrumental in informing therapeutic strategies to overcome mechanisms of tumor immune escape, and immune checkpoint blockade has emerged as one of the most promising therapeutic options for patients in the history of cancer treatment. Designed to interfere with inhibitory pathways that naturally constrain T cell reactivity, immune checkpoint blockade releases inherent limits on the activation and maintenance of T cell effector function. In the context of cancer, where negative T cell regulatory pathways are often overactive, immune checkpoint blockade has proven to be an effective strategy for enhancing the effector activity and clinical impact of anti-tumor T cells. Checkpoint inhibitors targeting CTLA-4, PD-1, and PD-L1 have yielded unprecedented and durable responses in a significant percentage of cancer patients in recent years, leading to U.S. FDA approval of six checkpoint inhibitors for numerous cancer indications since 2011. In this review, we highlight the clinical success of these FDA-approved immune checkpoint inhibitors and discuss current challenges and future strategies that must be considered going forward to maximize the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade therapy for cancer.

Developing T-cell therapies for lymphoma without receptor engineering

T-cell therapy has emerged from the bench for the treatment of patients with lymphoma. Responses to T-cell therapeutics are regulated by multiple factors, including the patient's immune system status and disease stage. Outside of engineering of chimeric antigen receptors and artificial T-cell receptors, T-cell therapy can be mediated by ex vivo expansion of antigen-specific T cells targeting viral and/or nonviral tumor-associated antigens. These approaches are contributing to enhanced clinical responses and overall survival. In this review, we summarize the available T-cell therapeutics beyond receptor engineering for the treatment of patients with lymphoma.

Developing T-cell therapies for lymphoma without receptor engineering

T-cell therapy has emerged from the bench for the treatment of patients with lymphoma. Responses to T-cell therapeutics are regulated by multiple factors, including the patient's immune system status and disease stage. Outside of engineering of chimeric antigen receptors and artificial T-cell receptors, T-cell therapy can be mediated by ex vivo expansion of antigen-specific T cells targeting viral and/or nonviral tumor-associated antigens. These approaches are contributing to enhanced clinical responses and overall survival. In this review, we summarize the available T-cell therapeutics beyond receptor engineering for the treatment of patients with lymphoma.

Cell therapies for hematological malignancies: don't forget non-gene-modified t cells!

Cell therapy currently performs an important role in the treatment of patients with various hematological malignancies. The response to the cell therapy is regulated by multiple factors including the patient's immune system status, genetic profile, stage at diagnosis, age, and underlying disease. Cell therapy that does not require genetic manipulation can be mediated by donor lymphocyte infusion strategies, selective depletion in the post-transplant setting and the ex vivo expansion of antigen-specific T cells. For hematologic malignancies, cell therapy is contributing to enhanced clinical responses and overall survival and the immune response to cell therapy is predictive of response in multiple cancer types. In this review we summarize the available T cell therapeutics that do not rely on gene engineering for the treatment of patients with blood cancers.

Intratumoral Lentivector-Mediated TGF-β1 Gene Downregulation As a Potent Strategy for Enhancing the Antitumor Effect of Therapy Composed of Cyclophosphamide and Dendritic Cells

Vaccination with dendritic cells (DCs) stimulated with tumor antigens can induce specific cellular immune response that recognizes a high spectrum of tumor antigens. However, the ability of cancer cells to produce immunosuppressive factors drastically decreases the antitumor activity of DCs. The main purpose of the study was to improve the effectiveness of DC-based immunotherapy or chemoimmunotherapy composed of cyclophosphamide (CY) and DCs by application of lentivectors (LVs)-encoding short hairpin RNA specific for TGF-β1 (shTGFβ1 LVs). We observed that s.c. inoculation of both MC38 cells with silenced expression of TGF-β1 (MC38/shTGF-β1) and direct intratumoral application of shTGFβ1 LVs contributed to reduction of suppressor activity of myeloid cells and Tregs in tumor. Contrary to expectations, in mice bearing wild tumor, the application of shTGFβ1 LVs prior to vaccination with bone marrow-derived DC stimulated with tumor antigens (BMDC/TAg) did not influence myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) infiltration into tumor. As a result, we observed only minor MC38 tumor growth inhibition (TGI) accompanied by systemic antitumor response activation comparable to that obtained for negative control (shN). However, when the proposed scheme was complemented by pretreatment with a low dose of CY, we noticed high MC38 TGI together with decreased number of MDSCs in tumor and induction of Th1-type response. Moreover, in both schemes of treatment, LVs (shTGFβ1 as well as shN) induced high influx of CTLs into tumor associated probably with the viral antigen introduction into tumor microenvironment. Concluding, the application of shTGFβ1 LVs alone or in combination with DC-based vaccines is not sufficient for long-lasting elimination of suppression in tumor. However, simultaneous reduction of TGF-β1 in tumor microenvironment and its remodeling by pretreatment with a low dose of CY facilitates the settlement of peritumorally inoculated DCs and supports them in restoration and activation of a potent antitumor response.