Depressed Myocardial Energetic Efficiency Increases Risk of Incident Heart Failure: The Strong Heart Study

Myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency is not impaired in patients with metabolically healthy overweight and obesity

OBJECTIVE

Reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) was associated with BMI. Subgroups of individuals with increased BMI but favorable cardiovascular risk profile were identified as individuals with "metabolically healthy overweight" (MHOW) and "metabolically healthy obesity" (MHO), respectively. We aim to investigate whether those with MHOW/MHO, defined as those having none of the components of metabolic syndrome, exhibit impaired MEE compared with their unhealthy counterparts.

METHODS

Myocardial MEE per gram of left ventricular mass (MEEi) was assessed by echocardiography in 2190 nondiabetic individuals participating in the CATAnzaro MEtabolic RIsk factors (CATAMERI) study who were divided, according to BMI and metabolic status, into groups of individuals with metabolically healthy normal weight (MHNW), metabolically unhealthy normal weight (MUNW), MHOW, metabolically unhealthy overweight (MUOW), MHO, and metabolically unhealthy obesity (MUO).

RESULTS

After adjusting for age and sex, no differences in myocardial MEEi were observed among individuals with MHNW, MHOW, and MHO (p = 0.56). Myocardial MEEi was comparable among individuals with MUNW, MUOW, and MUO (p = 0.21). Individuals with MHNW, MHOW, and MHO displayed significantly higher myocardial MEEi compared with their unhealthy counterparts.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased BMI is not an obligate determinant for reduced myocardial MEEi. Other known components of metabolic syndrome rather than increased BMI contributed to reduced myocardial MEEi.

Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is associated with reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in hypertensive subjects

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Our prior study showed that endothelial dysfunction contributed to reduced myocardial mechano-energetics efficiency (MEEi) independently of several confounders. Reduced activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthase may be due to increased levels of the endogenous inhibitor asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA). The impact of ADMA on myocardial MEEi has not been determined yet. This study aims to investigate the association between plasma ADMA levels and MEEi in drug-naïve hypertensive individuals.

METHODS AND RESULTS

63 hypertensive individuals participating in the CATAnzaro MEtabolic RIsk factors (CATAMERI) study were included. All participants underwent to an echocardiogram for myocardial MEEi measurement. ADMA plasma concentrations were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. A multivariate linear regression analysis was conducted to investigate the independent association between ADMA levels and MEEi. In a univariate analysis, ADMA levels were significantly associated with myocardial MEEi (r = 0.438; P < 0.001). In a multivariate regression analysis, plasma ADMA levels were associated to decreased myocardial MEEi (β = 0.458, P < 0.001) independently of well-established cardiovascular risk factors including age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, smoking status, total cholesterol and HDL, triglycerides, glucose tolerance status, and HOMA-IR index of insulin resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

ADMA may contribute to reduced myocardial MEEi by reducing nitric oxide bioavailability.

Sex-specific differences in myocardial glucose metabolic rate in non-diabetic, pre-diabetic and type 2 diabetic subjects

BACKGROUND

Evidence has shown that women with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) have a higher excess risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) than men with T2DM. Subjects with either T2DM or prediabetes exhibit myocardial insulin resistance, but it is still unsettled whether sex-related differences in myocardial insulin resistance occur in diabetic and prediabetic subjects.

METHODS

We aimed to evaluate sex-related differences in myocardial glucose metabolic rate (MRGlu), assessed using dynamic PET with 18F-FDG combined with euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp, in subjects with normal glucose tolerance (NGT; n = 20), prediabetes (n = 11), and T2DM (n = 26).

RESULTS

Women with prediabetes or T2DM exhibited greater relative differences in myocardial MRGlu than men with prediabetes or T2DM when compared with their NGT counterparts. As compared with women with NGT, those with prediabetes exhibited an age-adjusted 35% lower myocardial MRGlu value (P = 0.04) and women with T2DM a 74% lower value (P = 0.006), respectively. Conversely, as compared with men with NGT, men with T2DM exhibited a 40% lower myocardial MRGlu value (P = 0.004), while no significant difference was observed between men with NGT and prediabetes. The statistical test for interaction between sex and glucose tolerance on myocardial MRGlu (P < 0.0001) was significant suggesting a sex-specific association.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that deterioration of glucose homeostasis in women is associated with a greater impairment in myocardial glucose metabolism as compared with men. The sex-specific myocardial insulin resistance could be an important factor responsible for the greater effect of T2DM on the excess risk of cardiovascular disease in women than in men.

Mechano-energetic efficiency in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with and without sarcomeric mutations

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is mainly caused by sarcomeric mutations which may affect myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE). We investigated the effects of sarcomeric mutations on MEE. A non-invasive pressure/volume (P/V) analysis was performed. We included 49 genetically screened HCM patients. MEEi was calculated as the ratio between stroke volume and heart rate normalized by LV mass. Fifty-seven percent (57%) HCM patients carried a sarcomeric mutation. Patients with and without sarcomeric mutations had similar LV ejection fraction, heart rate, LV mass, and LV outflow gradient. Younger age at diagnosis, family history of HCM, and lower MEEi were associated with presence of sarcomeric mutation (p = 0.017; p = 0.001 and p = 0.0001, respectively). Lower MEEi in HCM with sarcomeric mutation is not related to significant differences on filling pressure as shown on P/V analysis. Sarcomeric mutations determine a reduction of the LV pump performance as estimated by MEEi in HCM. Lower MEEi may predict a positive genetic analysis.

Whole blood viscosity is associated with reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in nondiabetic individuals

INTRODUCTION

This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the association between myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) and whole blood viscosity (WBV) in nondiabetic adults participating in the CATAnzaro MEtabolic RIsk factors (CATAMERI) study.

METHODS

1143 participants underwent an oral glucose tolerance test and an echocardiogram for myocardial MEE per gram of left ventricular mass (MEEi) measurement. WBV was measured as: [0.12 × h] + [0.17 × (p-2.07)], where h is haematocrit and p is plasma protein levels.

RESULTS

Study population includes 595 males and 548 females with a mean age of 46 ± 12 years and a mean BMI of 30.0 ± 6.2 kg/m2 . Individuals with normal glucose tolerance were 63%, while those with impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance and or the combination of both were 14.3%, 13% and 9.7%, respectively. A univariate analysis showed that MEEi was significantly associated with sex, age, smoking, BMI, waist circumference, total cholesterol, HDL, triglycerides, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, HOMA-IR index, glucose tolerance, C-reactive protein, haematocrit, haemoglobin, plasma protein and WBV. In a multivariable regression model including variables that were significantly associated with MEEi in univariate analysis, MEEi was associated with HOMA-IR (β = -0.144, p < .001), age (β = -0.140, p < .001), WBV (β = -0.129, p < .001) and glucose tolerance (β = -0.064, p = .04). The independent association between WBV and MEEi remained statistically significant (β = -0.122, p < .001) when antihypertensive therapy and lipid-lowering therapy were included in the model.

CONCLUSION

WBV is associated with decreased myocardial MEE independently of other cardiovascular risk factors.

Endothelial dysfunction is associated with reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in drug-naïve hypertensive individuals

Impaired myocardial mechano-energetics efficiency (MEE) was shown to predict incident heart failure, but pathophysiological mechanisms linking impaired MEE with heart failure have not been elucidated. Endothelial dysfunction is a plausible candidate because it has been associated with heart failure. This study aims to investigate the association between MEE and endothelium-dependent vasodilation, among drug-naïve hypertensive individuals. 198 Drug-naïve hypertensive individuals participating in the CATAnzaro MEtabolic RIsk factors (CATAMERI) study were included. All participants underwent to an oral glucose tolerance test and to an echocardiogram for myocardial LVM-normalized mechano-energetic efficiency (MEEi) measurement. Endothelial-dependent and endothelial-independent vasodilatation were measured by strain-gauge plethysmography during intra-arterial infusion of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside, respectively. A multivariate linear regression analysis was conducted to investigate the independent association between maximal endothelial-dependent vasodilation and MEEi. Maximal ACh-stimulated forearm blood flow (FBF) was associated to decreased myocardial MEEi (β = 0.205, p = 0.002) independently of well-established cardiovascular risk factors including age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, smoking status, total and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, hsCRP, glucose tolerance status, and HOMA-IR index of insulin resistance. Conversely, no association was observed between SNP-stimulated vasodilation and MEEi. Endothelium-mediated vasodilation may contribute to reduce myocardial MEEi independently of several potential confounders. Because diminished myocardial MEE has been previously associated with incident heart failure, a non-invasive assessment of myocardial MEEi may improve the identification of individuals at higher cardiovascular risk who may benefit from the initiation of pharmacological treatments ameliorating the endothelial dysfunction.

Cardiac Insulin Resistance in Subjects With Metabolic Syndrome Traits and Early Subclinical Atherosclerosis

OBJECTIVE

Experimental evidence suggests that metabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with changes in cardiac metabolism. Whether this association occurs in humans is unknown.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

821 asymptomatic individuals from the Progression of Early Subclinical Atherosclerosis (PESA) study (50.6 [46.9-53.6] years, 83.7% male) underwent two whole-body 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-magnetic resonance (18F-FDG PET-MR) 4.8 ± 0.6 years apart. Presence of myocardial 18F-FDG uptake was evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively. No myocardial uptake was grade 0, while positive uptake was classified in grades 1-3 according to target-to-background ratio tertiles.

RESULTS

One hundred fifty-six participants (19.0%) showed no myocardial 18F-FDG uptake, and this was significantly associated with higher prevalence of MetS (29.0% vs. 13.9%, P < 0.001), hypertension (29.0% vs. 18.0%, P = 0.002), and diabetes (11.0% vs. 3.2%, P < 0.001), and with higher insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR, 1.64% vs. 1.23%, P < 0.001). Absence of myocardial uptake was associated with higher prevalence of early atherosclerosis (i.e., arterial 18F-FDG uptake, P = 0.004). On follow-up, the associations between myocardial 18F-FDG uptake and risk factors were replicated, and MetS was more frequent in the group without myocardial uptake. The increase in HOMA-IR was associated with a progressive decrease in myocardial uptake (P < 0.001). In 82% of subjects, the categorization according to presence/absence of myocardial 18F-FDG uptake did not change between baseline and follow-up. MetS regression on follow-up was associated with a significant (P < 0.001) increase in myocardial uptake.

CONCLUSIONS

Apparently healthy individuals without cardiac 18F-FDG uptake have higher HOMA-IR and higher prevalence of MetS traits, cardiovascular risk factors, and early atherosclerosis. An improvement in cardiometabolic profile is associated with the recovery of myocardial 18F-FDG uptake at follow-up.

Metabolic Syndrome and C-reactive Protein are Associated With a Reduced Myocardial Mechano-energetic Efficiency

CONTEXT

Metabolic syndrome and elevated high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels are associated with risk of cardiovascular diseases. A reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) has been found to be an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between metabolic syndrome and hsCRP levels with impaired MEE.

METHODS

Myocardial MEE was assessed by a validated echocardiography-derived measure in 1975 nondiabetic and prediabetic individuals subdivided into 2 groups according to the presence of metabolic syndrome.

RESULTS

Individuals with metabolic syndrome exhibited increased stroke work and myocardial oxygen consumption estimated by rate pressure product, and a reduced MEE per gram of left ventricular mass (MEEi) compared with subjects without metabolic syndrome, after adjusting for age and sex. Myocardial MEEi progressively decreased in parallel with the increase in the number of metabolic syndrome components. In a multivariable regression analysis, both metabolic syndrome and hsCRP contributed to reduced myocardial MEEi independently of sex, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, fasting, and 2-hour postload glucose levels. When the study population was divided into 4 groups by the presence or absence of metabolic syndrome and by hsCRP levels above and below 3 mg/L, hsCRP levels ≥3 mg/L were associated with reduced myocardial MEEi both in subjects with metabolic syndrome and in those without the syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Nondiabetic and prediabetic individuals with metabolic syndrome exhibit increased stroke work and myocardial oxygen consumption, and an impaired MEEi, an established predictor of adverse cardiovascular events, and elevated hsCRP levels in combination with metabolic syndrome aggravate the myocardial MEEi impairment.

Association between liver fibrosis and decreased myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in individuals with different degree of glucose tolerance

AIM

Decreased myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEEi) is associated with NAFLD and poorer prognosis in liver cirrhosis. We aim to investigate the association between liver fibrosis severity and MEEi in individuals participating in the CATAnzaro MEtabolic RIsk factors (CATAMERI) study.

METHODS

Myocardial MEEi, assessed by an echocardiography-derived measure, and fibrosis severity, estimated by the fibrosis-4 index (FIB-4), were evaluated in 2383 subjects with different degree of glucose tolerance. Participants were divided into four groups according to FIB-4 index values: lowest risk of fibrosis (<1.3); low risk of fibrosis (≥1.3 to < 1.67); moderate risk of fibrosis (≥1.67 to < 2.67); high risk of fibrosis (≥2.67).

RESULTS

Subjects with higher risk of liver fibrosis displayed a graded decrease in myocardial MEEi compare to those with the lowest risk of liver fibrosis. In a multivariable regression analysis, FIB-4 index was independently associated with MEEi (β = -0.080, P < 0.001), along with total cholesterol (β = -0.067, P = 0.01), hsCRP (β = -0.081, P < 0.001), sex (β = -0.099, P < 0.001), glucose tolerance status (β = -0.109, <0.001) and HOMA-IR index (β = -0.143, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Compromised myocardial MEEi is already reported in individuals with high risk of hepatic fibrosis suggesting that its assessment may help to identify among subjects with NAFLD those with worst prognosis.

Impaired insulin-stimulated myocardial glucose metabolic rate is associated with reduced estimated myocardial energetic efficiency in subjects with different degrees of glucose tolerance

BACKGROUND

Alterations in myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEEi), which represents the capability of the left ventricles to convert the chemical energy obtained by oxidative metabolism into mechanical work, have been associated with cardiovascular disease. Although whole-body insulin resistance has been related to impaired myocardial MEEi, it is unknown the relationship between cardiac insulin resistance and MEEi. Aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between insulin-stimulated myocardial glucose metabolic rate (MrGlu) and myocardial MEEi in subjects having different degrees of glucose tolerance.

METHODS

We evaluated insulin-stimulated myocardial MrGlu using cardiac dynamic positron emission tomography (PET) with 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) combined with euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp, and myocardial MEEi in 57 individuals without history of coronary heart disease having different degrees of glucose tolerance. The subjects were stratified into tertiles according to their myocardial MrGlu values.

RESULTS

After adjusting for age, gender and BMI, subjects in I tertile showed a decrease in myocardial MEEi (0.31 ± 0.05 vs 0.42 ± 0.14 ml/s*g, P = 0.02), and an increase in myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) (10,153 ± 1375 vs 7816 ± 1229 mmHg*bpm, P < 0.0001) as compared with subjects in III tertile. Univariate correlations showed that insulin-stimulated myocardial MrGlu was positively correlated with MEEi and whole-body glucose disposal, and negatively correlated with waist circumference, fasting plasma glucose, HbA1c and MVO2. In a multivariate regression analysis running a model including several CV risk factors, the only variable that remained significantly associated with MEEi was myocardial MrGlu (β 0.346; P = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that an impairment in insulin-stimulated myocardial glucose metabolism is an independent contributor of depressed myocardial MEEi in subjects without history of CHD.

Effects of 26 weeks of treatment with empagliflozin versus glimepiride on the myocardial glucose metabolic rate in patients with type 2 diabetes: The randomized, open-label, crossover, active-comparator FIORE trial

AIM

To determine whether treatment with empagliflozin was able to affect the myocardial glucose metabolic rate, as assessed by cardiac dynamic ¹⁸ F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (¹⁸ F-FDG-PET) combined with euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp compared with glimepiride in patients with type 2 diabetes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To further investigate the cardioprotective mechanism of sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors, we performed a 26-week, randomized, open-label, crossover, active-comparator study to determine the effects of empagliflozin 10 mg versus glimepiride 2 mg daily on the myocardial glucose metabolic rate assessed by cardiac dynamic ¹⁸ F-FDG-PET combined with euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp in 23 patients with type 2 diabetes. We also measured cardiac geometry and myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency, as well as systolic and diastolic function by echocardiography.

RESULTS

Compared with glimepiride, treatment with empagliflozin resulted in a greater reduction in the myocardial glucose metabolic rate from baseline to 26 weeks (adjusted difference -6.07 [-8.59, -3.55] μmol/min/100 g; P < .0001). Moreover, compared with glimepiride, empagliflozin led to significant reductions in left atrial diameter, left ventricular end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes, N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide levels, blood pressure, heart rate, stroke work, and myocardial oxygen consumption estimated by the rate pressure product, and increases in ejection fraction, myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency, red blood cells, and haematocrit and haemoglobin levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides evidence that empagliflozin treatment in subjects with type 2 diabetes without coronary artery disease leads to a significant reduction in the myocardial glucose metabolic rate.

The Effects of Device-Based Cardiac Contractility Modulation Therapy on Left Ventricle Global Longitudinal Strain and Myocardial Mechano-Energetic Efficiency in Patients with Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction

Background: Virtually all patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction have a reduction of myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE). Cardiac contractility modulation (CCM) is a novel therapy for the treatment of patients with HFrEF, in whom it improves the quality of life and functional capacity, reduces hospitalizations, and induces biventricular reverse remodeling. However, the effects of CCM on MEE and global longitudinal strain (GLS) are still unknown; therefore, this study aims to evaluate whether CCM therapy can improve the MEE of patients with HFrEF. Methods: We enrolled 25 patients with HFrEF who received an Optimizer Smart implant (the device that develops CCM therapy) between January 2018 and January 2021. Clinical and echocardiographic evaluations were performed in all patients 24 h before and six months after CCM therapy. Results: At six months, follow-up patients who underwent CCM therapy showed an increase of left ventricular ejection fraction (30.8 ± 7.1 vs. 36.1 ± 6.9%; p = 0.032) as well a rise of GLS 10.3 ± 2.7 vs. −12.9 ± 4.2; p = 0.018), of MEE (32.2 ± 10.1 vs. 38.6 ± 7.6 mL/s; p = 0.013) and of MEE index (18.4 ± 6.3 vs. 24.3 ± 6.7 mL/s/g; p = 0.022). Conclusions: CCM therapy increased left ventricular performance, improving left ventricular ejection fraction, GLS, as well as MEE and MEEi.

From Structural to Functional Hypertension Mediated Target Organ Damage—A Long Way to Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction

Arterial hypertension (AH) is a major risk factor for the development of heart failure (HF) which represents one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. The chronic hemodynamic overload induced by AH is responsible for different types of functional and morphological adaptation of the cardiovascular system, defined as hypertensive mediated target organ damage (HMOD), whose identification is of fundamental importance for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. Among HMODs, left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMVD), and subclinical systolic dysfunction have been shown to play a role in the pathogenesis of HF and represent promising therapeutic targets. Furthermore, LVH represents a strong predictor of cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients, influencing per se the development of CMVD and systolic dysfunction. Clinical evidence suggests considering LVH as a diagnostic marker for HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Several studies have also shown that microalbuminuria, a parameter of abnormal renal function, is implicated in the development of HFpEF and in predicting the prognosis of patients with HF. The present review highlights recent evidence on the main HMOD, focusing in particular on LVH, CMD, subclinical systolic dysfunction, and microalbuminuria leading to HFpEF.

Determinants of improvement of left ventricular mechano-energetic efficiency in hypertensive patients

Background

Arterial hypertension, especially when coexisting with other cardiovascular risk factors, could determine an imbalance between myocardial energetic demand and altered efficiency, leading to an early left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction, even in terms of echo-derived mechano-energetic efficiency indexed for myocardial mass (MEEi). We aim to analyse an improvement in LV MEEi, if any, in a population of hypertensive patients with a long-term follow-up and to identify clinical, metabolic and therapeutic determinants of LV MEEi amelioration.

Materials and methods

In total, 7,052 hypertensive patients, followed-up for 5.3 ± 4.5 years, enrolled in the Campania Salute Network, underwent echocardiographic and clinical evaluation. LV MEEi was obtained as the ratio between stroke volume and heart rate and normalized per grams of LV mass and ΔMEEi was calculated as difference between follow-up and baseline MEEi. Patients in the highest ΔMEEi quartile (≥0.0454 mL/s/g) (group 1) were compared to the merged first, second and third quartiles (<0.0454 mL/s/g) (group 2). METS-IR (Metabolic Score for Insulin Resistance), an established index of insulin sensitivity, was also derived.

Results

Patients with MEEi improvement experienced a lower rate of major cardiovascular events (p = 0.02). After excluding patients experiencing cardiovascular events, patients in group 1 were younger (p < 0.0001), less often diabetic (p = 0.001) and obese (p = 0.035). Group 1 experienced more frequently LV mass index reduction, lower occurrence of LV ejection fraction reduction, and had a better metabolic control in terms of mean METS-IR during the follow-up (all p < 0.0001). Beta-blockers were more often used in group 1 (p < 0.0001) than group 2. A logistic regression analysis showed that younger age, lower mean METS-IR values, more frequent LV mass index reduction and therapy with beta-blockers were significantly associated with LV MEEi improvement, independently of presence of diabetes and obesity.

Conclusion

Metabolic control and therapy with beta-blockers could act in a synergic way, determining an improvement in LV MEEi in hypertensive patients over time, possibly confining cardiac damage and hampering progression toward heart failure.

Physiologic Range of Myocardial Mechano-Energetic Efficiency among Healthy Subjects: Impact of Gender and Age

BACKGROUND

Myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) is the capability of the left ventricle (LV) to convert the chemical energy obtained from the cardiac oxidative metabolism into mechanical work. The aim of present study was to establish normal non-invasive MEE and MEEi reference values.

METHODS

In total, 1168 healthy subjects underwent physical examinations, clinical assessment, and standardized transthoracic echocardiographic (TTE) examination. MEE was obtained by TTE as the ratio between stroke volume (SV) and heart rate (HR): MEE = SV/HR [HR expressed in seconds (HR/60)]. Because MEE is highly related to left ventricular mass (LVM), MEE was then divided by LVM with the purpose of obtaining an estimate of energetic expenditure per unit of myocardial mass (i.e., indexed MEE, MEEi, mL/s/g).

RESULTS

The mean values of MEE and MEEi in the overall population were 61.09 ± 18.19 mL/s; 0.45 ± 0.14, respectively. In a multivariable analysis, gender, body surface area (BSA), diastolic blood pressure, left atrial volume indexed to BSA, E/e' and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) were the independent variables associated with MEE, while age, gender, BSA and TAPSE were the independent variables associated with MEEi.

CONCLUSIONS

The knowledge of age- and gender-based MEE and MEEi normal values may improve the global assessment of LV cardiac mechanics and serve as a reference to identify phenotypes at high risk of cardiovascular events.

Low mechano-energetic efficiency is associated with future left ventricular systolic dysfunction in hypertensives

Aims

In a hypertensive population with optimal blood pressure control with a long‐term follow‐up, we aimed at analysing possible predictors of left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (LVEF) reduction, including indexed mechano‐energetic efficiency (MEEi), a well‐recognized echo‐derived parameter of LV performance.

Methods and results

The study population included 5673 hypertensive patients from the Campania Salute Network with a long‐term follow‐up, normal baseline LVEF (≥50%), and no prevalent cardiovascular (CV) disease. Patients developing LVEF impairment (LVEF < 50% or a reduction of at least 10 percentage points compared with baseline) were compared with patients with persistently normal LVEF. Optimal blood pressure control was achieved in about 80% of patients. Patients who experienced LVEF reduction were 2.41% during a long‐term follow‐up (mean duration 5.6 ± 3.9 years). At baseline, they were older (59.46 ± 11.58 vs. 53.40 ± 11.41, P < 0.0001) and showed higher LV mass index (53.3 ± 12.83 vs. 47.56 ± 9.58, P < 0.0001), left atrial (LA) volume index (14.4 ± 4.2 vs. 13.1 ± 2.8, P < 0.0001) and carotid intima–media thickness (1.99 ± 0.86 vs. 1.61 ± 0.73, P < 0.0001), lower MEEi (0.32 ± 0.08 vs. 0.34 ± 0.07, P = 0.037), and higher prevalence of CV events during follow‐up (13.9% vs. 3%, P < 0.0001) compared with patients with persistently normal LVEF. A logistic regression analysis, performed after running univariate analyses and selecting parameters significantly associated with LVEF reduction, showed that having a CV event [odds ratio (OR) 7.57, P < 0.0001], being in the lowest MEEi quartile (OR 2.43, P = 0.003), and having a larger LA volume index (OR 1.08, P = 0.028) were all parameters independently associated with the development of LV systolic dysfunction. A further logistic regression model, performed by excluding patients experiencing CV events, demonstrated that the lowest MEEi quartile was independently associated with the evolution towards LVEF reduction (OR 2.35, P = 0.004), despite significant impact of LA volume index (OR 1.08, P = 0.023) and antiplatelet therapy (OR 1.89, P < 0.01). Receiver operating characteristic curves showed that the model including MEEi had higher accuracy than the model without MEEi in predicting LVEF reduction (areas under the curve 0.68 vs. 0.63, P = 0.046).

Conclusions

Lower values of MEEi at baseline identify hypertensive patients more liable to develop LVEF reduction. In hypertensive setting, MEEi evaluation improves risk stratification for development of LV systolic dysfunction during long‐term follow‐up.

Obstructive sleep apnea is associated with depressed myocardial mechanoenergetics

PURPOSE

To evaluate the association between the myocardial mechanoenergetic efficiency index (MEEi) and the Apnea-Hypopnea Index (AHI) in the initial phase of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) diagnosis.

METHODS

In this cohort study, we included a total of 382 eligible participants without cardiovascular disease in a tertiary outpatient clinic between January 2013 and January 2015. We recorded demographic, clinical, polysomnographic and echocardiographic variables of the patients. In addition, myocardial mechanoenergetic efficiency (MEE) and MEEi were calculated by an echocardiography-derived validated measurement.

RESULTS

The mean (±SD) age of the participants was 48.47 ± 12.13, and male/female ratio was 287/95. Comparing with non-OSA, MEEi was significantly lower in OSA patients at all stages (0.35 ± 0.08 vs. 0.42 ± 0.05; p < .001). MEEi was negatively correlated with hypertension (r = -0.518, p < .001), body mass index (r = -0.382, p < .001), AHI (r = -0.656, p < .001), total apne (r = -0.525, p < .001), hypopnea (r = -0.415, p < .001), systolic pulmonary pressure (r = -0.318, p < .001), relative wall thickness (RWT; r = -0.415, p < .001), and positive correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction (r = 0.586, p < .001). According to multiple linear regression analysis AHI (β = -0.625, p < .001), total apnea (β = -0.402, p = .001), hypopnea (β = -0.395, p = .001), LV ejection fraction (β = 0.478, p < .001) and RWT (β = -0.279, p < .001) have an independent relationship with MEEi.

CONCLUSIONS

MEEi was lower in OSA patients. A reduced MEEi may reflect a disturbance in energy use of the myocardium. Consequently, our results may provide insight into the mechanisms leading to structural cardiac diseases in OSA patients.

Low myocardial energetic efficiency is associated with increased mortality in aortic stenosis

Objectives

In hypertension, low myocardial energetic efficiency (MEEi) has been documented as an integrated marker of metabolic and left ventricular (LV) myocardial dysfunction. We tested the predictive performance of MEEi in initially asymptomatic aortic stenosis (AS) patients free from diabetes and known cardiovascular disease.

Methods

Data from 1703 patients with mostly moderate AS enrolled in the Simvastatin and Ezetimibe in Aortic Stenosis study followed for 4.3 years was used. MEE was calculated from Doppler stroke volume/([heart rate/60]) and indexed to LV mass (MEEi). The threshold value for MEEi associated with increased mortality was identified in generalised additive model with smoothing splines. Covariables of MEEi were identified in logistic regression analysis. Outcome was assessed in Cox regression analysis and reported as HR and 95% CI.

Results

MEEi <0.34 mL/s per gram was associated with increased cardiovascular mortality (n=80) (HR 2.53 (95% CI 1.50 to 4.28)) and all-cause mortality (n=155) (HR 1.74 (95% CI 1.20 to 2.52)) (both p<0.01). The association was independent of confounders of low MEEI (<0.34 mL/s per gram) identified in multivariable logistic regression analysis, including more severe AS, higher body mass index, lower LV midwall shortening and ejection fraction and presence of hypertension. Comparison of the Cox models with and without MEEi among the covariables demonstrated that MEEi significantly improved the prognostic yield (both p<0.01).

Conclusions

In patients with initially asymptomatic AS, low MEEi was associated with clustering of cardiometabolic risk factors, lower LV myocardial function and subsequent increased mortality during 4.3 years follow-up, independent of known prognosticators.

Trial registration number

NCT00092677.

Depressed myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in subjects with dysglycemia

AIMS

Evidence indicate that 1 h post-load glucose levels (1hPG) ≥ 155 mg/dl identify amongst subjects with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) a new category of prediabetes (NGT 1 h-high). A compromised myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) is associated with type 2 diabetes and predicts adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Herein, we explored the association between prediabetes conditions such as NGT 1 h-high, impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and a decreased MEE.

METHODS

MEE was assessed by an echocardiography-derived measure in 1467 non-diabetic individuals subdivided according to their glucose tolerance: NGT and 1-hPG < 155 mg/dl (NGT 1 h-low, n = 617), NGT 1 h-high (n = 210), isolated IFG (n = 237), and IGT (n = 403).

RESULTS

Subjects with NGT 1 h-high, isolated IFG, and IGT displayed a higher myocardial oxygen consumption, and a decreased MEE in comparison to NGT 1 h-low group. MEE was inversely related to male sex, age, body mass index, total cholesterol, triglycerides, fasting and post-load glucose and insulin, C reactive protein, and positively correlated with insulin sensitivity estimated by the Matsuda index. In a stepwise multivariate linear regression model including several cardio-metabolic risk factors, 1hPG was the major predictor of MEE.

CONCLUSIONS

Subjects with NGT 1 h-high, isolated IFG, and IGT have a raised myocardial oxygen consumption and a reduced MEE.

Association of Myocardial Energetic Efficiency with Circumferential and Longitudinal Left Ventricular Myocardial Function in Subjects with Increased Body Mass Index (the FATCOR Study)

Lower myocardial mechanic-energetic efficiency (MEEi), expressed as stroke volume/heart rate ratio (SV/HR) in mL/s/g of the left ventricular (LV) mass, is associated with the incidence of heart failure in subjects with cardiometabolic disorders. We explored the association of MEEi with LV systolic circumferential and longitudinal myocardial function in 480 subjects with increased body mass index (BMI) without known cardiovascular disease (mean age 47 ± 9 years, 61% women, 63% obese, 74% with hypertension) participating in the fat-associated cardiovascular dysfunction (FATCOR) study. Insulin resistance was assessed by the homeostasis model assessment insulin-resistance index (HOMA-IR). SV was calculated by Doppler echocardiography. The LV systolic circumferential myocardial function was evaluated by midwall fractional shortening (MFS) and longitudinal function by global longitudinal strain (GLS). Patients were grouped into MEEi quartiles. The lowest MEEi quartile (<0.41 mL/s per g) was considered low MEEi. The association of MEEi with MFS and GLS were tested in multivariable linear regression analyses. Patients with low MEEi were more frequently men, with obesity and hypertension, dyslipidemia and higher HOMA-IR index (all p for trend <0.05). In multivariable analyses, lower MEEi was associated with lower LV myocardial function by MFS and GLS independent of higher LV mass and clinical variables, including older age, male sex, presence of hypertension and a higher triglycerides level (all p < 0.05). In conclusion, in subjects with increased BMI without known cardiovascular disease participating in the FATCOR study, reduced MEEi was associated with lower LV myocardial function both in the circumferential and longitudinal direction, independent of cardiometabolic factors.

Sex-specific differences in left ventricular mass and myocardial energetic efficiency in non-diabetic, pre-diabetic and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic subjects

Background

Women with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) have a higher excess risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) than their male counterparts. However, whether the risk for CVD is higher in prediabetic women than men is still debated. We aimed to determine whether sex-related differences exist in left ventricular mass index (LVMI), and myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEEi) in with normal glucose tolerant (NGT), pre-diabetic and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic subjects.

Methods

Sex-related differences in LVMI and myocardial MEEi, assessed by validated echocardiography-derived measures, were examined among 1562 adults with NGT, prediabetes, and newly diagnosed T2DM, defined according to fasting glucose, 2-h post-load glucose, or HbA1c.

Results

Worsening of glucose tolerance in both men and women was associated with an increase in age-adjusted LVMI and myocardial MEEi. Women with newly diagnosed T2DM exhibited greater relative differences in LVMI and myocardial MEEi than diabetic men when compared with their NGT counterparts. Prediabetic women exhibited greater relative differences in myocardial MEEi, but not in LVMI, than prediabetic men when compared with their NGT counterparts. The statistical test for interaction between sex and glucose tolerance on both LVMI (P < 0.0001), and myocardial MEEi (P < 0.0001) was significant suggesting a sex-specific association.

Conclusions

Left ventricle is subject to maladaptive changes with worsening of glucose tolerance, especially in women with newly diagnosed T2DM. The sex-specific increase in LVM and decrease in MEEi, both being predictors of CVD, may have a role in explaining the stronger impact of T2DM on the excess risk of CVD in women than in men.

Myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in primary aldosteronism

BACKGROUND

Available data indicate that patients with primary aldosteronism have an increased risk of cardiovascular events and cardiovascular risk seems to be, at least in part, independent of blood pressure (BP) values. Patients with primary aldosteronism have a greater prevalence of left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy and subtle alterations of ventricular function, which might contribute to the increase in cardiovascular risk. Recently, a noninvasive approach for the estimation of LV mechanical efficiency, obtained by echocardiography has been proposed.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the determinants of myocardial mechanoenergetic efficiency index (MEEi), in a large group of patients with primary aldosteronism (n = 99) and in a control group of essential hypertensive patients (n = 99) matched for age, sex and BP values.

RESULTS

No differences between groups for age, sex, BMI, BP values, glucose, lipid profile and renal function were observed. LV mass index was greater in primary aldosteronism vs. essential hypertensive patients (46.0 ± 16.7 vs. 36.9 ± 8.6 g/m2, P < 0.001); also relative wall thickness was greater in primary aldosteronism (0.36 ± 0.1 vs. 0.32 ± 0.4, P < 0.001). Left atrial dimensions were significantly greater in primary aldosteronism. Ejection fraction was not different between groups, while endocardial and midwall fractional shortening were lower in primary aldosteronism vs. essential hypertensive patients (40 ± 7 vs. 43 ± 6, and 18 ± 3 vs. 21 ± 2, both P < 0.01). MEEi was lower in primary aldosteronism vs. essential hypertensive patients (0.44 ± 0.14 vs. 0.52 ± 0.10 ml/s per g, P < 0.01). A negative correlation was observed between MEEi and aldosterone levels (r = -0.203, P < 0.05) and aldosterone : renin ratio (P = -0.172, P < 0.05); the correlation remained significant after adjustment for possible confounders.

CONCLUSION

In patients with primary aldosteronism myocardial MEEi is lower as compared with essential hypertensive patients. A reduced MEEi may reflect an impairment of production and utilization of energy in the myocardium, which could lead to the occurrence of cardiovascular complications and therefore these findings may contribute to explain the increased risk of cardiovascular events in patients with primary aldosteronism.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is associated with a decreased myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is linked to a raised risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), although the underlying mechanisms are not completely known. A reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) has been found to be an independent predictor of CVD.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between NAFLD and a compromised MEE.

METHODS

Myocardial MEE was assessed by a validated echocardiography-derived measure in 699 nondiabetic individuals subdivided into two groups according to ultrasonography defined presence of NAFLD.

RESULTS

Subjects with NAFLD displayed higher levels of systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), triglycerides, fasting and postload glucose, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), insulin resistance (IR) estimated by HOMA-IR and liver IR index, and lower values of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in comparison with those without NAFLD. Presence of NAFLD was associated with increased levels of myocardial oxygen demand and reduced values of MEE. MEE was negatively correlated with male sex, age, BMI, waist circumference, SBP, DBP, total cholesterol, triglycerides, fasting and postload glucose, HOMA-IR and liver IR index, hsCRP and positively with HDL levels. In a multivariable regression analysis, presence of NAFLD was associated with MEE regardless of several cardio-metabolic risk factors such as age, gender, waist circumference, SBP, DBP, total and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose tolerance and hsCRP (β = -0.09, P = 0.04), but not independently of IR estimates.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasound-defined presence of NAFLD is associated with a decreased MEE, a predictor of adverse cardiovascular events. The relationship between NAFLD and a compromised MEE is dependent of IR.

Predictors and prognostic role of low myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in chronic inflammatory arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the variables associated with the status of low myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE) [the ratio between myocardial left ventricular (LV) work and magnitude of myocardial oxygen consumption] and whether low-MEE is a prognosticator of adverse cardiovascular outcome in patients with chronic inflammatory arthritis.

METHODS

A total of 432 outpatients with established chronic inflammatory arthritis without overt cardiac disease were recruited from March 2014-March 2016; 216 participants were used as comparison group. Low-MEE status was a priori identified by standard echocardiography at rest as less than 0.32 ml/s per g (5th percentile of MEE calculated in 145 healthy individuals). The pre-specified primary end-point of the study was a composite of cardiovascular death/hospitalization. Follow-up ended September 2019.

RESULTS

MEE was significantly lower in chronic inflammatory arthritis patients than controls (0.35 ± 0.11 vs. 0.45 ± 0.10 ml/s per g; P < 0.001). Low-MEE was detected in 164 patients (38%). Independent predictors of low-MEE were older age, higher SBP, diabetes mellitus, LV concentric geometry and lower LV systolic function. During a follow-up of 36 (21-48) months, a primary end-point occurred in 37 patients (8.6%): 22/164 patients with low-MEE (13.4%) and 15/268 (5.6%) without low-MEE (P = 0.004). Low-MEE predicted primary end-points in multivariate Cox regression analysis [heart rate 2.23 (confidence interval 1.13-4.38), P = 0.02] together with older age, lower renal function and higher LV mass.

CONCLUSION

Low-MEE is detectable in more than one-third of patients with chronic inflammatory arthritis and is associated with traditional cardiovascular risk factors and abnormalities in LV geometry and systolic function. In these patients low-MEE is a powerful prognosticator of adverse cardiovascular events.

Depressed Cardiac Mechanical Energetic Efficiency: A Contributor to Cardiovascular Risk in Common Metabolic Diseases-From Mechanisms to Clinical Applications

Cardiac mechanical energetic efficiency is the ratio of external work (EW) to the total energy consumption. EW performed by the left ventricle (LV) during a single beat is represented by LV stroke work and may be calculated from the pressure-volume loop area (PVLA), while energy consumption corresponds to myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO₂) expressed on a per-beat basis. Classical early human studies estimated total mechanical LV efficiency at 20-30%, whereas the remaining energy is dissipated as heat. Total mechanical efficiency is a joint effect of the efficiency of energy transfer at three sequential stages. The first step, from MVO₂ to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), reflects the yield of oxidative phosphorylation (i.e., phosphate-to-oxygen ratio). The second step, from ATP split to pressure-volume area, represents the proportion of the energy liberated during ATP hydrolysis which is converted to total mechanical energy. Total mechanical energy generated per beat-represented by pressure-volume area-consists of EW (corresponding to PVLA) and potential energy, which is needed to develop tension during isovolumic contraction. The efficiency of the third step of energy transfer, i.e., from pressure-volume area to EW, decreases with depressed LV contractility, increased afterload, more concentric LV geometry with diastolic dysfunction and lower LV preload reserve. As practical assessment of LV efficiency poses methodological problems, De Simone et al. proposed a simple surrogate measure of myocardial efficiency, i.e., mechano-energetic efficiency index (MEEi) calculated from LV stroke volume, heart rate and LV mass. In two independent cohorts, including a large group of hypertensive subjects and a population-based cohort (both free of prevalent cardiovascular disease and with preserved ejection fraction), low MEEi independently predicted composite adverse cardiovascular events and incident heart failure. It was hypothesized that the prognostic ability of low MEEi can result from its association with both metabolic and hemodynamic alterations, i.e., metabolic syndrome components, the degree of insulin resistance, concentric LV geometry, LV diastolic and discrete systolic dysfunction. On the one part, an increased reliance of cardiomyocytes on the oxidation of free fatty acids, typical for insulin-resistant states, is associated with both a lower yield of ATP per oxygen molecule and lesser availability of ATP for contraction, which might decrease energetic efficiency of the first and second step of energy transfer from MVO₂ to EW. On the other part, concentric LV remodeling and LV dysfunction despite preserved ejection fraction can impair the efficiency of the third energy transfer step. In conclusion, the association of low MEEi with adverse cardiovascular outcome might be related to a multi-step impairment of energy transfer from MVO₂ to EW in various clinical settings, including metabolic syndrome, diabetes, hypertension and heart failure. Irrespective of theoretical considerations, MEEi appears an attractive simple tool which couldt improve risk stratification in hypertensive and diabetic patients for primary prevention purposes. Further clinical studies are warranted to estimate the predictive ability of MEEi and its post-treatment changes, especially in patients on novel antidiabetic drugs and subjects with common metabolic diseases and concomitant chronic coronary syndromes, in whom the potential relevance of MEE can be potentiated by myocardial ischemia.