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Aboagye FT, Annison L, Hackman HK, Acquah ME, Ashong Y, Owusu-Frimpong I, Egyam BC, Annison S, Osei-Adjei G, Antwi-Baffour S. Molecular Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 within Accra Metropolis Postlockdown. Adv Virol 2024; 2024:2993144. [PMID: 38584794 PMCID: PMC10997420 DOI: 10.1155/2024/2993144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Currently, sequencing has been the only tool for the identification of circulating severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants. However, it is known to be an expensive and laborious approach involving high technical expertise. Considering the reduced adherence to preventive measures postlockdown in Accra, this study presents an alternative method that leverages polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants in the Accra Metropolis postlockdown. Methods This prospective cross-sectional study was conducted between July and December 2022. Nasopharyngeal samples were collected from 268 consenting participants. Samples were subjected to nucleic acid extraction and followed by real-time polymerase chain reaction for the detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. SARS-CoV-2 positive samples were subsequently subjected to variant identification using rapid PCR. Findings. The prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 within the Accra Metropolis was 30.2%. The majority of the SARS-CoV-2 infection was diagnosed in females, participants aged 41-50 years, and symptomatic participants. Participants aged ≤10 years and females recorded the highest viral load while participants aged 41-50 years recorded the highest number of infections. The SARS-CoV-2 variants detected were Alpha (64.2%), Delta (22.2%), and Omicron (13.6%). Predictors of SARS-CoV-2 infection identified were chills, cough, headache, body weakness, sore throat, and dyspnoea in order of decreasing association with SARS-CoV-2 infection. There was a strong association between symptom status, gender, age, and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Conclusion There was a high prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 within the Accra Metropolis postlockdown within the sampling period. The Alpha variant of SARS-CoV-2 is the predominant circulating variant, and persons presenting with symptoms are most likely to be diagnosed with COVID-19. Children aged ≤10 years serve as a reservoir for infection transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank T. Aboagye
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Accra Technical University, Accra, Ghana
- Biomedical and Public Health Research Unit, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research–Water Research Institute, Accra, Ghana
| | - Lawrence Annison
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Accra Technical University, Accra, Ghana
| | - Henry Kwadwo Hackman
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Accra Technical University, Accra, Ghana
| | - Maame E. Acquah
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Yvonne Ashong
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute of Medical Research, College of Medical Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Isaac Owusu-Frimpong
- Biomedical and Public Health Research Unit, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research–Water Research Institute, Accra, Ghana
| | - Bill C. Egyam
- Department of Molecular Biology, MDS Lancet Laboratories Ghana Limited, East Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Sharon Annison
- Department of Epidemiology and Disease Control, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - George Osei-Adjei
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Accra Technical University, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel Antwi-Baffour
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu, Accra, Ghana
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2
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Kopsidas I, Karagiannidou S, Kostaki EG, Kousi D, Douka E, Sfikakis PP, Moustakidis S, Kokkotis C, Tsaopoulos D, Tseti I, Zaoutis T, Paraskevis D. Global Distribution, Dispersal Patterns, and Trend of Several Omicron Subvariants of SARS-CoV-2 across the Globe. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:373. [PMID: 36422924 PMCID: PMC9698960 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7110373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Our study aims to describe the global distribution and dispersal patterns of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants. Genomic surveillance data were extracted from the CoV-Spectrum platform, searching for BA.1*, BA.2*, BA.3*, BA.4*, and BA.5* variants by geographic region. BA.1* increased in November 2021 in South Africa, with a similar increase across all continents in early December 2021. BA.1* did not reach 100% dominance in all continents. The spread of BA.2*, first described in South Africa, differed greatly by geographic region, in contrast to BA.1*, which followed a similar global expansion, firstly occurring in Asia and subsequently in Africa, Europe, Oceania, and North and South America. BA.4* and BA.5* followed a different pattern, where BA.4* reached high proportions (maximum 60%) only in Africa. BA.5* is currently, by Mid-August 2022, the dominant strain, reaching almost 100% across Europe, which is the first continent aside from Africa to show increasing proportions, and Asia, the Americas, and Oceania are following. The emergence of new variants depends mostly on their selective advantage, translated as enhanced transmissibility and ability to invade people with existing immunity. Describing these patterns is useful for a better understanding of the epidemiology of the VOCs' transmission and for generating hypotheses about the future of emerging variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Kopsidas
- Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Outcomes Research (CLEO), 15451 Athens, Greece
| | | | - Evangelia Georgia Kostaki
- Department of Hygiene Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitra Kousi
- Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Outcomes Research (CLEO), 15451 Athens, Greece
| | - Eirini Douka
- National Public Health Organisation (NPHO), 15123 Athens, Greece
| | - Petros P. Sfikakis
- First Department of Propaedeutic and Internal Medicine, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | | | - Christos Kokkotis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 69100 Komotini, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Tsaopoulos
- Center for Research and Technology Hellas, Institute for Bio-Economy & Agri-Technology, 38333 Volos, Greece
| | | | - Theoklis Zaoutis
- National Public Health Organisation (NPHO), 15123 Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Paraskevis
- National Public Health Organisation (NPHO), 15123 Athens, Greece
- Department of Hygiene Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
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3
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Chiang CY, Kuo WW, Lin YJ, Kuo CH, Shih CY, Lin PY, Lin SZ, Ho TJ, Huang CY, Shibu MA. Combined effect of traditional Chinese herbal-based formulations Jing Si herbal tea and Jing Si nasal drop inhibits adhesion and transmission of SARS-CoV2 in diabetic SKH-1 mice. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:953438. [PMID: 36425575 PMCID: PMC9681529 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.953438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple studies show increased severity of SARS-CoV2-infection in patients with comorbidities such as hypertension and diabetes. In this study, we have prepared two herbal-based formulations, a pleiotropic herbal drink (Jin Si Herbal Tea, JHT) and a nasal drop (Jin Si nasal drop, JND), to provide preventive care against SARS-CoV2 infection. The effect of JHT and JND was determined in SARS-CoV2-S-pseudotyped lentivirus-infected bronchial and colorectal cell lines and in SKH-1 mouse models. For preliminary studies, ACE2 receptor abundant bronchial (Calu-3) and colorectal cells (Caco-2) were used to determine the effect of JHT and JND on the host entry of various variants of SARS-CoV2-S-pseudotyped lentivirus. A series of experiments were performed to understand the infection rate in SKH-1 mice (6 weeks old, n = 9), find the effective dosage of JHT and JND, and determine the combination effect of JHT and JND on the entry and adhesion of various variant SARS-CoV2-S-pseudotyped lentiviruses, which included highly transmissible delta and gamma mutants. Furthermore, the effect of combined JHT and JND was determined on diabetes-induced SKH-1 mice against the comorbidity-associated intense viral entry and accumulation. In addition, the effect of combined JHT and JND administration on viral transmission from infected SKH-1 mice to uninfected cage mate mice was determined. The results showed that both JHT and JND were effective in alleviating the viral entry and accumulation in the thorax and the abdominal area. While JHT showed a dose-dependent decrease in the viral load, JND showed early inhibition of viral entry from day 1 of the infection. Combined administration of 48.66 mg of JHT and 20 µL of JND showed rapid reduction in the viral entry and reduced the viral load (97-99%) in the infected mice within 3 days of treatment. Moreover, 16.22 mg of JHT and 20 µL JND reduced the viral infection in STZ-induced diabetic SKH-1 mice. Interestingly, combined JHT and JND also inhibited viral transmission among cage mates. The results, therefore, showed that combined administration of JHT and JND is a novel and an efficient strategy to potentially prevent SARS-CoV2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Yi Chiang
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Wen Kuo
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Life Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Ph.D. Program for Biotechnology Industry, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Jung Lin
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Hua Kuo
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry, University of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yen Shih
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Buddhist Tzu Chi Charity Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Pi-Yu Lin
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Buddhist Tzu Chi Charity Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Buddhist Tzu Chi Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Jung Ho
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Integration Center of Traditional Chinese and Modern Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
- School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Yang Huang
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Center of General Education, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Tzu Chi University of Science and Technology, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Marthandam Asokan Shibu
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
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4
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Huang Q, Zhang Q, Bible PW, Liang Q, Zheng F, Wang Y, Hao Y, Liu Y. A New Way to Trace SARS-CoV-2 Variants Through Weighted Network Analysis of Frequency Trajectories of Mutations. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:859241. [PMID: 35369526 PMCID: PMC8966897 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.859241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Early detection of SARS-CoV-2 variants enables timely tracking of clinically important strains in order to inform the public health response. Current subtype-based variant surveillance depending on prior subtype assignment according to lag features and their continuous risk assessment may delay this process. We proposed a weighted network framework to model the frequency trajectories of mutations (FTMs) for SARS-CoV-2 variant tracing, without requiring prior subtype assignment. This framework modularizes the FTMs and conglomerates synchronous FTMs together to represent the variants. It also generates module clusters to unveil the epidemic stages and their contemporaneous variants. Eventually, the module-based variants are assessed by phylogenetic tree through sub-sampling to facilitate communication and control of the epidemic. This process was benchmarked using worldwide GISAID data, which not only demonstrated all the methodology features but also showed the module-based variant identification had highly specific and sensitive mapping with the global phylogenetic tree. When applying this process to regional data like India and South Africa for SARS-CoV-2 variant surveillance, the approach clearly elucidated the national dispersal history of the viral variants and their co-circulation pattern, and provided much earlier warning of Beta (B.1.351), Delta (B.1.617.2), and Omicron (B.1.1.529). In summary, our work showed that the weighted network modeling of FTMs enables us to rapidly and easily track down SARS-CoV-2 variants overcoming prior viral subtyping with lag features, accelerating the understanding and surveillance of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Huang
- Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- College of Computer, Chengdu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Paul W Bible
- College of Arts and Sciences, Marian University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Qiaoxing Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fangfang Zheng
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine Healthcare, Guangdong Food and Drug Vocational College, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuantao Hao
- Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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5
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Sarkar R, Saha R, Mallick P, Sharma R, Kaur A, Dutta S, Chawla-Sarkar M. Emergence of a novel SARS-CoV-2 Pango lineage B.1.1.526 in West Bengal, India. J Infect Public Health 2022; 15:42-50. [PMID: 34896696 PMCID: PMC8642833 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2021.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since its inception in late 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has been evolving continuously by procuring mutations, leading to emergence of numerous variants, causing second wave of pandemic in many countries including India in 2021. To control this pandemic continuous mutational surveillance and genomic epidemiology of circulating strains is very important to unveil the emergence of the novel variants and also monitor the evolution of existing variants. METHODS SARS-CoV-2 sequences were retrieved from GISAID database. Sequence alignment was performed with MAFT version 7. Phylogenetic tree was constructed by using MEGA (version X) and UShER. RESULTS In this study, we reported the emergence of a novel variant of SARS-CoV-2, named B.1.1.526, in India. This novel variant encompasses 129 SARS-CoV-2 strains which are characterized by the presence of 11 coexisting mutations including D614G, P681H, and V1230L in S glycoprotein. Out of these 129 sequences, 27 sequences also harbored E484K mutation in S glycoprotein. Phylogenetic analysis revealed strains of this novel variant emerged from the GR clade and formed a new cluster. Geographical distribution showed, out of 129 sequences, 126 were found in seven different states of India. Rest 3 sequences were observed in USA. Temporal analysis revealed this novel variant was first collected from Kolkata district of West Bengal, India. CONCLUSIONS The D614G, P618H and E484K mutations have previously been reported to favor increased transmissibility, enhanced infectivity, and immune invasion, respectively. The transmembrane domain (TM) of S2 subunit anchors S glycoprotein to the virus envelope. The V1230L mutation, present within the TM domain of S glycoprotein, might strengthen the interaction of S glycoprotein with the viral envelope and increase S glycoprotein deposition to the virion, resulting in more infectious virion. Therefore, the new variant having D614G, P618H, V1230L, and E484K may have higher infectivity, transmissibility, and immune invasion characteristics, and thus need to be monitored closely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Sarkar
- ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Ritubrita Saha
- ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Pratik Mallick
- Department of Biotechnology, St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Ranjana Sharma
- ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Amandeep Kaur
- Guru Nanak Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Shanta Dutta
- ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Mamta Chawla-Sarkar
- ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
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6
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Beloukas A, Rampias T. Biological and Clinical Significance of Adaptive Evolution of Coronaviruses. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11111129. [PMID: 34833006 PMCID: PMC8617743 DOI: 10.3390/life11111129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Apostolos Beloukas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK
- Correspondence: (A.B.); (T.R.)
| | - Theodoros Rampias
- Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Basic Research Center, 11527 Athens, Greece
- Correspondence: (A.B.); (T.R.)
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7
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Dimeglio C, Milhes M, Loubes JM, Ranger N, Mansuy JM, Trémeaux P, Jeanne N, Latour J, Nicot F, Donnadieu C, Izopet J. Influence of SARS-CoV-2 Variant B.1.1.7, Vaccination, and Public Health Measures on the Spread of SARS-CoV-2. Viruses 2021; 13:898. [PMID: 34066231 PMCID: PMC8151774 DOI: 10.3390/v13050898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The spread of SARS-CoV-2 and the resulting disease COVID-19 has killed over 2.6 million people as of 18 March 2021. We have used a modified susceptible, infected, recovered (SIR) epidemiological model to predict how the spread of the virus in regions of France will vary depending on the proportions of variants and on the public health strategies adopted, including anti-COVID-19 vaccination. The proportion of SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7, which was not detected in early January, increased to become 60% of the forms of SARS-CoV-2 circulating in the Toulouse urban area at the beginning of February 2021, but there was no increase in positive nucleic acid tests. Our prediction model indicates that maintaining public health measures and accelerating vaccination are efficient strategies for the sustained control of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Dimeglio
- INSERM UMR1291—CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), 31300 Toulouse, France;
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Marine Milhes
- Genotoul-Genome & Transcriptome—Plateforme Génomique (GeT-PlaGe), US INRAe 1426, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France; (M.M.); (C.D.)
| | - Jean-Michel Loubes
- Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, 31400 Toulouse, France;
| | - Noémie Ranger
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Jean-Michel Mansuy
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Pauline Trémeaux
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Nicolas Jeanne
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Justine Latour
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Florence Nicot
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
| | - Cécile Donnadieu
- Genotoul-Genome & Transcriptome—Plateforme Génomique (GeT-PlaGe), US INRAe 1426, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France; (M.M.); (C.D.)
| | - Jacques Izopet
- INSERM UMR1291—CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), 31300 Toulouse, France;
- Virology Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France; (N.R.); (J.-M.M.); (P.T.); (N.J.); (J.L.); (F.N.)
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