Nanoindentation of Soft Biological Materials

Atomic force microscopy in disease-related studies: Exploring tissue and cell mechanics

Despite significant progress in human medicine, certain diseases remain challenging to promptly diagnose and treat. Hence, the imperative lies in the development of more exhaustive criteria and tools. Tissue and cellular mechanics exhibit distinctive traits in both normal and pathological states, suggesting that "force" represents a promising and distinctive target for disease diagnosis and treatment. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) holds great promise as a prospective clinical medical device due to its capability to concurrently assess surface morphology and mechanical characteristics of biological specimens within a physiological setting. This review presents a comprehensive examination of the operational principles of AFM and diverse mechanical models, focusing on its applications in investigating tissue and cellular mechanics associated with prevalent diseases. The findings from these studies lay a solid groundwork for potential clinical implementations of AFM. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: By examining the surface morphology and assessing tissue and cellular mechanics of biological specimens in a physiological setting, AFM shows promise as a clinical device to diagnose and treat challenging diseases.

Muscle stiffness indicating mission crew health in space

Muscle function is compromised by gravitational unloading in space affecting overall musculoskeletal health. Astronauts perform daily exercise programmes to mitigate these effects but knowing which muscles to target would optimise effectiveness. Accurate inflight assessment to inform exercise programmes is critical due to lack of technologies suitable for spaceflight. Changes in mechanical properties indicate muscle health status and can be measured rapidly and non-invasively using novel technology. A hand-held MyotonPRO device enabled monitoring of muscle health for the first time in spaceflight (> 180 days). Greater/maintained stiffness indicated countermeasures were effective. Tissue stiffness was preserved in the majority of muscles (neck, shoulder, back, thigh) but Tibialis Anterior (foot lever muscle) stiffness decreased inflight vs. preflight (p < 0.0001; mean difference 149 N/m) in all 12 crewmembers. The calf muscles showed opposing effects, Gastrocnemius increasing in stiffness Soleus decreasing. Selective stiffness decrements indicate lack of preservation despite daily inflight countermeasures. This calls for more targeted exercises for lower leg muscles with vital roles as ankle joint stabilizers and in gait. Muscle stiffness is a digital biomarker for risk monitoring during future planetary explorations (Moon, Mars), for healthcare management in challenging environments or clinical disorders in people on Earth, to enable effective tailored exercise programmes.

Mechanical behavior and microstructure of porcine brain tissues under pulsed electric fields

Pulsed electric fields are extensively utilized in clinical treatments, such as subthalamic deep brain stimulation, where electric field loading is in direct contact with brain tissue. However, the alterations in brain tissue's mechanical properties and microstructure due to changes in electric field parameters have not received adequate attention. In this study, the mechanical properties and microstructure of the brain tissue under pulsed electric fields were focused on. Herein, a custom indentation device was equipped with a module for electric field loading. Parameters such as pulse amplitude and frequency were adjusted. The results demonstrated that following an indentation process lasting 5 s and reaching a depth of 1000 μm, and a relaxation process of 175 s, the average shear modulus of brain tissue was reduced, and viscosity decreased. At the same amplitude, high-frequency pulsed electric fields had a smaller effect on brain tissue than low-frequency ones. Furthermore, pulsed electric fields induced cell polarization and reduced the proteoglycan concentration in brain tissue. As pulse frequency increased, cell polarization diminished, and proteoglycan concentration decreased significantly. High-frequency pulsed electric fields applied to brain tissue were found to reduce impedance fluctuation amplitude. This study revealed the effect of pulsed electric fields on the mechanical properties and microstructure of ex vivo brain tissue, providing essential information to promote the advancement of brain tissue electrotherapy in clinical settings.

Quantifying the Impact of Cancer on the Viscoelastic Properties of the Prostate Gland using a Quasi-Linear Viscoelastic Model

Pathological disorders can alter the mechanical properties of biological tissues, and studying such changes can help to better understand the disease progression. The prostate gland is no exception, as previous studies have shown that cancer can affect its mechanical properties. However, most of these studies have focused on the elastic properties of the tissue and have overlooked the impact of cancer on its viscous response. To address this gap, we used a quasi-linear viscoelastic model to investigate the impact of cancer on both the elastic and viscous characteristics of the prostate gland. By comparing the viscoelastic properties of segments influenced by cancer and those unaffected by cancer in 49 fresh prostates, removed within two hours after prostatectomy surgery, we were able to determine the influence of cancer grade and tumor volume on the tissue. Our findings suggest that tumor volume significantly affects both the elastic modulus and viscosity of the prostate (p-value less than 2%). Specifically, we showed that cancer increases Young's modulus and shear relaxation modulus by 20%. These results have implications for using mechanical properties of the prostate as a potential biomarker for cancer. However, developing an in vivo apparatus to measure these properties remains a challenge that needs to be addressed in future research. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This study is the first to explore how cancer impacts the mechanical properties of prostate tissues using a quasi-linear viscoelastic model. We examined 49 fresh prostate samples collected immediately after surgery and correlated their properties with cancer presence identified in pathology reports. Our results demonstrate a 20% change in the viscoelastic properties of the prostate due to cancer. We initially validated our approach using tissue-mimicking phantoms and then applied it to differentiate between cancerous and normal prostate tissues. These findings offer potential for early cancer detection by assessing these properties. However, conducting these tests in vivo remains a challenge for future research.

Depth profiling via nanoindentation for characterisation of the elastic modulus and hydraulic properties of thin hydrogel layers

The accurate determination of the mechanical properties of hydrogels is of fundamental importance for a range of applications, including in assessing the effect of stiffness on cell behaviour. This is a particular issue when using thin hydrogel layers adherent to stiff substrate supports, as the apparent stiffness can be significantly influenced by the constraint of the underlying impermeable substrate, leading to inaccurate measurements of the elastic modulus and permeability of thin hydrogel layers. This study used depth profiling nanoindentation and a poroelastic model for spherical indentation to identify the elastic moduli and hydraulic conductivity of thin polyacrylamide (PAAm) hydrogel layers (∼27 μm-782 μm thick) on impermeable substrates. The apparent stiffness of thin PAAm layers increased with indentation depth and was significantly greater than those of thicker hydrogels, which showed no influence of indentation depth. The hydraulic conductivity decreased as the geometrical confinement of hydrogels increased, indicating that the fluid became more constrained within the confinement areas. The impact of geometrical confinement on the apparent modulus and hydraulic conductivity of thin PAAm hydrogel layers was then established, and their elastic moduli and intrinsic permeability were determined in relation to this effect. This study offers valuable insights into the mechanical characterisation of thin PAAm hydrogel layers used for the fundamental study of cell mechanobiology.

Correlation of Plasma Membrane Microviscosity and Cell Stiffness Revealed via Fluorescence-Lifetime Imaging and Atomic Force Microscopy

The biophysical properties of cells described at the level of whole cells or their membranes have many consequences for their biological behavior. However, our understanding of the relationships between mechanical parameters at the level of cell (stiffness, viscoelasticity) and at the level of the plasma membrane (fluidity) remains quite limited, especially in the context of pathologies, such as cancer. Here, we investigated the correlations between cells' stiffness and viscoelastic parameters, mainly determined via the actin cortex, and plasma membrane microviscosity, mainly determined via its lipid profile, in cancer cells, as these are the keys to their migratory capacity. The mechanical properties of cells were assessed using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The microviscosity of membranes was visualized using fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) with the viscosity-sensitive probe BODIPY 2. Measurements were performed for five human colorectal cancer cell lines that have different migratory activity (HT29, Caco-2, HCT116, SW 837, and SW 480) and their chemoresistant counterparts. The actin cytoskeleton and the membrane lipid composition were also analyzed to verify the results. The cell stiffness (Young's modulus), measured via AFM, correlated well (Pearson r = 0.93) with membrane microviscosity, measured via FLIM, and both metrics were elevated in more motile cells. The associations between stiffness and microviscosity were preserved upon acquisition of chemoresistance to one of two chemotherapeutic drugs. These data clearly indicate that mechanical parameters, determined by two different cellular structures, are interconnected in cells and play a role in their intrinsic migratory potential.

Tailoring the multiscale mechanics of tunable decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) for wound healing through immunomodulation

With the discovery of the pivotal role of macrophages in tissue regeneration through shaping the tissue immune microenvironment, various immunomodulatory strategies have been proposed to modify traditional biomaterials. Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) has been extensively used in the clinical treatment of tissue injury due to its favorable biocompatibility and similarity to the native tissue environment. However, most reported decellularization protocols may cause damage to the native structure of dECM, which undermines its inherent advantages and potential clinical applications. Here, we introduce a mechanically tunable dECM prepared by optimizing the freeze-thaw cycles. We demonstrated that the alteration in micromechanical properties of dECM resulting from the cyclic freeze-thaw process contributes to distinct macrophage-mediated host immune responses to the materials, which are recently recognized to play a pivotal role in determining the outcome of tissue regeneration. Our sequencing data further revealed that the immunomodulatory effect of dECM was induced via the mechnotrasduction pathways in macrophages. Next, we tested the dECM in a rat skin injury model and found an enhanced micromechanical property of dECM achieved with three freeze-thaw cycles significantly promoted the M2 polarization of macrophages, leading to superior wound healing. These findings suggest that the immunomodulatory property of dECM can be efficiently manipulated by tailoring its inherent micromechanical properties during the decellularization process. Therefore, our mechanics-immunomodulation-based strategy provides new insights into the development of advanced biomaterials for wound healing.

AI-dente: an open machine learning based tool to interpret nano-indentation data of soft tissues and materials

Nano-indentation is a promising method to identify the constitutive parameters of soft materials, including soft tissues. Especially when materials are very small and heterogeneous, nano-indentation allows mechanical interrogation where traditional methods may fail. However, because nano-indentation does not yield a homogeneous deformation field, interpreting the resulting load-displacement curves is non-trivial and most investigators resort to simplified approaches based on the Hertzian solution. Unfortunately, for small samples and large indentation depths, these solutions are inaccurate. We set out to use machine learning to provide an alternative strategy. We first used the finite element method to create a large synthetic data set. We then used these data to train neural networks to inversely identify material parameters from load-displacement curves. To this end, we took two different approaches. First, we learned the indentation forward problem, which we then applied within an iterative framework to identify material parameters. Second, we learned the inverse problem of directly identifying material parameters. We show that both approaches are effective at identifying the parameters of the neo-Hookean and Gent models. Specifically, when applied to synthetic data, our approaches are accurate even for small sample sizes and at deep indentation. Additionally, our approaches are fast, especially compared to the inverse finite element approach. Finally, our approaches worked on unseen experimental data from thin mouse brain samples. Here, our approaches proved robust to experimental noise across over 1000 samples. By providing open access to our data and code, we hope to support others that conduct nano-indentation on soft materials.

Bio-inspired microfluidics: A review

Biomicrofluidics, a subdomain of microfluidics, has been inspired by several ideas from nature. However, while the basic inspiration for the same may be drawn from the living world, the translation of all relevant essential functionalities to an artificially engineered framework does not remain trivial. Here, we review the recent progress in bio-inspired microfluidic systems via harnessing the integration of experimental and simulation tools delving into the interface of engineering and biology. Development of "on-chip" technologies as well as their multifarious applications is subsequently discussed, accompanying the relevant advancements in materials and fabrication technology. Pointers toward new directions in research, including an amalgamated fusion of data-driven modeling (such as artificial intelligence and machine learning) and physics-based paradigm, to come up with a human physiological replica on a synthetic bio-chip with due accounting of personalized features, are suggested. These are likely to facilitate physiologically replicating disease modeling on an artificially engineered biochip as well as advance drug development and screening in an expedited route with the minimization of animal and human trials.

Application of atomic force microscopy in the characterization of fruits and vegetables and associated substances toward improvement in quality, preservation, and processing: nanoscale structure and mechanics perspectives

Fruits and vegetables are essential horticultural crops for humans. The quality of fruits and vegetables is critical in determining their nutritional value and edibility, which are decisive to their commercial value. Besides, it is also important to understand the changes in key substances involved in the preservation and processing of fruits and vegetables. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), a powerful technique for investigating biological surfaces, has been widely used to characterize the quality of fruits and vegetables and the substances involved in their preservation and processing from the perspective of nanoscale structure and mechanics. This review summarizes the applications of AFM to investigate the texture, appearance, and nutrients of fruits and vegetables based on structural imaging and force measurements. Additionally, the review highlights the application of AFM in characterizing the morphological and mechanical properties of nanomaterials involved in preserving and processing fruits and vegetables, including films and coatings for preservation, bioactive compounds for processing purposes, nanofiltration membrane for concentration, and nanoencapsulation for delivery of bioactive compounds. Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of AFM for characterizing the quality of fruits and vegetables and the substances involved in their preservation and processing are examined, followed by a discussion on the prospects of AFM in this field.

Atomic Force Microscopy Methods to Measure Tumor Mechanical Properties

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a popular tool for evaluating the mechanical properties of biological materials (cells and tissues) at high resolution. This technique has become particularly attractive to cancer researchers seeking to bridge the gap between mechanobiology and cancer initiation, progression, and treatment resistance. The majority of AFM studies thus far have been extensively focused on the nanomechanical characterization of cells. However, these approaches fail to capture the complex and heterogeneous nature of a tumor and its host organ. Over the past decade, efforts have been made to characterize the mechanical properties of tumors and tumor-bearing tissues using AFM. This has led to novel insights regarding cancer mechanopathology at the tissue scale. In this Review, we first explain the principles of AFM nanoindentation for the general study of tissue mechanics. We next discuss key considerations when using this technique and preparing tissue samples for analysis. We then examine AFM application in characterizing the mechanical properties of cancer tissues. Finally, we provide an outlook on AFM in the field of cancer mechanobiology and its application in the clinic.

Local tissue mechanics control cardiac pacemaker cell embryonic patterning

Cardiac pacemaker cells (CPCs) initiate the electric impulses that drive the rhythmic beating of the heart. CPCs reside in a heterogeneous, ECM-rich microenvironment termed the sinoatrial node (SAN). Surprisingly, little is known regarding the biochemical composition or mechanical properties of the SAN, and how the unique structural characteristics present in this region of the heart influence CPC function remains poorly understood. Here, we have identified that SAN development involves the construction of a "soft" macromolecular ECM that specifically encapsulates CPCs. In addition, we demonstrate that subjecting embryonic CPCs to substrate stiffnesses higher than those measured in vivo results in loss of coherent electrical oscillation and dysregulation of the HCN4 and NCX1 ion channels required for CPC automaticity. Collectively, these data indicate that local mechanics play a critical role in maintaining the embryonic CPC function while also quantitatively defining the range of material properties that are optimal for embryonic CPC maturation.

Mechanical Behavior of 3D Printed Poly(ethylene glycol) Diacrylate Hydrogels in Hydrated Conditions Investigated Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Three-dimensional (3D) printed hydrogels fabricated using light processing techniques are poised to replace conventional processing methods used in tissue engineering and organ-on-chip devices. An intrinsic potential problem remains related to structural heterogeneity translated in the degree of cross-linking of the printed layers. Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels were used to fabricate both 3D printed multilayer and control monolithic samples, which were then analyzed using atomic force microscopy (AFM) to assess their nanomechanical properties. The fabrication of the hydrogel samples involved layer-by-layer (LbL) projection lithography and bulk cross-linking processes. We evaluated the nanomechanical properties of both hydrogel types in a hydrated environment using the elastic modulus (E) as a measure to gain insight into their mechanical properties. We observed that E increases by 4-fold from 2.8 to 11.9 kPa transitioning from bottom to the top of a single printed layer in a multilayer sample. Such variations could not be seen in control monolithic sample. The variation within the printed layers is ascribed to heterogeneities caused by the photo-cross-linking process. This behavior was rationalized by spatial variation of the polymer cross-link density related to variations of light absorption within the layers attributed to spatial decay of light intensity during the photo-cross-linking process. More importantly, we observed a significant 44% increase in E, from 9.1 to 13.1 kPa, as the indentation advanced from the bottom to the top of the multilayer sample. This finding implies that mechanical heterogeneity is present throughout the entire structure, rather than being limited to each layer individually. These findings are critical for design, fabrication, and application engineers intending to use 3D printed multilayer PEGDA hydrogels for in vitro tissue engineering and organ-on-chip devices.

Unravelling the mechanotransduction pathways in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents one of the most common and debilitating neurodegenerative disorders. By the end of 2040, AD patients might reach 11.2 million in the USA, around 70% higher than 2022, with severe consequences on the society. As now, we still need research to find effective methods to treat AD. Most studies focused on the tau and amyloid hypothesis, but many other factors are likely involved in the pathophysiology of AD. In this review, we summarize scientific evidence dealing with the mechanotransduction players in AD to highlight the most relevant mechano-responsive elements that play a role in AD pathophysiology. We focused on the AD-related role of extracellular matrix (ECM), nuclear lamina, nuclear transport and synaptic activity. The literature supports that ECM alteration causes the lamin A increment in the AD patients, leading to the formation of nuclear blebs and invaginations. Nuclear blebs have consequences on the nuclear pore complexes, impairing nucleo-cytoplasmic transport. This may result in tau hyperphosphorylation and its consequent self-aggregation in tangles, which impairs the neurotransmitters transport. It all exacerbates in synaptic transmission impairment, leading to the characteristic AD patient's memory loss. Here we related for the first time all the evidence associating the mechanotransduction pathway with neurons. In addition, we highlighted the entire pathway influencing neurodegenerative diseases, paving the way for new research perspectives in the context of AD and related pathologies.

Linear and nonlinear rheology of liberase-treated breast cancer tumors

Extracellular matrix (ECM) rigidity has been shown to increase the invasive properties of breast cancer cells, promoting transformation and metastasis through mechanotransduction. Reducing ECM stiffness via enzymatic digestion could be a promising approach to slowing breast cancer development by de-differentiation of breast cancer cells to less aggressive phenotypes and enhancing the effectiveness of existing chemotherapeutics via improved drug penetrance throughout the tumor. In this study, we examine the effects of injectable liberase (a blend of collagenase and thermolysin enzymes) treatments on the linear and nonlinear rheology of allograft 4T1 mouse mammary tumors. We perform two sets of in vivo mouse studies, in which either one or multiple treatment injections occur before the tumors are harvested for rheological analysis. The treatment groups in each study consist of a buffer control, free liberase enzyme in buffer, a thermoresponsive copolymer called LiquoGel (LQG) in buffer, and a combined, localized injection of LQG and liberase. All tumor samples exhibit gel-like linear rheological behavior with the elastic modulus significantly larger than the viscous modulus and both independent of frequency. Tumors that receive a single injection of localized liberase have significantly lower tumor volumes and lower tissue moduli at both the center and edge compared to buffer- and free liberase-injected control tumors, while tissue viscoelasticity remains relatively unaffected. Tumors injected multiple times with LQG and liberase also have lower tissue volumes but possess higher tissue moduli and lower viscoelasticities compared to the other treatment groups. We propose that a mechanotransductive mechanism could cause the formation of smaller but stiffer tumors after repeated, localized liberase injections. Large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) experiments are also performed on tissues from the multiple injection study and the results are analyzed using MITlaos. LAOS analysis reveals that all 4T1 tumors from the multiple injection study exhibit nonlinear rheological behavior at high strains and strain rates. Examination of the Lissajous-Bowditch curves, Chebyshev coefficient ratios, elastic moduli, and dynamic viscosities demonstrate that the onset and type of nonlinear behavior is independent of treatment type and elastic modulus, suggesting that multiple liberase injections do not affect the nonlinear viscoelasticity of 4T1 tumors.

Orientation-dependent indentation reveals the crosslink-mediated deformation mechanisms of collagen fibrils

The spatial arrangement and interactions of the extracellular matrix (ECM) components control the mechanical behavior of tissue at multiple length scales. Changes in microscale deformation mechanisms affect tissue function and are often hallmarks of remodeling and disease. Despite their importance, the deformation mechanisms that modulate the mechanical behavior of collagenous tissue, particularly in indentation and compression modes of deformation, remain poorly understood. Here, we develop an integrated computational and experimental approach to investigate the deformation mechanisms of collagenous tissue at the microscale. While the complex deformation arising from indentation with a spherical probe is often considered a pitfall rather than an opportunity, we leverage this orientation-dependent deformation to examine the shear-regulated interactions of collagen fibrils and the role of crosslinks in modulating these interactions. We specifically examine tendon and cervix, two tissues rich in collagen with quite different microstructures and mechanical functions. We find that interacting, crosslinked collagen fibrils resist microscale longitudinal compressive forces, while widely used constitutive models fail to capture this behavior. The reorientation of collagen fibrils tunes the compressive stiffness of complex tissues like cervix. This study offers new insights into the mechanical behavior of collagen fibrils during indentation, and more generally, under longitudinal compressive forces, and illustrates the mechanisms that contribute to the experimentally observed orientation-dependent mechanical behavior. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Remodeling and disease can affect the deformation and interaction of tissue constituents, and thus mechanical function of tissue. Yet, the microscale deformation mechanisms are not well characterized in many tissues. Here, we develop a combined experimental-computational approach to infer the microscale deformation mechanisms of collagenous tissues with very different functions: tendon and cervix. Results show that collagen fibrils resist microscale forces along their length, though widely-used constitutive models do not account for this mechanism. This deformation process partially modulates the compressive stiffness of complex tissues such as cervix. Computational modeling shows that crosslink-mediated shear deformations are central to this unexpected behavior. This study offers new insights into the deformation mechanisms of collagenous tissue and the function of collagen crosslinkers.

Changes in stiffness of the extracellular and pericellular matrix in the anulus fibrosus of lumbar intervertebral discs over the course of degeneration

Analogous to articular cartilage, changes in spatial chondrocyte organisation have been proposed to be a strong indicator for local tissue degeneration in the intervertebral disc (IVD). While a progressive structural and functional degradation of the extracellular (ECM) and pericellular (PCM) matrix occurs in osteoarthritic cartilage, these processes have not yet been biomechanically elucidated in the IVD. We aimed to evaluate the local stiffness of the ECM and PCM in the anulus fibrosus of the IVD on the basis of local chondrocyte spatial organisation. Using atomic force microscopy, we measured the Young's modulus of the local ECM and PCM in human and bovine disc samples using the spatial chondrocyte patterns as an image-based biomarker. By measuring tissue from 31 patients and six bovine samples, we found a significant difference in the elastic moduli (E) of the PCM in clusters when compared to the healthy patterns single cells (p = 0.029), pairs (p = 0.016), and string-formations (p = 0.010). The ECM/PCM ratio ranged from 0.62-0.89. Interestingly, in the bovine IVD, the ECM/PCM ratio of the E significantly varied (p = 0.002) depending on the tissue origin. Overall the reduced E in clusters demonstrates that cluster formation is not only a morphological phenomenon describing disc degeneration, but it marks a compromised biomechanical functioning. Immunohistochemical analyses indicate that collagen type III degradation might be involved. This study is the first to describe and quantify the differences in the E of the ECM in relation to the PCM in the anulus fibrosus of the IVD by means of atomic force microscopy on the basis of spatial chondrocyte organisation.

Atomic Force Microscopy Cantilever-Based Nanoindentation: Mechanical Property Measurements at the Nanoscale in Air and Fluid

An atomic force microscope (AFM) fundamentally measures the interaction between a nanoscale AFM probe tip and the sample surface. If the force applied by the probe tip and its contact area with the sample can be quantified, it is possible to determine the nanoscale mechanical properties (e.g., elastic or Young's modulus) of the surface being probed. A detailed procedure for performing quantitative AFM cantilever-based nanoindentation experiments is provided here, with representative examples of how the technique can be applied to determine the elastic moduli of a wide variety of sample types, ranging from kPa to GPa. These include live mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and nuclei in physiological buffer, resin-embedded dehydrated loblolly pine cross-sections, and Bakken shales of varying composition. Additionally, AFM cantilever-based nanoindentation is used to probe the rupture strength (i.e., breakthrough force) of phospholipid bilayers. Important practical considerations such as method choice and development, probe selection and calibration, region of interest identification, sample heterogeneity, feature size and aspect ratio, tip wear, surface roughness, and data analysis and measurement statistics are discussed to aid proper implementation of the technique. Finally, co-localization of AFM-derived nanomechanical maps with electron microscopy techniques that provide additional information regarding elemental composition is demonstrated.

Instrumented nanoindentation in musculoskeletal research

Musculoskeletal tissues, such as bone, cartilage, and muscle, are natural composite materials that are constructed with a hierarchical structure ranging from the cell to tissue level. The component differences and structural complexity, together, require comprehensive multiscale mechanical characterization. In this review, we focus on nanoindentation testing, which is used for nanometer to sub-micrometer length scale mechanical characterization. In the following context, we will summarize studies of nanoindentation in musculoskeletal research, examine the critical factors that affect nanoindentation testing results, and briefly summarize other commonly used techniques that can be conjoined with nanoindentation for synchronized imaging and colocalized characterization.

Biological role of matrix stiffness in tumor growth and treatment

In recent years, the biological role of changes in physical factors in carcinogenesis and progression has attracted increasing attention. Matrix stiffness, also known as ECM stress, is a critical physical factor of tumor microenvironment and remains alternating during carcinogenesis as a result of ECM remodeling through activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts and extracellular collagen accumulation, crosslinking and fibrosis. Different content and density of extracellular collagen in ECM endows matrix with varying stiffness. Physical signals induced by matrix stiffness are transmitted to tumor cells primarily by the integrins receptor family and trigger a series of mechanotransduction that result in changes in tumor cell morphology, proliferative capacity, and invasive ability. Importantly, accumulating evidence revealed that changes in matrix stiffness in tumor tissues greatly control the sensitivity of tumor cells in response to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy through integrin signaling, YAP signaling, and related signaling pathways. Here, the present review analyzes the current research advances on matrix stiffness and tumor cell behavior with a view to contributing to tumor cell growth and treatment, with the hope of improving the understanding of the biological role of matrix stiffness in tumors.

Surface characterization of an ultra-soft contact lens material using an atomic force microscopy nanoindentation method

As new ultra-soft materials are being developed for medical devices and biomedical applications, the comprehensive characterization of their physical and mechanical properties is both critical and challenging. To characterize the very low surface modulus of the novel biomimetic lehfilcon A silicone hydrogel contact lens coated with a layer of a branched polymer brush structure, an improved atomic force microscopy (AFM) nanoindentation method has been applied. This technique allows for precise contact-point determination without the effects of viscous squeeze-out upon approaching the branched polymer. Additionally, it allows individual brush elements to be mechanically characterized in the absence of poroelastic effects. This was accomplished by selecting an AFM probe with a design (tip size, geometry, and spring constant) that was especially suited to measuring the properties of soft materials and biological samples. The enhanced sensitivity and accuracy of this method allows for the precise measurement of the very soft lehfilcon A material, which has an extremely low elastic modulus in the surface region (as low as 2 kPa) and extremely high elasticity (nearly 100%) in an aqueous environment. The surface-characterization results not only reveal the ultra-soft nature of the lehfilcon A lens surface but also demonstrate that the elastic modulus exhibits a 30 kPa/200 nm gradient with depth due to the disparity between the modulus of the branched polymer brushes and the SiHy substrate. This surface-characterization methodology may be applied to other ultra-soft materials and medical devices.

Simultaneous assessment of radial and axial myocyte mechanics by combining atomic force microscopy and carbon fibre techniques

Cardiomyocytes sense and shape their mechanical environment, contributing to its dynamics by their passive and active mechanical properties. While axial forces generated by contracting cardiomyocytes have been amply investigated, the corresponding radial mechanics remain poorly characterized. Our aim is to simultaneously monitor passive and active forces, both axially and radially, in cardiomyocytes freshly isolated from adult mouse ventricles. To do so, we combine a carbon fibre (CF) set-up with a custom-made atomic force microscope (AFM). CF allows us to apply stretch and to record passive and active forces in the axial direction. The AFM, modified for frontal access to fit in CF, is used to characterize radial cell mechanics. We show that stretch increases the radial elastic modulus of cardiomyocytes. We further find that during contraction, cardiomyocytes generate radial forces that are reduced, but not abolished, when cells are forced to contract near isometrically. Radial forces may contribute to ventricular wall thickening during contraction, together with the dynamic re-orientation of cells and sheetlets in the myocardium. This new approach for characterizing cell mechanics allows one to obtain a more detailed picture of the balance of axial and radial mechanics in cardiomyocytes at rest, during stretch, and during contraction. This article is part of the theme issue 'The cardiomyocyte: new revelations on the interplay between architecture and function in growth, health, and disease'.

5-Aminolevulinic Acid-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy Potentiates the Effectiveness of Doxorubicin in Ewing Sarcomas

Ewing sarcomas (ES) are aggressive primary bone tumors that require radical therapy. Promising low toxicity, 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) could enhance the effectiveness of conventional treatment modalities (e.g., doxorubicin (DOX)), improving, thus, the anti-tumorigenic effects. In this study, we investigated the effects of DOX and 5-ALA PDT alone or in combination on three different human ES cell lines. Cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and cellular stiffness were measured 24 h after PDT (blue light-wavelength 436 nm with 5-ALA) with or without DOX. ES cell lines have a different sensitivity to the same doses and exposure of 5-ALA PDT. DOX in combination with 5-ALA PDT was found to be effective in impairing the viability of all ES cells while also increasing cytotoxic activity by high ROS production. The stiffness of the ES cells increased significantly (p < 0.05) post treatment. Overall, our results showed that across multiple ES cell lines, 5-ALA PDT can successfully and safely be combined with DOX to potentiate the therapeutic effect. The 5-ALA PDT has the potential to be a highly effective treatment when used alone or in conjunction with other treatments. More research is needed to assess the effectiveness of 5-ALA PDT in in vivo settings.

Automated analysis of soft material microindentation

An understanding of the mechanical properties of soft hydrogel materials over multiple length scales is important for their application in many fields. Typical measurement methods provide either bulk mechanical properties (compression, tensile, rheology) or probing of nano or microscale properties and heterogeneity (nanoindentation, AFM). In this work we demonstrate the complementarity of instrumented microindentation to these techniques, as it provides representative Young's moduli for soft materials with minimal influence of the experimental parameters chosen, and allows mechanical property mapping across macroscopic areas. To enable automated analysis of the large quantities of data required for these measurements, we develop a new fitting algorithm to process indentation data. This method allows for the determination of Young's moduli from imperfect data by automatic selection of a region of the indentation curve which does not display inelastic deformation or substrate effects. We demonstrate the applicability of our approach with a range of hydrogels, including materials with patterns and gradients in stiffness, and expect the techniques described here to be useful developments for the mechanical analysis of a wide range of soft and biological systems.

Personal Perspective on Understanding Low Molecular Weight Gels

Low molecular weight gels are formed by the self-assembly of small molecules into anisotropic structures that form a network capable of immobilizing the solvent. Such gels are common, with a huge number of different examples existing, and they have many applications. However, there are still significant gaps in our understanding of these systems and challenges that need to be addressed if we are to be able to fully design such systems. Here, a number of these challenges are discussed.

Digital selective transformation and patterning of highly conductive hydrogel bioelectronics by laser-induced phase separation

The patterning of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hydrogels with excellent electrical property and spatial resolution is a challenge for bioelectronic applications. However, most PEDOT:PSS hydrogels are fabricated by conventional manufacturing processes such as photolithography, inkjet printing, and screen printing with complex fabrication steps or low spatial resolution. Moreover, the additives used for fabricating PEDOT:PSS hydrogels are mostly cytotoxic, thus requiring days of detoxification. Here, we developed a previously unexplored ultrafast and biocompatible digital patterning process for PEDOT:PSS hydrogel via phase separation induced by a laser. We enhanced the electrical properties and aqueous stability of PEDOT:PSS by selective laser scanning, which allowed the transformation of PEDOT:PSS into water-stable hydrogels. PEDOT:PSS hydrogels showed high electrical conductivity of 670 S/cm with 6-μm resolution in water. Furthermore, electrochemical properties were maintained even after 6 months in a physiological environment. We further demonstrated stable neural signal recording and stimulation with hydrogel electrodes fabricated by laser.

Posology and Serum-/Xeno-Free Engineered Adipose Stromal Cells Cell Sheets

Well-characterized adipose stem cells and chemically defined culture media are important factors that control the production of the cell sheet, used in translational medicine. In this study, we have developed and engineered multilayer adipose stem cell cell sheets (ASCCSs) using chemically defined/serum-free culture media: undifferentiated or differentiated into osteoblasts and chondrocytes. In addition, using the cell sheet transmittance, we estimated the number of cells per cell sheet. Undifferentiated ASCCSs were engineered in 10 days, using serum-free/xeno-free culture media. They were CD29⁺, CD73⁺, CD90⁺, CD105+, HLA-A+, and HLA-DR-. ASCCSs differentiated into chondrocytes and osteoblasts were also engineered using chemically defined and animal-free culture media, in only 14 days. The addition of an ROCK inhibitor improved the chondrocyte cell sheet engineering. The decrease in the cell sheet transmittance rate was higher for the osteoblast cell sheets due to the intracellular Ca²⁺ accumulation. The estimation of cell number per cell sheet was carried out with the transmittance, which will provide important information for cell sheet posology. In conclusion, three types of ASCCSs were engineered using serum-free, xeno-free culture media, expressing their specific markers. Their transmittance measurement allowed estimating the number of cells per cell sheet, with a non-invasive methodology.

Oxidized Hyaluronic Acid-Gelatin-Based Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering and Soft Tissue Mimicking

Hydrogels are ideal materials for mimicking and engineering soft tissue. Hyaluronic acid is a linear polysaccharide native to the human extracellular matrix. In this study, we first develop and characterize two hydrogel compositions built from oxidized HA and gelatin with and without alginate-di-aldehyde (ADA) crosslinked by ionic and enzymatic agents with potential applications in soft tissue engineering and tissue mimicking structures. The stability under incubation conditions was improved by adjusting crosslinking times. Through large-strain mechanical measurements, the hydrogels' properties were compared to human brain tissue and the samples containing ADA revealed similar mechanical properties to the native tissue specimens in cyclic compression-tension. In vitro characterization demonstrated a high viability of encapsulated mouse embryonic fibroblasts and a spreading of the cells in case of ADA-free samples.

Viscoelastic Biomaterials for Tissue Regeneration

The extracellular matrix (ECM) mechanical properties regulate key cellular processes in tissue development and regeneration. The majority of scientific investigation has focused on ECM elasticity as the primary mechanical regulator of cell and tissue behavior. However, all living tissues are viscoelastic, exhibiting both solid- and liquid-like mechanical behavior. Despite increasing evidence regarding the role of ECM viscoelasticity in directing cellular behavior, this aspect is still largely overlooked in the design of biomaterials for tissue regeneration. Recently, with the emergence of various bottom-up material design strategies, new approaches can deliver unprecedented control over biomaterial properties at multiple length scales, thus enabling the design of viscoelastic biomaterials that mimic various aspect of the native tissue ECM microenvironment. This review describes key considerations for the design of viscoelastic biomaterials for tissue regeneration. We provide an overview of the role of matrix viscoelasticity in directing cell behavior towards regenerative outcomes, highlight recent strategies utilizing viscoelastic hydrogels for regenerative therapies, and outline remaining challenges, potential solutions, and emerging applications for viscoelastic biomaterials in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Multiscale Mechanical Performance of Wood: From Nano- to Macro-Scale across Structure Hierarchy and Size Effects

This review describes methods and results of studying the mechanical properties of wood at all scales: from nano- to macro-scale. The connection between the mechanical properties of material and its structure at all these levels is explored. It is shown that the existing size effects in the mechanical properties of wood, in a range of the characteristic sizes of the structure of about six orders of magnitude, correspond to the empirical Hall-Petch relation. This “law” was revealed more than 60 years ago in metals and alloys and later in other materials. The nature, as well as the particular type of the size dependences in different classes of materials can vary, but the general trend, “the smaller the stronger”, remains true both for wood and for other cellulose-containing materials. The possible mechanisms of the size effects in wood are being discussed. The correlations between the mechanical and thermophysical properties of wood are described. Several examples are used to demonstrate the possibility to forecast the macromechanical properties of wood by means of contactless thermographic express methods based on measuring temperature diffusivity. The research technique for dendrochronological and dendroclimatological studies by means of the analysis of microhardness and Young’s modulus radial dependences in annual growth rings is described.

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) on Biopolymers and Hydrogels for Biotechnological Applications-Possibilities and Limits

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of the microscopic techniques with the highest lateral resolution. It can usually be applied in air or even in liquids, enabling the investigation of a broader range of samples than scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which is mostly performed in vacuum. Since it works by following the sample surface based on the force between the scanning tip and the sample, interactions have to be taken into account, making the AFM of irregular samples complicated, but on the other hand it allows measurements of more physical parameters than pure topography. This is especially important for biopolymers and hydrogels used in tissue engineering and other biotechnological applications, where elastic properties, surface charges and other parameters influence mammalian cell adhesion and growth as well as many other effects. This review gives an overview of AFM modes relevant for the investigations of biopolymers and hydrogels and shows several examples of recent applications, focusing on the polysaccharides chitosan, alginate, carrageenan and different hydrogels, but depicting also a broader spectrum of materials on which different AFM measurements are reported in the literature.

Flexible Sensory Systems: Structural Approaches

Biology is characterized by smooth, elastic, and nonplanar surfaces; as a consequence, soft electronics that enable interfacing with nonplanar surfaces allow applications that could not be achieved with the rigid and integrated circuits that exist today. Here, we review the latest examples of technologies and methods that can replace elasticity through a structural approach; these approaches can modify mechanical properties, thereby improving performance, while maintaining the existing material integrity. Furthermore, an overview of the recent progress in wave/wrinkle, stretchable interconnect, origami/kirigami, crack, nano/micro, and textile structures is provided. Finally, potential applications and expected developments in soft electronics are discussed.

Investigating Nanoscale Contact Using AFM-Based Indentation and Molecular Dynamics Simulations

In this work we study nanocontact plasticity in Au thin films using an atomic force microscope based indentation method with the goal of relating the changes in surface morphology to the dislocations created by deformation. This provides a rigorous test of our understanding of deformation and dislocation mechanisms in small volumes. A series of indentation experiments with increasing maximum load was performed. Distinct elastic and plastic regimes were identified in the force-displacement curves, and the corresponding residual imprints were measured. Transmission electron microscope based measured dislocation densities appear to be smaller than the densities expected from the measured residual indents. With the help of molecular dynamics simulations we show that dislocation nucleation and glide alone fail to explain the low dislocation density. Increasing the temperature of the simulations accelerates the rate of thermally activated processes and promotes motion and annihilation of dislocations under the indent while transferring material to the upper surface; dislocation density decreases in the plastic zone and material piles up around the indent. Finally, we discuss why a significant number of cross-slip events is expected beneath the indent under experimental conditions and the implications of this for work hardening during wear.

Nanomechanical and Molecular Characterization of Aging in Dentinal Collagen

Methylglyoxal (MGO) is an important molecule derived from glucose metabolism with the capacity of attaching to collagen and generating advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which accumulate in tissues over time and are associated with aging and diseases. However, the accumulation of MGO-derived AGEs in dentin and their effect on the nanomechanical properties of dentinal collagen remain unknown. Thus, the aim of the present study was to quantify MGO-based AGEs in the organic matrix of human dentin as a function of age and associate these changes with alterations in the nanomechanical and ultrastructural properties of dentinal collagen. For this, 12 healthy teeth from <26-y-old and >50-y-old patients were collected and prepared to obtain crown and root dentin discs. Following demineralization, MGO-derived AGEs were quantified with a competitive ELISA. In addition, atomic force microscopy nanoindentation was utilized to measure changes in elastic modulus in peritubular and intertubular collagen fibrils. Finally, principal component analysis was carried out to determine aging profiles for crown and root dentin. Results showed an increased presence of MGO AGEs in the organic matrix of dentin in the >50-y-old specimens as compared with the <26-y-old specimens in crown and root. Furthermore, an increase in peritubular and intertubular collagen elasticity was observed in the >50-y-old group associated with ultrastructural changes in the organic matrix as determined by atomic force microscopy analysis. Furthermore, principal component analysis loading plots suggested different "aging profiles" in crown and root dentin, which could have important therapeutic implications in restorative and adhesive dentistry approaches. Overall, these results demonstrate that the organic matrix of human dentin undergoes aging-related changes due to MGO-derived AGEs with important changes in the nanomechanical behavior of collagen that may affect diagnostic and restorative procedures in older people.

Relationship between Thermal Diffusivity and Mechanical Properties of Wood

This paper describes an experimental study of the relationships between thermal diffusivity and mechanical characteristics including Brinell hardness, microhardness, and Young's modulus of common pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.), and small-leaf lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) wood. A dependence of Brinell hardness and thermal diffusivity tensor components upon humidity for common pine wood is found. The results of the measurement of Brinell hardness, microhardness, Young's modulus, and main components of thermal diffusivity tensor for three perpendicular cuts are found to be correlated. It is shown that the mechanical properties correlate better with the ratio of longitude to transversal thermal diffusivity coefficients than with the respective individual absolute values. The mechanical characteristics with the highest correlation with the abovementioned ratio are found to be the ratio of Young's moduli in longitude and transversal directions. Our technique allows a comparative express assessment of wood mechanical properties by means of a contactless non-destructive measurement of its thermal properties using dynamic thermal imaging instead of laborious and material-consuming destructive mechanical tests.

DNA-mediated assembly of gold-nanoparticle film with controllable sonic behaviors detected by novel electric-induced ultrasound

Two-dimensional gold assembled nanomaterials have garnered considerable interests in biomedical application such as wearable sensors and flexible devices. The assembly can be accomplished via attractive interactions between gold nanoparticles (GNPs)...

Zn-Mg and Zn-Cu alloys for stenting applications: From nanoscale mechanical characterization to in vitro degradation and biocompatibility

In the recent decades, zinc (Zn) and its alloys have been drawing attention as promising candidates for bioresorbable cardiovascular stents due to its degradation rate more suitable than magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) alloys. However, its mechanical properties need to be improved in order to meet the criteria for vascular stents. This work investigates the mechanical properties, biodegradability and biocompatibility of Zn-Mg and Zn-Cu alloys in order to determine a proper alloy composition for optimal stent performance. Nanoindentation measurements are performed to characterize the mechanical properties at the nanoscale as a function of the Zn microstructure variations induced by alloying. The biodegradation mechanisms are discussed and correlated to microstructure, mechanical performance and bacterial/cell response. Addition of Mg or Cu alloying elements refined the microstructure of Zn and enhanced yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) proportional to the volume fraction of secondary phases. Zn-1Mg showed the higher YS and UTS and better performance in terms of degradation stability in Hanks' solution. Zn-Cu alloys presented an antibacterial effect for S. aureus controlled by diffusion mechanisms and by contact. Biocompatibility was dependent on the degradation rate and the nature of the corrosion products.

Highly Transparent Eu-Doped 0.72PMN-0.28PT Ceramics with Excellent Piezoelectricity

The 0.975[0.72Pb(Mg_1/3Nb_2/3)O₃-0.28PbTiO₃]-0.025Eu₂O₃ ceramics were prepared by a two-step sintering process including oxygen sintering and hot-pressing. An ultrahigh piezoelectric charge coefficient of 1400 pC/N and a superior optical transmittance up to 68% were simultaneously achieved. The underlying mechanism was discussed from a microstructural perspective, where the watermark domain configuration with a small domain size is responsible for the high optical transmission, while the large remanent polarization and dielectric constant and the introduced tetragonal phase with a parallel stripe domain structure are believed to synergistically contribute to the high piezoelectric coefficients. This work demonstrates that the rare-earth dopant in the PMN-PT ceramic system is conducive to enhanced transparency and piezoelectricity.

Passive myocardial mechanical properties: meaning, measurement, models

Passive mechanical tissue properties are major determinants of myocardial contraction and relaxation and, thus, shape cardiac function. Tightly regulated, dynamically adapting throughout life, and affecting a host of cellular functions, passive tissue mechanics also contribute to cardiac dysfunction. Development of treatments and early identification of diseases requires better spatio-temporal characterisation of tissue mechanical properties and their underlying mechanisms. With this understanding, key regulators may be identified, providing pathways with potential to control and limit pathological development. Methodologies and models used to assess and mimic tissue mechanical properties are diverse, and available data are in part mutually contradictory. In this review, we define important concepts useful for characterising passive mechanical tissue properties, and compare a variety of in vitro and in vivo techniques that allow one to assess tissue mechanics. We give definitions of key terms, and summarise insight into determinants of myocardial stiffness in situ. We then provide an overview of common experimental models utilised to assess the role of environmental stiffness and composition, and its effects on cardiac cell and tissue function. Finally, promising future directions are outlined.

A Close Look at Molecular Self-Assembly with the Transmission Electron Microscope

Molecular self-assembly is pervasive in the formation of living and synthetic materials. Knowledge gained from research into the principles of molecular self-assembly drives innovation in the biological, chemical, and materials sciences. Self-assembly processes span a wide range of temporal and spatial domains and are often unintuitive and complex. Studying such complex processes requires an arsenal of analytical and computational tools. Within this arsenal, the transmission electron microscope stands out for its unique ability to visualize and quantify self-assembly structures and processes. This review describes the contribution that the transmission electron microscope has made to the field of molecular self-assembly. An emphasis is placed on which TEM methods are applicable to different structures and processes and how TEM can be used in combination with other experimental or computational methods. Finally, we provide an outlook on the current challenges to, and opportunities for, increasing the impact that the transmission electron microscope can have on molecular self-assembly.

Meso/macro-scale ultra-soft materials' mechanical property evaluation device and testbed

Ultra-soft materials find applications in biomedical devices, sensors and actuators, robotics, and wearable electronics. The mechanical properties of soft materials are often determined using nanoindentation and atomic force microscope techniques, which provide localized properties at a small-scale length. There is a need to evaluate the meso/macro-scale properties of ultra-soft materials to develop integrated devices made of the same. Metallic probes in the existing macroscale equipment cannot be used as they can pierce through the soft materials and fail to capture the associated adhesion forces, resulting in inaccurate values. This study has developed a meso/macro-scale mechanical testing platform to characterize ultra-soft materials accurately. This probe can be adapted to any mechanical testing load frame with a small load cell to capture the adhesion forces during the approach and detachment segments of soft materials' indentation. The integrated camera with the probe enables overcoming the challenge of surface detection and capturing the pull-on and pull-off events. Indentation tests on soft materials with varying stiffness (e.g., high-fat yogurt, chicken breast, aloe Vera, toothpaste, gelatin, and a chocolate bar) were conducted using a 10 mm stiff flat-end polymer probe. A variation of the Johnson-Kendall-Roberts technique was adopted to account for adhesion forces and compute stiffness. Our results suggest that the novel device and methodology can measure mechanical stiffness in the extensive range of 0.5 kPa to a few MPa with high reproducibility at the macro-scale length. The validation was carried out using a commercially available nanoindenter for soft materials.

Study of Surface Mechanical Characteristics of ABS/PC Blends Using Nanoindentation

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polycarbonate (PC) are considered a well-known class of engineering thermoplastics due to their efficient use in automotive, 3D printing, and electronics. However, improvement in toughness, processability, and thermal stability is achieved by mixing together ABS and PC. The present study focuses on the understanding of surface mechanical characterization of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polycarbonate (PC) blends using nano-indentation. Polymer blends sheets with three different proportions of ABS/PC (75:25, 50:50, and 25:75) were fabricated via melt-processing and thermal press. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was performed to analyze the intermolecular interactions between the blends’ components. To understand the surface mechanical properties of ABS and PC blends, a sufficient number of nano-indentation tests were performed at a constant loading rate to a maximum load of 100 mN. Creeping effects were observed at the end of loading and start of unloading section. Elastic modulus, indentation hardness, and creep values were measured as a function of penetration displacement in the quasi-continuous stiffness mode (QCSM) indentation. Load-displacement curves indicated an increase in the displacement with the increase in ABS contents while a decreasing trend was observed in the hardness and elastic modulus values as the ABS content was increased. We believe this study would provide an effective pathway for developing new polymer blends with enhanced mechanical performance.

Histopathological and biomechanical changes in soft palate in response to non-ablative 9.3-μm CO2 laser irradiation: an in vivo study

The purpose of this study was to investigate in vivo the biomechanical and morphological changes in soft palates of Wistar rats from non-ablative irradiation with a 9.3-μm CO2 laser. A blinded, randomized, controlled study was designed with 45 Wistar rats categorized into treated and control sets. The treated set was exposed to 9.3-μm CO2 laser irradiation at an average power of 1.0 W and a single pulse fluence of 0.16 J/cm2 scanned using an automated system at a repetition rate of 315 Hz in a patterned area covering 0.4 cm2 in 6 s. The tissue of each animal was excised and divided into two halves. One-half was sectioned for histopathology, and the other half was used to measure tissue stiffness, which was reported as the effective Young's modulus. Measurements for both sets were taken at three time points: days 1, 21, and 35. There were no significant adverse events or changes in the behavior of the rats over the duration of the study. The treated set exhibited an order of magnitude increase in stiffness relative to the controls, which was maintained over the three time points. Histopathology showed a moderate contraction/disruption of the lamina propria collagen observed at day 1 and collagen accumulation observed at days 21 and 35 in the tissue remodeling phase. Non-ablative 9.3-μm CO2 laser irradiation can safely increase oral mucosal stiffness and can be used as an effective treatment to reduce tissue vibrations that are associated with snoring.

Mechanical Properties of DNA Hydrogels: Towards Highly Programmable Biomaterials

DNA hydrogels are self-assembled biomaterials that rely on Watson–Crick base pairing to form large-scale programmable three-dimensional networks of nanostructured DNA components. The unique mechanical and biochemical properties of DNA, along with its biocompatibility, make it a suitable material for the assembly of hydrogels with controllable mechanical properties and composition that could be used in several biomedical applications, including the design of novel multifunctional biomaterials. Numerous studies that have recently emerged, demonstrate the assembly of functional DNA hydrogels that are responsive to stimuli such as pH, light, temperature, biomolecules, and programmable strand-displacement reaction cascades. Recent studies have investigated the role of different factors such as linker flexibility, functionality, and chemical crosslinking on the macroscale mechanical properties of DNA hydrogels. In this review, we present the existing data and methods regarding the mechanical design of pure DNA hydrogels and hybrid DNA hydrogels, and their use as hydrogels for cell culture. The aim of this review is to facilitate further study and development of DNA hydrogels towards utilizing their full potential as multifeatured and highly programmable biomaterials with controlled mechanical properties.