Incorporation of Antibiotics into Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: A Promising Approach to Reduce Antibiotic Resistance Emergence

Inhalable solid lipid nanoparticles of levofloxacin for potential tuberculosis treatment

Delivering novel antimycobacterial agents through the pulmonary route using nanoparticle-based systems shows promise for treating diseases like tuberculosis. However, creating dry powder inhaler (DPI) with suitable aerodynamic characteristics while preserving nanostructure integrity and maintaining bioactivity until the active ingredient travels deeply into the lungs is a difficult challenge. We developed DPI formulations containing levofloxacin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) via spray-drying technique with tailored aerosolization characteristics for effective inhalation therapy. A range of biophysical techniques, including transmission electron microscopy, confocal microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy were used to measure the morphologies and sizes of the spray-dried microparticles that explored both the geometric and aerodynamic properties. Spray drying substantially reduced the particle sizes of the SLNs while preserving their nanostructural integrity and enhancing aerosol dispersion with efficient mucus penetration. Despite a slower uptake rate compared to plain SLNs, the polyethylene glycol modified formulations exhibited enhanced cellular uptake in both A549 and NR8383 cell lines. The percent viability of Mycobacterium bovis had dropped to nearly 0 % by day 5 for both types of SLNs. Interestingly, the levofloxacin-loaded SLNs demonstrated a lower minimum bactericidal concentration (0.25 µg/mL) compared with pure levofloxacin (1 µg/mL), which indicated the formulations have potential as effective treatments for tuberculosis.

Advancements in Nanoparticle-Based Strategies for Enhanced Antibacterial Interventions

The escalating global threat of antibiotic resistance underscores the urgent need for innovative antimicrobial strategies. This review explores the cutting-edge applications of nanotechnology in combating bacterial infections, addressing a critical healthcare challenge. We critically assess the antimicrobial properties and mechanisms of diverse nanoparticle systems, including liposomes, polymeric micelles, solid lipid nanoparticles, dendrimers, zinc oxide, silver, and gold nanoparticles, as well as nanoencapsulated essential oils. These nanomaterials offer distinct advantages, such as enhanced drug delivery, improved bioavailability, and efficacy against antibiotic-resistant strains. Recent advancements in nanoparticle synthesis, functionalization, and their synergistic interactions with conventional antibiotics are highlighted. The review emphasizes biocompatibility considerations, stressing the need for rigorous safety assessments in nanomaterial applications. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying emerging trends, this review provides crucial insights for researchers and clinicians aiming to leverage nanotechnology for next-generation antimicrobial therapies. The integration of nanotechnology represents a promising frontier in combating infectious diseases, underscoring the timeliness and imperative of this comprehensive analysis.

Cellulose from bacteria as a delivery system for improved treatment of infectious diseases: A review of updates and prospects

Cellulose from bacteria is a high-purity biomaterial naturally produced by bacteria as part of their metabolic process. Although it inherently lacks antimicrobial activity, its modification with bioactive substances can significantly enhance its efficacy beyond that of the original compounds. This biomaterial features a unique ability to retain substantial quantities of liquids within its three-dimensional network, making it a prime candidate for biomedical applications. Versatile in its properties, it can be utilized across various industries. Previous research has highlighted its capacity to exhibit antimicrobial properties and to encapsulate nanostructured materials, thereby augmenting its antibacterial effectiveness. This review focuses on the use of cellulose from bacteria as a carrier for active compounds, specifically targeting antibacterial activity against drug-resistant strains. We explore its role in innovative bacterial cellulose-based systems, which present a promising solution for tackling bacterial resistance. This review aims to showcase the potential of bacterial cellulose in developing new devices and treatment strategies that address critical concerns in global health.

Nanotechnology improves the detection of bacteria: Recent advances and future perspectives

Nanotechnology has advanced significantly, particularly in biomedicine, showing promise for nanomaterial applications. Bacterial infections pose persistent public health challenges due to the lack of rapid pathogen detection methods, resulting in antibiotic overuse and bacterial resistance, threatening the human microbiome. Nanotechnology offers a solution through nanoparticle-based materials facilitating early bacterial detection and combating resistance. This study explores recent research on nanoparticle development for controlling microbial infections using various nanotechnology-driven detection methods. These approaches include Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Sensors, Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Sensors, Optoelectronic-based sensors, Bacteriophage-Based Sensors, and nanotechnology-based aptasensors. These technologies provide precise bacteria detection, enabling targeted treatment and infection prevention. Integrating nanoparticles into detection approaches holds promise for enhancing patient outcomes and mitigating harmful bacteria spread in healthcare settings.

Effect of environmental factors on conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in aquatic settings

Antimicrobial-resistance genes (ARGs) are spread among bacteria by horizontal gene transfer, however, the effect of environmental factors on the dynamics of the ARG in water environments has not been very well understood. In this systematic review, we employed the regression tree algorithm to identify the environmental factors that facilitate/inhibit the transfer of ARGs via conjugation in planktonic/biofilm-formed bacterial cells based on the results of past relevant research. Escherichia coli strains were the most studied genus for conjugation experiments as donor/recipient in the intra-genera category. Conversely, Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., and Salmonella spp. were studied primarily as recipients across inter-genera bacteria. The conjugation efficiency (ce) was found to be highly dependent on the incubation period. Some antibiotics, such as nitrofurantoin (at ≥0.2 µg ml-1) and kanamycin (at ≥9.5 mg l-1) as well as metallic compounds like mercury (II) chloride (HgCl2, ≥3 µmol l-1), and vanadium (III) chloride (VCl3, ≥50 µmol l-1) had enhancing effect on conjugation. The highest ce value (-0.90 log10) was achieved at 15°C-19°C, with linoleic acid concentrations <8 mg l-1, a recognized conjugation inhibitor. Identifying critical environmental factors affecting ARG dissemination in aquatic environments will accelerate strategies to control their proliferation and combat antibiotic resistance.

Solid lipid nanoparticles and their application in the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases

Nano pharmacology is considered an effective, safe, and applicable approach for drug delivery applications. Solid lipid nanoparticle (SLNs) colloids contain biocompatible lipids which are capable of encapsulating and maintaining hydrophilic or hydrophobic drugs in the solid matrix followed by releasing the drug in a sustained manner in the target site. SLNs have more promising potential than other drug delivery systems for various purposes. Nowadays, the SLNs are used as a carrier for antibiotics, chemotherapeutic drugs, nucleic acids, herbal compounds, etc. The SLNs have been widely applied in biomedicine because of their non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and simple production procedures. In this review, the complications related to the optimization, preparation process, routes of transplantation, uptake and delivery system, and release of the loaded drug along with the advantages of SLNs as therapeutic agents were discussed.

Lipid-based nanomedicines for the treatment of bacterial respiratory infections: current state and new perspectives

The global threat posed by antimicrobial resistance demands urgent action and the development of effective drugs. Lower respiratory tract infections remain the deadliest communicable disease worldwide, often challenging to treat due to the presence of bacteria that form recalcitrant biofilms. There is consensus that novel anti-infectives with reduced resistance compared with conventional antibiotics are needed, leading to extensive research on innovative antibacterial agents. This review explores the recent progress in lipid-based nanomedicines developed to counteract bacterial respiratory infections, especially those involving biofilm growth; focuses on improved drug bioavailability and targeting and highlights novel strategies to enhance treatment efficacy while emphasizing the importance of continued research in this dynamic field.

Multifunctional lipid-based nanoparticles for wound healing and antibacterial applications: A review

Wound healing primarily involves preventing severe infections, accelerating healing, and reducing pain and scarring. Therefore, the multifunctional application of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNs) has received considerable attention in drug discovery due to their solid or liquid lipid core, which increases their ability to provide prolonged drug release, reduce treatment costs, and improve patient compliance. LBNs have also been used in medical and cosmetic practices and formulated for various products based on skin type, disease conditions, administration product costs, efficiency, stability, and toxicity; therefore, understanding their interaction with biological systems is very important. Therefore, it is necessary to perform an in-depth analysis of the results from a comprehensive characterization process to produce lipid-based drug delivery systems with desired properties. This review will provide detailed information on the different types of LBNs, their formulation methods, characterisation, antimicrobial activity, and application in various wound models (both in vitro and in vivo studies). Also, the clinical and commercial applications of LBNs are summarized.

Quality by design-based optimization of in situ ionic-sensitive gels of amoxicillin-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles for enhanced local nasal delivery

A recommended first-line acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABR) treatment regimen includes a high dose of orally administered amoxicillin, despite its frequent systemic adverse reactions coupled with poor oral bioavailability. Therefore, to overcome these issues, nasal administration of amoxicillin might become a potential approach for treating ABR locally. The present study aimed to develop a suitable carrier system for improved local nasal delivery of amoxicillin employing the combination of albumin nanoparticles and gellan gum, an ionic-sensitive polymer, under the Quality by Design methodology framework. The application of albumin nanocarrier for local nasal antibiotic therapy means a novel approach by hindering the nasal absorption of the drug through embedding into an in situ gelling matrix, further prolonging the drug release in the nasal cavity. The developed formulations were characterized, including mucoadhesive properties, in vitro drug release and antibacterial activities. Based on the results, 0.3 % w/v gellan gum concentration was selected as the optimal in situ gelling matrix. Essentially, each formulation adequately inhibited the growth of five common nasal pathogens in ABR. In conclusion, the preparation of albumin-based nanoparticles integrated with in situ ionic-sensitive polymer provides promising ability as nanocarrier systems for delivering amoxicillin intranasally for local antibiotic therapy.

Development of a high-throughput platform to measure plasmid transfer frequency

Antibiotic resistance represents one of the greatest threats to global health. The spread of antibiotic resistance genes among bacteria occurs mostly through horizontal gene transfer via conjugation mediated by plasmids. This process implies a direct contact between a donor and a recipient bacterium which acquires the antibiotic resistance genes encoded by the plasmid and, concomitantly, the capacity to transfer the acquired plasmid to a new recipient. Classical assays for the measurement of plasmid transfer frequency (i.e., conjugation frequency) are often characterized by a high variability and, hence, they require many biological and technical replicates to reduce such variability and the accompanying uncertainty. In addition, classical conjugation assays are commonly tedious and time-consuming because they typically involve counting colonies on a large number of plates for the quantification of donors, recipients, and transconjugants (i.e., the bacteria that have received the genetic material by conjugation). Due to the magnitude of the antibiotic resistance problem, it is critical to develop reliable and rapid methods for the quantification of plasmid transfer frequency that allow the simultaneous analysis of many samples. Here, we present the development of a high-throughput, reliable, quick, easy, and cost-effective method to simultaneously accomplish and measure multiple conjugation events in 96-well plates, in which the quantification of donors, recipients, and transconjugants is estimated from the time required to reach a specific threshold value (OD600 value) in the bacterial growth curves. Our method successfully discriminates different plasmid transfer frequencies, yielding results that are equivalent to those obtained by a classical conjugation assay.

Metallic Nanoparticles: A Promising Arsenal against Antimicrobial Resistance-Unraveling Mechanisms and Enhancing Medication Efficacy

The misuse of antibiotics and antimycotics accelerates the emergence of antimicrobial resistance, prompting the need for novel strategies to combat this global issue. Metallic nanoparticles have emerged as effective tools for combating various resistant microbes. Numerous studies have highlighted their potential in addressing antibiotic-resistant fungi and bacterial strains. Understanding the mechanisms of action of these nanoparticles, including iron-oxide, gold, zinc oxide, and silver is a central focus of research within the life science community. Various hypotheses have been proposed regarding how nanoparticles exert their effects. Some suggest direct targeting of microbial cell membranes, while others emphasize the release of ions from nanoparticles. The most compelling proposed antimicrobial mechanism of nanoparticles involves oxidative damage caused by nanoparticles-generated reactive oxygen species. This review aims to consolidate knowledge, discuss the properties and mechanisms of action of metallic nanoparticles, and underscore their potential as alternatives to enhance the efficacy of existing medications against infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.

Microwave-assisted synthesis of Vulcan Carbon supported Palladium-Nickel (PdNi@VC) bimetallic nanoparticles, and investigation of antibacterial and Safranine dye removing effects

As an alternative to antibiotics, nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly being used for targeting bacteria. Nanotechnology holds great potential in the treatment of bacterial infections. Although the mechanisms of antibacterial activity of NPs are not fully understood, widely accepted explanations include oxidative stress induction, metal ion release, and non-oxidative processes. Several simultaneous gene changes would be required in the bacterial cell, making it difficult for bacterial cells to develop resistance to NPs. One important application of nanoparticles is in dye removal. Nanoparticle structures can be utilized effectively as adsorbents due to their reduced size and increased surface area, by combining noble metals, Palladium-Nickel (Pd-Ni), with a carbon structure known as Vulcan Carbon (VC), it is anticipated that the consumption of precious metals can be reduced while benefiting from the enhanced properties of the bimetallic structure. The PdNi@VC structure was synthesized using the microwave synthesis technique. Characterization techniques such as Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and X-Ray diffraction (XRD) were employed to confirm the formation of the bimetallic structure. According to the Debye-Scherrer equation, the size is 2.74 nm. In addition, photodegradation assays using simulator solar radiation yielded 67% efficacy against Safranine dye. In addition, The PdNi@VC had a high percentage of bacterial inhibition at the concentration of 200 g/ml against Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus), and Escherichia coli (E.coli). This study focuses on the synthesis of bimetallic nanoparticles for antibacterial applications and investigates their effectiveness in dye removal from wastewater. The obtained results provide valuable insights for the implementation of innovative methods in these areas.

Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens in Burn Wound, Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Approaches (Conventional Antimicrobials and Nanoparticles)

Multidrug-resistant pathogens are one of the common causes of death in burn patients and have a high risk of nosocomial infections, especially pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and cellulitis. The role of prolonged hospitalization and empirical antibiotics administration in developing multidrug-resistant pathogens is undeniable. In the early days of admitting burn patients, Gram-positive bacteria were the dominant isolates with a more sensitive antibiotic pattern. However, the emergence of Gram-negative bacteria that are more resistant later occurs. Trustworthy guideline administration in burn wards is one of the strategies to prevent multidrug-resistant pathogens. Also, a multidisciplinary therapeutic approach is an effective way to avoid antibiotic resistance that involves infectious disease specialists, pharmacists, and burn surgeons. However, the emerging resistance to conventional antimicrobial approaches (such as systemic antibiotic exposure, traditional wound dressing, and topical antibiotic ointments) among burn patients has challenged the treatment of multidrug-resistant infections, and using nanoparticles is a suitable alternative. In this review article, we will discuss different aspects of multidrug-resistant pathogens in burn wounds, emphasizing the full role of these pathogens in burn wounds and discussing the application of nanotechnology in dealing with them. Also, some advances in various types of nanomaterials, including metallic nanoparticles, liposomes, hydrogels, carbon quantum dots, and solid lipid nanoparticles in burn wound healing, will be explained.

Solid lipid nanoparticles, an effective carrier for classical antifungal drugs

Solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are an innovative group of nanosystems used to deliver medicine to their respective targets with better efficiency and bioavailability in contrast to classical formulations. SLNs are less noxious, have fewer adverse effects, have more biocompatibility, and have easy biodegradability. Lipophilic, hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs can be loaded into SLNs, to enhance their physical and chemical stability in critical environments. Certain antifungal agents used in different treatments are poorly soluble medications, biologicals, proteins etc. incorporated in SLNs to enhance their therapeutic outcome, increase their bioavailability and target specificity. SLNs-based antifungal agents are currently helpful against vicious drug-resistant fungal infections. This review covers the importance of SLNs in drug delivery of classical antifungal drugs, historical background, preparation, physicochemical characteristic, structure and sizes of SLNs, composition, drug entrapment efficacy, clinical evaluations and uses, challenges, antifungal drug resistance, strategies to overcome limitations, novel antifungal agents currently in clinical trials with special emphasis on fungal infections.

Advances in Nanotechnology for Biofilm Inhibition

Biofilm-associated infections have emerged as a significant public health challenge due to their persistent nature and increased resistance to conventional treatment methods. The indiscriminate usage of antibiotics has made us susceptible to a range of multidrug-resistant pathogens. These pathogens show reduced susceptibility to antibiotics and increased intracellular survival. However, current methods for treating biofilms, such as smart materials and targeted drug delivery systems, have not been found effective in preventing biofilm formation. To address this challenge, nanotechnology has provided innovative solutions for preventing and treating biofilm formation by clinically relevant pathogens. Recent advances in nanotechnological strategies, including metallic nanoparticles, functionalized metallic nanoparticles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, cyclodextrin-based delivery, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymer drug conjugates, and liposomes, may provide valuable technological solutions against infectious diseases. Therefore, it is imperative to conduct a comprehensive review to summarize the recent advancements and limitations of advanced nanotechnologies. The present Review encompasses a summary of infectious agents, the mechanisms that lead to biofilm formation, and the impact of pathogens on human health. In a nutshell, this Review offers a comprehensive survey of the advanced nanotechnological solutions for managing infections. A detailed presentation has been made as to how these strategies may improve biofilm control and prevent infections. The key objective of this Review is to summarize the mechanisms, applications, and prospects of advanced nanotechnologies to provide a better understanding of their impact on biofilm formation by clinically relevant pathogens.

Emergent crisis of antibiotic resistance: A silent pandemic threat to 21st century

Antibiotic resistance has become an indispensably alarming menace to the global community. The primary factors are overuse and abuse of antibiotics, lack of novel medicines under development, the health care industry's focus on profit, and the absence of diagnostic testing prior to the prescription of antibiotics. Additionally, over the past few decades, the main factors contributing to the global spread of antibiotic resistance have been the overuse of antibiotics in livestock and other animals, drug efficacy, development of fewer new vaccines, environmental toxicity, transmission through travel, and lack of funding for healthcare research and development. These factors have accelerated resistance in microorganisms through structural and functional modifications in bacteria such as reduced drug permeability, increased efflux pumps, enzymatic antibiotic modification, and change in drug target, intracellular infection, and biofilm creation. There has been an increase in resistance during the pandemic and among cancer patients due to improper prescriptions. A number of modern therapeutic alternatives have been developed to curb widespread antibiotic resistance such as nanoparticle, bacteriophage, and antimicrobial biochemical approaches. It is high time to explore new alternatives to curtail enormous increase in resistant pathogens which could be an incurable global confrontation. This review highlights the complete insight on the global drivers of resistance along with the modes of action and impacts, finally discussing the latest therapeutic alternatives.

Evaluation of bacterial uptake, antibacterial efficacy against Escherichia coli, and cytotoxic effects of moxifloxacin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles

Moxifloxacin (MOX) is an important antibiotic commonly used in the treatment of recurrent Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections. The aim of this study was to investigate its antibacterial efficiency when used with solid lipid nanoparticles (SNLs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) as delivery vehicles. For this purpose we designed two SLNs (SLN1 and SLN2) and two NLCs (NLC1 and NLC2) of different characteristics (particle size, size distribution, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency) and loaded them with MOX to determine its release, antibacterial activity against E. coli, and their cytotoxicity to the RAW 264.7 monocyte/macrophage-like cell line in vitro. With bacterial uptake of 57.29 %, SLN1 turned out to be significantly more effective than MOX given as standard solution, whereas SLN2, NLC1, and NLC2 formulations with respective bacterial uptakes of 50.74 %, 39.26 %, and 32.79 %, showed similar activity to standard MOX. Cytotoxicity testing did not reveal significant toxicity of nanoparticles, whether MOX-free or MOX-loaded, against RAW 264.7 cells. Our findings may show the way for a development of effective lipid carriers that reduce side effects and increase antibacterial treatment efficacy in view of the growing antibiotic resistance.

Pharmaceutical nanotechnology: Antimicrobial peptides as potential new drugs against WHO list of critical, high, and medium priority bacteria

Nanobiotechnology is a relatively unexplored area that has, nevertheless, shown relevant results in the fight against some diseases. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are biomacromolecules with potential activity against multi/extensively drug-resistant bacteria, with a lower risk of generating bacterial resistance. They can be considered an excellent biotechnological alternative to conventional drugs. However, the application of several AMPs to biological systems is hampered by their poor stability and lifetime, inactivating them completely. Therefore, nanotechnology plays an important role in the development of new AMP-based drugs, protecting and carrying the bioactive to the target. This is the first review article on the different reported nanosystems using AMPs against bacteria listed on the WHO priority list. The current shortage of information implies a nanobiotechnological potential to obtain new drugs or repurpose drugs based on the AMP-drug synergistic effect.

Potential of Nanotechnology-based Formulations in Combating Pulmonary Infectious Diseases: A Current Scenario

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary microbial infection is mainly caused by microbes like atypical bacteria, viruses, and fungi, on both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. One of the demands of the present is the use of nanotechnology-based treatments to fight various lung infections.

AIM

The main aim of the study is to explore all pulmonary infectious diseases and to compare the advanced and novel treatment approaches with the conventional methods which are available to treat infections.

METHODS

This work sheds light on pulmonary infectious diseases with their conventional and present treatment approaches along with a focus on the advantageous roles of nano-based formulations. In the literature, it has been reported that the respiratory system is the key target of various infectious diseases which gives rise to various challenges in the treatment of pulmonary infections.

RESULTS

The present review article describes the global situation of pulmonary infections and the different strategies which are available for their management, along with their limitations. The article also highlights the advantages and different examples of nanoformulations currently combating the limitations of conventional therapies.

CONCLUSION

The content of the present article further reflects on the summary of recently published research and review works on pulmonary infections, conventional methods of treatment with their limitations, and the role of nano-based approaches to combat the existing infectious diseases which will jointly help the researchers to produce effective drug formulations with desired pharmacological activities.

Multipronged Micelles-Hydrogel for Targeted and Prolonged Drug Delivery in Chronic Wound Infections

Chronic diabetic wounds are a growing threat globally. Many aspects contribute to its deterioration, including bacterial infection, unbalanced microenvironment, dysfunction of cell repair, etc. In this work, we designed a multipronged micelles-hydrogel platform loaded with curcumin and rifampicin (CRMs-hydrogel) for bacteria-infected chronic wound treatment. The curcumin- and rifampicin-loaded micelles (CRMs) exhibited both MMP9-responsive and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeting abilities. On the one hand, drugs could be released from micelles due to responsive disassembly by MMP9, a matrix metalloproteinase overexpressed in a chronic wound environment; on the other hand, CRMs showed specific targeting to EGFR on epithelial cells and fibroblasts and therefore increased intracellular drug delivery. The thermosensitive CRMs-hydrogel could form strong adhesion with the wound area and served as a suitable matrix for sustained release of CRMs directly at the wound bed, with excellent intracellular and extracellular bacterial elimination efficiency and wound healing promotion capability. We found that a single dose of CRMs-hydrogel achieved 99% antibacterial rate at the MRSA-infected diabetic wound, which effectively reduced inflammatory response and promoted the neovascularization and re-epithelialization process, with nearly half reduction of the skin barrier regeneration period. Collectively, our thermosensitive, MMP9-responsive, and targeted micelles-hydrogel nanoplatform is promising for chronic wound treatment.

Nanobiotics against antimicrobial resistance: harnessing the power of nanoscale materials and technologies

Given the spasmodic increment in antimicrobial resistance (AMR), world is on the verge of “post-antibiotic era”. It is anticipated that current SARS-CoV2 pandemic would worsen the situation in future, mainly due to the lack of new/next generation of antimicrobials. In this context, nanoscale materials with antimicrobial potential have a great promise to treat deadly pathogens. These functional materials are uniquely positioned to effectively interfere with the bacterial systems and augment biofilm penetration. Most importantly, the core substance, surface chemistry, shape, and size of nanomaterials define their efficacy while avoiding the development of AMR. Here, we review the mechanisms of AMR and emerging applications of nanoscale functional materials as an excellent substitute for conventional antibiotics. We discuss the potential, promises, challenges and prospects of nanobiotics to combat AMR.

Craft of Co-encapsulation in Nanomedicine: A Struggle To Achieve Synergy through Reciprocity

Achieving synergism, often by combination therapy via codelivery of chemotherapeutic agents, remains the mainstay of treating multidrug-resistance cases in cancer and microbial strains. With a typical core-shell architecture and surface functionalization to ensure facilitated targeting of tissues, nanocarriers are emerging as a promising platform toward gaining such synergism. Co-encapsulation of disparate theranostic agents in nanocarriers-from chemotherapeutic molecules to imaging or photothermal modalities-can not only address the issue of protecting the labile drug payload from a hostile biochemical environment but may also ensure optimized drug release as a mainstay of synergistic effect. However, the fate of co-encapsulated molecules, influenced by temporospatial proximity, remains unpredictable and marred with events with deleterious impact on therapeutic efficacy, including molecular rearrangement, aggregation, and denaturation. Thus, more than just an art of confining multiple therapeutics into a 3D nanoscale space, a co-encapsulated nanocarrier, while aiming for synergism, should strive toward achieving a harmonious cohabitation of the encapsulated molecules that, despite proximity and opportunities for interaction, remain innocuous toward each other and ensure molecular integrity. This account will inspect the current progress in co-encapsulation in nanocarriers and distill out the key points toward accomplishing such synergism through reciprocity.

Mycoplasmas as Host Pantropic and Specific Pathogens: Clinical Implications, Gene Transfer, Virulence Factors, and Future Perspectives

Mycoplasmas as economically important and pantropic pathogens can cause similar clinical diseases in different hosts by eluding host defense and establishing their niches despite their limited metabolic capacities. Besides, enormous undiscovered virulence has a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of pathogenic mycoplasmas. On the other hand, they are host-specific pathogens with some highly pathogenic members that can colonize a vast number of habitats. Reshuffling mycoplasmas genetic information and evolving rapidly is a way to avoid their host's immune system. However, currently, only a few control measures exist against some mycoplasmosis which are far from satisfaction. This review aimed to provide an updated insight into the state of mycoplasmas as pathogens by summarizing and analyzing the comprehensive progress, current challenge, and future perspectives of mycoplasmas. It covers clinical implications of mycoplasmas in humans and domestic and wild animals, virulence-related factors, the process of gene transfer and its crucial prospects, the current application and future perspectives of nanotechnology for diagnosing and curing mycoplasmosis, Mycoplasma vaccination, and protective immunity. Several questions remain unanswered and are recommended to pay close attention to. The findings would be helpful to develop new strategies for basic and applied research on mycoplasmas and facilitate the control of mycoplasmosis for humans and various species of animals.

Antibiotic-loaded lipid-based nanocarrier: a promising strategy to overcome bacterial infection

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), bacterial infections are one of the greatest threats to global health, food production, and life expectancy. In this sense, the development of innovative formulations aiming at greater therapeutic efficacy, safety, and shorter treatment duration compared to conventional products is urgently needed. Lipid-based nanocarriers (LBNs) have demonstrated the potential to enhance the effectiveness of available antibiotics. Among them, liposome, nanoemulsion, solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN), and nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) are the most promising due to their solid technical background for laboratory and industrial production. This review describes recent advances in developing antibiotic-loaded LBNs against susceptible and resistant bacterial strains and biofilm. LBNs revealed to be a promising alternative to deliver antibiotics due to their superior characteristics compared to conventional preparations, including their modified drug release, improved bioavailability, drug protection against chemical or enzymatic degradation, greater drug loading capacity, and biocompatibility. Antibiotic-loaded LBNs can improve current clinical drug therapy, bring innovative products and rescue discarded antibiotics. Thus, antibiotic-loaded LBNs have potential to open a window of opportunities to continue saving millions of lives and prevent the devastating impact of bacterial infection.

Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery: An Overview with Emphasis on Vitamin D and K Transportation

Mounting evidence shows that supplementation with vitamin D and K or their analogs induces beneficial effects in various diseases, e.g., osteoarticular, cardiovascular, or carcinogenesis. The use of drugs delivery systems via organic and inorganic nanocarriers increases the bioavailability of vitamins and analogs, enhancing their cellular delivery and effects. The nanotechnology-based dietary supplements and drugs produced by the food and pharmaceutical industries overcome the issues associated with vitamin administration, such as stability, absorption or low bioavailability. Consequently, there is a continuous interest in optimizing the carriers' systems in order to make them more efficient and specific for the targeted tissue. In this pioneer review, we try to circumscribe the most relevant aspects related to nanocarriers for drug delivery, compare different types of nanoparticles for vitamin D and K transportation, and critically address their benefits and disadvantages.

Advances in Nanostructures for Antimicrobial Therapy

Microbial infections caused by a variety of drug-resistant microorganisms are more common, but there are fewer and fewer approved new antimicrobial chemotherapeutics for systemic administration capable of acting against these resistant infectious pathogens. Formulation innovations of existing drugs are gaining prominence, while the application of nanotechnologies is a useful alternative for improving/increasing the effect of existing antimicrobial drugs. Nanomaterials represent one of the possible strategies to address this unfortunate situation. This review aims to summarize the most current results of nanoformulations of antibiotics and antibacterial active nanomaterials. Nanoformulations of antimicrobial peptides, synergistic combinations of antimicrobial-active agents with nitric oxide donors or combinations of small organic molecules or polymers with metals, metal oxides or metalloids are discussed as well. The mechanisms of actions of selected nanoformulations, including systems with magnetic, photothermal or photodynamic effects, are briefly described.

Nanoantibiotics to fight multidrug resistant infections by Gram-positive bacteria: hope or reality?

The spread of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-positive pathogens represents a threat to human health. To counteract the current lack of novel antibiotics, alternative antibacterial treatments have been increasingly investigated. This review covers the last decade's developments in using nanoparticles as carriers for the two classes of frontline antibiotics active on multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens, i.e., glycopeptide antibiotics and daptomycin. Most of the reviewed papers deal with vancomycin nanoformulations, being teicoplanin- and daptomycin-carrying nanosystems much less investigated. Special attention is addressed to nanoantibiotics used for contrasting biofilm-associated infections. The status of the art related to nanoantibiotic toxicity is critically reviewed.

Perspectives and Prospective on Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Combating multiple drug resistance necessitates the delivery of drug molecules at the cellular level. Novel drug delivery formulations have made it possible to improve the therapeutic effects of drugs and have opened up new possibilities for research. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), a class of colloidal drug carriers made of lipids, have emerged as potentially effective drug delivery systems. The use of SLNs is associated with numerous advantages such as low toxicity, high bioavailability of drugs, versatility in the incorporation of hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, and the potential for production of large quantities of the carrier systems. The SLNs and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are the two most frequently used types of nanoparticles. These types of nanoparticles can be adjusted to deliver medications in specific dosages to specific tissues, while minimizing leakage and binding to non-target tissues.

Optical clearing of tissues: Issues of antimicrobial phototherapy and drug delivery

This review presents principles and novelties in the field of tissue optical clearing (TOC) technology, as well as application for optical monitoring of drug delivery and effective antimicrobial phototherapy. TOC is based on altering the optical properties of tissue through the introduction of immersion optical cleaning agents (OCA), which impregnate the tissue of interest. We also analyze various methods and kinetics of delivery of photodynamic agents, nanoantibiotics and their mixtures with OCAs into the tissue depth in the context of antimicrobial and antifungal phototherapy. In vitro and in vivo studies of antimicrobial phototherapies, such as photodynamic, photothermal plasmonic and photocatalytic, are summarized, and the prospects of a new TOC technology for effective killing of pathogens are discussed.

The Emerging Role of Ionic Liquid-Based Approaches for Enhanced Skin Permeation of Bioactive Molecules: A Snapshot of the Past Couple of Years

Topical and transdermal delivery systems are of undeniable significance and ubiquity in healthcare, to facilitate the delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients, respectively, onto or across the skin to enter systemic circulation. From ancient ointments and potions to modern micro/nanotechnological devices, a variety of approaches has been explored over the ages to improve the skin permeation of diverse medicines and cosmetics. Amongst the latest investigational dermal permeation enhancers, ionic liquids have been gaining momentum, and recent years have been prolific in this regard. As such, this review offers an outline of current methods for enhancing percutaneous permeation, highlighting selected reports where ionic liquid-based approaches have been investigated for this purpose. Future perspectives on use of ionic liquids for topical delivery of bioactive peptides are also presented.

Biomimetic pH/lipase dual responsive vitamin-based solid lipid nanoparticles for on-demand delivery of vancomycin

In this study, ascorbyl tocopherol succinate (ATS) was designed, synthesized and characterized via FT-IR, HR-MS, H¹ NMR and C¹³ NMR, to simultaneously confer biomimetic and dual responsive properties of an antibiotic nanosystem to enhance their antibacterial efficacy and reduce antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, an in silico-aided design (to mimic the natural substrate of bacterial lipase) was employed to demonstrate the binding potential of ATS to lipase (-32.93 kcal/mol binding free energy (ΔG_bind) and bacterial efflux pumps blocking potential (NorA ΔG_bind: -37.10 kcal/mol, NorB ΔG_bind: -34.46 kcal/mol). ATS bound stronger to lipase than the natural substrate (35 times lower Kd value). The vancomycin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (VM-ATS-SLN) had a hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, polydispersity index and entrapment efficiency of 106.9 ± 1.4 nm, -16.5 ± 0.93 mV, 0.11 ± 0.012 and 61.9 ± 1.31%, respectively. In vitro biocompatibility studies revealed VM-ATS-SLN biosafety and non-haemolytic activity. Significant enhancement in VM release was achieved in response to acidified pH and lipase enzyme, compared to controls. VM-ATS-SLN showed enhanced sustained in vitro antibacterial activity for 5 days, 2-fold greater MRSA biofilm growth inhibition and 3.44-fold reduction in bacterial burden in skin infected mice model compared to bare VM. Therefore, ATS shows potential as a novel multifunctional adjuvant for effective and targeted delivery of antibiotics.

Influence of Process Design on the Preparation of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles by an Ultrasonic-Nanoemulsification Method

In recent years, lipid-based nanosystems have emerged as a promising class of nanocarriers for encapsulating many active agents. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) provide good stability (colloidal as well as physical) and high biocompatibility. Appropriate design of the carrier structure through a selection of components and preparation methods allows us to obtain formulations with desired physicochemical parameters and biological properties. The present contribution has been carried out to investigate SLNs containing biocompatible phosphatidylcholine mixed with non-ionic surfactant Tween 60 as stabilizing agents. The internal lipid phase consisted of glyceryl monostearate was confirmed as safe for drug delivery by the Food and Drug Administration. The SLNs were fabricated by ultrasonic-nanoemulsification method. The preparation process was optimized in regard to variable parameters such as ultrasonication time and used amplitude and number of cycles. The sizes of the studied nanoparticles along with the size distribution were determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS), while shape and morphology were determined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The colloidal stability was measured by a turbidimetric method. The physical state of SLNs was characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The obtained results indicate that the proposed SLNs may provide great potential for design and preparation of novel delivery nanosystems with a variety of possible applications.