Effects of Cellulose Nanocrystals and Cellulose Nanofibers on the Structure and Properties of Polyhydroxybutyrate Nanocomposites

Degradable and Recyclable Hydrogels for Sustainable Bioelectronics

Hydrogel bioelectronics has been widely used in wearable sensors, electronic skin, human-machine interfaces, and implantable tissue-electrode interfaces, providing great convenience for human health, safety, and education. The generation of electronic waste from bioelectronic devices jeopardizes human health and the natural environment. The development of degradable and recyclable hydrogels is recognized as a paradigm for realizing the next generation of environmentally friendly and sustainable bioelectronics. This review first summarizes the wide range of applications for bioelectronics, including wearable and implantable devices. Then, the employment of natural and synthetic polymers in hydrogel bioelectronics is discussed in terms of degradability and recyclability. Finally, this work provides constructive thoughts and perspectives on the current challenges toward hydrogel bioelectronics, providing valuable insights and guidance for the future evolution of sustainable hydrogel bioelectronics.

Preparation of High-Toughness Cellulose Nanofiber/Polylactic Acid Bionanocomposite Films via Gel-like Cellulose Nanofibers

This study demonstrates a procedure for preparing gel-like cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) in polyethylene glycol (PEG) to toughen polylactic acid (PLA) nanocomposite films. A well-dispersed solution of CNFs in ethanol was produced from microcrystalline cellulose by using a high-pressure microfluidizer. The fiber diameter of CNFs was found to be in the range of 80-100 nm. Ethanol was replaced by PEG using a rotary evaporator to obtain gel-like CNFs/PEG. PLA/PEG/CNF films were prepared using the solvent casting method, with the CNF content varying from 0.15 to 5 phr. The effect of CNFs on the mechanical, morphological, and thermal properties of PLA nanocomposite films was investigated. The results demonstrate that the addition of CNFs improved Young's modulus and toughness of PLA/PEG films. In contrast, a slight decrease in mechanical properties was observed when the content of CNFs reached 0.83 phr. Considère's constructions are used to explain the neck phenomena and cold drawing of nanocomposite films. The crystallization and thermal stability of PLA nanocomposite films were enhanced, with a slight decrease in cold-crystalline temperature (T cc) and an increase in decomposition temperature (T d).

Enhancing deep eutectic solvent systems for efficient fermentable sugar recovery from lignocellulosic fiber

Efficient conversion of sugars into fermentable sugars is a critical challenge in the cost-effective production of lignocellulosic biopolymers and biofuels. This study focuses on various sugar quantification techniques applied to Furcraea Foetida (Mauritius Hemp) samples, utilizing natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) and deep eutectic solvents (DES) like urea, glycerol, citrates, pyrogallol (PY), and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). Employing a Taguchi-designed experiment, operational conditions were fine-tuned to evaluate the influence of time, concentration, and temperature on each deep eutectic solvent-based process. The emerging green solvent extraction approach demonstrated significant results, achieving notably high sugar yields compared to traditional techniques such as alkali, hot-water, and acid-mediated extraction. At a CTAB:PY molar ratio of 1:3, optimized for 60 min at 50 °C, the highest fermentable sugar (FS) yield of 0.6891 ± 0.0123 g FS/g LCB was attained-2 to 6 times higher than non-optimized values and 0.2 to 0.3 times higher than optimized traditional methods. In light of this, this research study emphasizes the pivotal significance of efficient sugar conversion through optimized deep eutectic solvent-based extraction methods, with a particular focus on Furcraea Foetida fibers, offering promising outcomes for the biofuel and biopolymer production industry.

Tailoring hierarchical structures in cellulose carbon aerogels from sugarcane bagasse using different crosslinking agents for enhancing electrochemical desalination capability

Sugarcane bagasse is one of the most common Vietnamese agricultural waste, which possesses a large percentage of cellulose, making it an abundant and environmentally friendly source for the fabrication of cellulose carbon aerogel. Herein, waste sugarcane bagasse was used to synthesize cellulose aerogel using different crosslinking agents such as urea, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA). The 3D porous network of cellulose aerogels was constructed by intermolecular hydrogen bonding, which was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and nitrogen adsorption/desorption. Among the three cellulose aerogel samples, cellulose - SA aerogel (SB-CA-SA) has low density of 0.04 g m-3 and high porosity of 97.38%, leading to high surface area of 497.9 m2 g-1 with 55.67% micropores of activated carbon aerogel (SB-ACCA-SA). The salt adsorption capacity was high (17.87 mg g-1), which can be further enhanced to 31.40 mg g-1 with the addition of CNT. Moreover, the desalination process using the SB-ACCA-SA-CNT electrode was stable even after 50 cycles. The results show the great combination of cellulose from waste sugarcane bagasse with sodium alginate and carbon nanotubes in the fabrication of carbon materials as the CDI-utilized electrodes with high desalination capability and good durability.

Tuning the structure and physiochemical properties of sodium alginate and chitosan composite films through sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) crosslinking

Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), an inorganic and non-toxic polyphosphate, has potential applications as a crosslinking agent in the fabrication of edible films. This study utilized STPP in the development of sodium alginate-chitosan composite films, with a focus on their suitability for food packaging applications. The results indicate that the incorporation of STPP led to an increase in film thickness (from 0.048 ± 0.004 to 0.078 ± 0.008 mm), elongation at break (from 11.50 ± 1.49 % to 15.88 ± 2.14 %), water permeation (from 0.364 ± 0.010 to 0.521 ± 0.021 gmm/(m2h*kPa)), and moisture content (from 25.98 ± 0.20 % to 28.12 ± 0.17 %). In contrast, there was a decrease in tensile strength (from 30.23 ± 2.08 to 25.60 ± 1.22 MPa) and swelling index (from 752.9 ± 17.1 to 533.5 ± 8.9 %). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed the formation of distinctive needle-like microcrystals with the incorporation of STPP. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis indicated intermolecular interactions between STPP and the film-forming biopolymers. The data obtained from Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) demonstrated enhanced thermal stability of STPP-loaded films at elevated temperatures. Furthermore, the films exhibited increased DPPH scavenging activity with the addition of STPP. This study underscores the potential of STPP as a crosslinking agent for the development of composite edible films, suggesting applications in the field of food packaging.

Water and Oxygen Barrier Properties of All-Cellulose Nanocomposites

Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) is potentially interesting as a biobased, rigid food packaging material, but its stiffness and strength are somewhat low, and its water and oxygen transport rates are too high. To improve these characteristics, we investigated nanocomposites of HPC and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). These high-aspect-ratio nanoparticles display high stiffness and strength, and their high crystallinity renders them virtually impermeable. Exchanging the counterions of sulfate-ester decorated CNCs with cetyltrimethylammonium ions affords particles that are dispersible in ethanol (CTA.CNC) and allows solvent casting of HPC/CTA.CNC nanocomposite films, which, even at a CTA.CNC content of 90 wt %, are highly transparent. The introduction of CTA.CNC considerably increases the Young's modulus (Ey) and upper tensile strength (σUTS). For example, in the nanocomposite with 90% CTA.CNC, Ey = 7.6 GPa is increased 20-fold and σUTS = 42.7 MPa is more than doubled in comparison to HPC, whereas the extensibility (1.1%) remains appreciable. Composites with a CTA.CNC content of 70 wt % or less show a lower water vapor permeability (6.4-9.2 × 10-5 g μm m-2 s-1 Pa-1) than the neat HPC (1.5 × 10-4 g μm m-2 s-1 Pa-1), whereas the oxygen permeability (5.6 × 10-7-1.3 × 10-6 cm3 μm m-2 s-1 Pa-1) is reduced by 1 order of magnitude compared to HPC (3.2 × 10-6 cm3 μm m-2 s-1 Pa-1). The biobased nanocomposites retain their mechanical integrity at a relative humidity of 75% but readily disintegrate in water.

Preparation of UV-cured cellulose nanocrystal-filled epoxidized natural rubber and its application in a triboelectric nanogenerator

Cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) is an abundant biopolymer possessing high strength and biodegradability. In the present work, the extraction of CNCs from Napier grass stems was carried out. The CNCs were subsequently modified by maleic anhydride, called M-CNC, before being incorporated into the epoxidized natural rubber (ENR). The compounds were later cured by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation under various conditions. The obtained optimum condition was then used to fabricate the biocomposites filled with various CNC and M-CNC loadings for triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) performance measurements. Output voltage and current increased continuously with increasing filler loading. Regardless of the filler type, an increase in filler loading enhanced TENG output. ENR/M-CNC exhibited a superior TENG output to ENR/CNC due to the greater electron transfer capability of the biocomposites, as proven by the reduction in the ionization potential (IP) value obtained from the quantum calculation. In this study, ENR/M-CNC5 exhibited the maximum output voltage (80.3 V), current (7.4 μA), and power density (1.32 W/m2) at a load resistance of 9 MΩ.

Current advances and emerging trends in sustainable polyhydroxyalkanoate modification from organic waste streams for material applications

The current processes for producing polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are costly, owing to the high cost of cultivation feedstocks, and the need to sterilise the growth medium, which is energy-intensive. PHA has been identified as a promising biomaterial with a wide range of potential applications and its functionalization from waste streams has made significant advances recently, which can help foster the growth of a circular economy and waste reduction. Recent developments and novel approaches in the functionalization of PHAs derived from various waste streams offer opportunities for addressing these issues. This study focuses on the development of sustainable, efficient, and cutting-edge methods, such as advanced bioprocess engineering, novel catalysts, and advances in materials science. Chemical techniques, such as epoxidation, oxidation, and esterification, have been employed for PHA functionalization, while enzymatic and microbial methods have indicated promise. PHB/polylactic acid blends with cellulose fibers showed improved tensile strength by 24.45-32.08 % and decreased water vapor and oxygen transmission rates while PHB/Polycaprolactone blends with a 1:1 ratio demonstrated an elongation at break four to six times higher than pure PHB, without altering tensile strength or elastic modulus. Moreover, PHB films blended with both polyethylene glycol and esterified sodium alginate showed improvements in crystallinity and decreased hydrophobicity.

Controlled release fertilizer delivery system derived from rice straw cellulose nanofibres: a circular economy based solution for sustainable development

Recently, the development of sustainable and environmentally friendly biomaterials has gained the attention of researchers as potential alternatives to petroleum-based materials. Biomaterials are a promising candidate to mitigate sustainability issues due to their renewability, biodegradability, and cost-effectiveness. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore a cost-effective biomaterial-based delivery system for delivering fertilizers to plants. To achieve this, rice straw (agro-waste) was selected as a raw material for the extraction of cellulose. The cellulose was extracted through alkali treatment (12% NaOH), followed by TEMPO-based oxidation. The cellulose nanofibers were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. In scanning electron microscopy, a loosening of the fibrillar structure in cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) was observed with a diameter of 17 ± 4 nm. The CNFs were loaded with nitrogen-based fertilizer (ammonium chloride) in 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1 (w/w) proportions. The loading was estimated through surface charge variation; in the case of the 1:1 sample, maximum reductions in surface charge were seen from -42.0 mV to -12.8 mV due to the binding of positive ammonium ions. In the release kinetics study, a controlled release pattern was observed at 1:1, which showed a 58% cumulative release of ammonium ions within 8 days. Thus, the study paves the way for value-added uses of rice straw as an alternative to the current environmentally harmful practices.

Enhancing the Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol Films by Blending with Corn Stover-Derived Cellulose Nanocrystals and Beeswax

Coating is a technique to surround a target substance with a thin layer to obtain desirable properties. Polyvinyl alcohols (PVAs) are biodegradable plastics and have shown good applicability as a coating or film material. Cellulose nanocrystals are a promising green nanomaterial that has been shown to enhance the properties of PVA after blending. However, these PVA/CNC films have concerns in a moist environment due to high hydrophilicity. To overcome this issue, the current study incorporated beeswax into PVA/CNC films and investigated the effect of CNC and beeswax on the properties of the coatings and films. Results showed that the addition of corn stover-derived CNCs to PVA films increased tensile strength (from 11 to 25 MPa) and Young's modulus (from 32 to 173 MPa) and reduced water vapor transmission rate (from 25 to 20 g h-1 m-2). Beeswax added to PVA/CNC films further improved water vapor barrier properties (from 20 to 9 g h-1 m-2) and maintained Young's modulus (from 173 to 160 MPa), though it caused a reduction in the tensile strength (from 25 to 11 MPa) of the films. This information can help to select materials for blending with PVAs by obtaining the desirable endmost properties depending on applications.

Recent advances in qualitative and quantitative characterization of nanocellulose-reinforced nanocomposites: A review

Nanocellulose has received immense consideration owing to its valuable inherent traits and impressive physicochemical properties such as biocompatibility, thermal stability, non-toxicity, and tunable surface chemistry. These features have inspired researchers to deploy nanocellulose as nanoscale reinforcement materials for bio-based polymers. A simple yet efficient characterization method is often required to gain insights into the effectiveness of various types of nanocellulose. Despite a decade of continuous research and booming growth in scientific publications, nanocellulose research lacks a measuring tool that can characterize its features with acceptable speed and reliability. Implementing reliable characterization techniques is critical to monitor the specifications of nanocellulose alone or in the final product. Many techniques have been developed aiming to measure the nano-reinforcement mechanisms of nanocellulose in polymer composites. This review gives a full account of the scientific underpinnings of techniques that can characterize the shape and arrangement of nanocellulose. This review aims to deliver consolidated details on the properties and characteristics of nanocellulose in biopolymer composite materials to improve various structural, mechanical, barrier and thermal properties. We also present a comprehensive description of the safety features of nanocellulose before and after being loaded within biopolymeric matrices.

Biodegradable Cellulose/Polycaprolactone/Keratin/Calcium Carbonate Mulch Films Prepared in Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquid

Ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM][Cl] was used to prepare cellulose (CELL), cellulose/polycaprolactone (CELL/PCL), cellulose/polycaprolactone/keratin (CELL/PCL/KER), and cellulose/polycaprolactone/keratin/ground calcium carbonate (CELL/PCL/KER/GCC) biodegradable mulch films. Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier-Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, optical microscopy, and Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) were used to verify the films' surface chemistry and morphology. Mulch film made of only cellulose regenerated from ionic liquid solution exhibited the highest tensile strength (75.3 ± 2.1 MPa) and modulus of elasticity of 944.4 ± 2.0 MPa. Among samples containing PCL, CELL/PCL/KER/GCC is characterized by the highest tensile strength (15.8 ± 0.4 MPa) and modulus of elasticity (687.5 ± 16.6 MPa). The film's breaking strain decreased for all samples containing PCL upon the addition of KER and KER/GCC. The melting temperature of pure PCL is 62.3 °C, whereas that of CELL/PCL film has a slight tendency for melting point depression (61.0 °C), which is a characteristic of partially miscible polymer blends. Furthermore, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis revealed that the addition of KER or KER/GCC to CELL/PCL films resulted in an increment in melting temperature from 61.0 to 62.6 and 68.9 °C and an improvement in sample crystallinity by 2.2 and 3.0 times, respectively. The light transmittance of all studied samples was greater than 60%. The reported method for mulch film preparation is green and recyclable ([BMIM][Cl] can be recovered), and the inclusion of KER derived by extraction from waste chicken feathers enables conversion to organic biofertilizer. The findings of this study contribute to sustainable agriculture by providing nutrients that enhance the growth rate of plants, and hence food production, while reducing environmental pressure. The addition of GCC furthermore provides a source of Ca²⁺ for plant micronutrition and a supplementary control of soil pH.

Green Nanomaterials for Smart Textiles Dedicated to Environmental and Biomedical Applications

Smart textiles recently reaped significant attention owing to their potential applications in various fields, such as environmental and biomedical monitoring. Integrating green nanomaterials into smart textiles can enhance their functionality and sustainability. This review will outline recent advancements in smart textiles incorporating green nanomaterials for environmental and biomedical applications. The article highlights green nanomaterials' synthesis, characterization, and applications in smart textile development. We discuss the challenges and limitations of using green nanomaterials in smart textiles and future perspectives for developing environmentally friendly and biocompatible smart textiles.

Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs) and Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs) as Adsorbents of Heavy Metal Ions

The isolation of nanocellulose has been extensively investigated due to the growing demand for sustainable green materials. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), which have the same chemical composition but have different morphology, particle size, crystallinity, and other properties depending on the precursor and the synthesis method used. In comparison, CNC particles have a short rod-like shape and have smaller particle dimensions when compared to CNF particles in the form of fibers. CNC synthesis was carried out chemically (hydrolysis method), and CNF synthesis was carried out mechanically (homogenization, ball milling, and grinding), and both can be modified because they have a large surface area and are rich in hydroxyl groups. Modifications were made to increase the adsorption ability of heavy metal ions. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermogravimetric (TG), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) can reveal the characteristics and morphology of CNCs and CNFs. The success and effectiveness of the heavy metal adsorption process are influenced by a few factors. These factors include adsorbent chemical structure changes, adsorbent surface area, the availability of active sites on the adsorbent’s surface, adsorption constants, heavy metal ionic size differences, pH, temperature, adsorbent dosage, and contact time during the adsorption process. In this review, we will discuss the characteristics of CNCs and CNFs synthesized from various precursors and methods, the modification methods, and the application of CNCs and CNFs as heavy metal ion adsorbents, which includes suitable isotherm and kinetics models and the effect of pH on the selectivity of various types of heavy metal ions.

Fabrication and Characterization of Functional Biobased Membranes from Postconsumer Cotton Fabrics and Palm Waste for the Removal of Dyes

Textile industries currently face vast challenges for the active removal of colored wastewater. Indeed, sustainable, recyclable, and green approaches are still lacking to achieve this aim. Thus, the present study explored the utilization of highly functional, green, recyclable, fully bio-based, and cost-effective composite membranes from post-consumer cotton fabrics and palm waste for wastewater treatment purposes. Highly functional cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were produced from waste cotton fabrics and filter paper using an acid hydrolysis technique. The yield of nanofibers extracted from waste cotton fabrics and filter paper was 76.74 and 54.50%, respectively. The physical, chemical, and structural properties of nanofibers were studied using various advanced analytical techniques. The properties of isolated nanofibers were almost similar and comparable to those of commercial nanofibers. The surface charge densities were -94.0, -80.7, and -90.6 mV for the nanofibers of palm waste, cotton fibers, and filter paper, respectively. After membrane fabrication using vacuum and hot-pressing techniques, the characteristics of the membrane were analyzed. The results showed that the average pore size of the palm-waste membrane was 1.185 nm, while it was 1.875 nm for membrane from waste cotton fibers and filter paper. Congo red and methylene blue dyes were used as model solutions to understand the behavior of available functional groups and the surface ζ-potential of the membrane frameworks' interaction. The membrane made from palm waste had the highest dye removal efficiency, and it was 23% for Congo red and 44% for methylene blue. This study provides insights into the challenges associated with the use of postconsumer textile and agricultural waste, which can be potentially used in high-performance liquid filtration devices for a more sustainable society.

Cationic cellulose nanocrystals as sustainable green material for multi biological applications via ξ potential

The present study aims to disclose the activity of cationic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) as a promising multifunctional green nanomaterial with applications in biological aspects. The basic reason behind multifunctional behavior is zeta potential and size distribution of nano biopolymers; exhibit a remarkable physical and biological activity compared to normal molecules.The preliminary characterized studied using absorption spectral analysis showed strong absorption peak indicating that spectrum curves can be screen by UV spectra at wavelength range 200-400nm. Ultrastructural studies (SEM-EDS and TEM), manifest that CNCs are elliptical particles in shape. Also, TEM show CNCs are the ideal illustration of zero-dimensional (0-D) NPs, less than 5.1 nm in diameter with Cationic charge and similar results in size distribution by TEM. Nonetheless, developed as antioxidant activity IC₅₀ was 1467 ± 25.9 µg/mL, antimicrobial activity tested G^-ve strains, but not affected on tested G^+ve strains and tested fungi. Evaluating toxicity effect of cationic CNCs against human blood erythrocytes (RBCs) and Lymphocyte Proliferation and the end point evaluate by comet assay, which proven no cytotoxic effect. Also, a high dose 500 µg/mL of CNCs highly significant (p < 0.05) reduction in cell viability of Caco-2 cancer cells after 24 h. incubation time, whereas the IC₅₀ was 1884 ± 19.46 µg/mL. Moreover, genotoxic assay indicates Caco-2 cells cause apoptosis with no fragmentation in DNA. Undoubtedly, the obtained results brought about by the interaction of layers carrying opposing charges. Additionally, there is a balance between hydrophilic contact and electrostatic attraction. That emphasizes how the cationic CNCs have excellent potential for use as antioxidants, antimicrobials, and anticancer agents.

Development of a layered bacterial nanocellulose-PHBV composite for food packaging

BACKGROUND

Most of the current materials used in food packaging are synthetic and non-degradable, raising environmental issues derived from the accumulation of plastics in landfills/waterways. The food industry increasingly needs eco-friendly sustainable materials that meet food-packaging requirements. Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a biopolymer obtained by fermentation, offers very good mechanical properties and the ability to carry and deliver active substances. However, its water-vapor permeability is too high for food-packaging applications. In this work, a layered biodegradable composite based on BNC and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHBV) was produced, attempting to improve its overall barrier properties. Polyhydroxyalkanoate is a biopolymer with high degree of hydrophobicity and biodegradability, and is also obtained by fermentation. Wet BNC membranes produced by static culture were plasticized by impregnation of solutions of either glycerol (BNC_gly ) or polyethylene glycol (M_W 600) (BNC_PEG ). The plasticized BNC was then coated with PHBV solution dissolved in formic acid, and oven dried at 148 °C.

RESULTS

Overall, PHBV coating on plasticized BNC reduced water vapor permeability significantly (from 0.990 to 0.032 g.μm.m^-2 .day^-1 .Pa^-1 ) under 50% relative humidity. It increased the hydrophobicity (contact angle from 10-40° to 80-90°) but decreased the stiffness (from 3.1 GPa to 1.3 Gpa) of the composite.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the mechanical and barrier properties of the layered composite obtained were considered suitable for food-packaging applications. The plasticizing (with glycerol or polyethylene glycol) of BNC significantly improved the mechanical performance and the PHBV coating reduced the water affinity (vapor and liquid state) on BNC. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Starch biocomposites based on cellulose microfibers and nanocrystals extracted from alfa fibers (Stipa tenacissima)

Cellulose-based biopolymers have emerged as one of the most promising components to produce sustainable composites as a potential substitutes to fossil-based materials. Herein, the aim of this study is to investigate the reinforcing effect of cellulose microfibers (CMFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), extracted from alfa fibers (Stipa tenacissima), on the properties of starch biopolymer extracted from potato. The as-extracted CMFs (D = 5.94 ± 0.96 μm), CNCs (D = 14.29 ± 2.53 nm) and starch were firstly characterized in terms of their physicochemical properties. Afterwards, CMFs and CNCs were separately dispersed in starch at different concentrations, and their reinforcing effects as well as the chemical, thermal, transparency and mechanical properties of the resulted starch-based films were evaluated. Thus, CMFs and CNCs incorporation into starch resulted in a minor impact on the films thermal stability, while a considerable impact on the transparency property was observed. In terms of mechanical properties, the addition of up to 20 wt% CMFs reduced the film's elongation but drastically increased its stiffness by 300 %. On the other hand, in the case of CNCs, a loading of 10 wt% was found to be the most effective in increasing film stiffness (by 57 %), while increasing the loading up to 20 wt% CNCs enhanced the film's ductility (strain-to-failure) by 52 %. This study showed that introduction of cellulosic fibers having different sizes into starch can produce biocomposite materials with a wide range of properties for food packaging application.

Green and Sustainable Hot Melt Adhesive (HMA) Based on Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) and Silanized Cellulose Nanofibers (SCNFs)

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), with a long chain length and high poly(4-hydroxybutyric acid) (P4HB) ratio, can be used as a base polymer for eco-friendly and biodegradable adhesives owing to its high elasticity, elongation at break, flexibility, and processability; however, its molecular structures must be adjusted for adhesive applications. In this study, surface-modified cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were used as a hydrophobic additive for the PHA-based adhesive. For the surface modification of CNFs, double silanization using tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMS) was performed, and the thermal and structural properties were evaluated. The hydrophobicity of the TEOS- and MTMS-treated CNFs (TMCNFs) was confirmed by FT-IR and water contact angle analysis, with hydrophobic CNFs well dispersed in the PHA. The PHA-CNFs composite was prepared with TMCNFs, and its morphological analysis verified the good dispersion of TMCNFs in the PHA. The tensile strength of the composite was enhanced when 10% TMCNFs were added; however, the viscosity decreased as the TMCNFs acted as a thixotropic agent. Adding TMCNFs to PHA enhanced the flowability and infiltration ability of the PHA-TMCNFs-based adhesive, and an increase in the loss tangent (Tan δ) and adjustment of viscosity without reducing the adhesive strength was also observed. These changes in properties can improve the flowability and dispersibility of the PHA-TMCNFs adhesive on a rough adhesive surface at low stress. Thus, it is expected that double-silanized CNFs effectively improve their interfacial adhesion in PHA and the adhesive properties of the PHA-CNFs composites, which can be utilized for more suitable adhesive applications.

Nanocrystalline cellulose derived from spruce wood: Influence of process parameters

The cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were produced from spruce wood using less hazardous and toxic reagents with understanding of influence of process parameters on CNCs properties. This study employed acetosolv pulping followed by alkaline-peroxide bleaching, eliminating highly reactive chemicals such as Na-chlorites and Na-sulfite for cellulose pulp extraction from spruce wood. Cellulose pulp yield of 41.5 ± 0.7 wt% of dry wood was obtained from pulping followed by bleaching treatment. Cellulose pulp was hydrolyzed with 59.0-65.0 wt% sulfuric acid followed by ultrasonic treatment to produce CNCs. CNCs yield of 8.0 ± 3.2 wt% of dry wood was obtained at 65 wt% acid concentration and yield of 25.1 ± 0.7 wt% at 62 wt% acid concentration. The optimization of acid hydrolysis and ultrasonic treatment resulted in CNCs with high aspect ratios (length/width) up to 48.1. It was demonstrated that higher acid concentration requires lower intensity of ultrasonic treatment for CNCs dispersion, and that higher intensity could enhance aspect ratio without impacting the crystallinity index. However, ultrasonic treatment for longer than 5 min led to destruction of the whisker morphology of CNCs. The extracted CNCs possess high crystallinity index of 80.8 ± 1.7 %, low residual hemicellulose (<2.0 %) and lignin (<0.7 %), and high-char content of 26.7 wt% from thermal degradation.

Potential of chitosan/carbon nanoparticles and chitosan/lignocellulose nanofiber composite as growth media for peatland paddy seeds

Indonesia has committed to restoring degraded peatlands by revegetating them with paddy plants using paludiculture systems. Nanofertilizers derived from chitosan and oil palm biomass can be used to enhance paddy growth. This study analyzed the potential growth media of chitosan nanocomposite films for paddy seeds grown in tropical peatland. Chitosan nanocomposites were synthesized by reinforcing chitosan with activated carbon nanoparticles (ACNPs), nonactivated carbon nanoparticles (n-ACNPs), and lignocellulose nanofibers (LCNFs). All carbon nanoparticles were reversibly aggregated, whereas LCNFs did not have a tendency to aggregate but were entangled. The highest specific surface area and pore volume are on EFB ACNPs, followed by OPT LCNFs and EFB n-ACNPs. Both nanocomposites' tensile strength and elastic modulus value were reduced with an average of 45.77% and 34.00%, respectively, because of the lack of nano- and micro-aggregates formation, good dispersion, and incompatibility. In a germination test, chitosan nanocomposites provided the best growth patterns for the Dendang paddy variety, whereas, in a greenhouse test, the nanocomposites had the best growth patterns for the Indragiri paddy variety. Chitosan/empty fruit bunch ACNP nanocomposites grown in a germinator had the highest growth normality (100.00%), highest maximum growth potential (100.00%), and highest height average (11.27 cm). In the greenhouse test, chitosan/oil palm trunk n-ACNPs achieved the highest growth natality (16.44%) and growth rate (65.74%). All chitosan nanocomposites had a synergetic biofertilizing effect on fungi and mycorrhiza. Chitosan nanocomposites can be used as a growth regulator for peatland paddy varieties and can accelerate peatland restoration in tropical areas.

Insights into the effects of synthesis techniques and crosslinking agents on the characteristics of cellulosic aerogels from Water Hyacinth

Aerogel cellulose materials were synthesised from Water hyacinth and different crosslinkers, such as kymene and a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and glutaraldehyde (GA). The effects of using a magnetic stirrer and ultrasonic methods were investigated. The results show that materials prepared using ultrasonic methods have higher porosity and lower density. The thermal conductivity of the synthesised aerogel cellulose could be as low as 0.0281 W m K⁻¹, showing the good heat insulation performance of this material. Absorption capacity was tested using diesel oil (DO), and the highest capacities of 58.82 and 52.03 g g⁻¹ of DO were found with kymene and PVA + GA as crosslinkers, respectively. The reusability of the materials was tested. After 10 cycles, the DO absorption capacity was 62.8% of the value of the first cycle for the aerogel cellulose sample with kymene as the crosslinker and 72.7% for the sample with PVA + GA as the crosslinking agent.

Aerogel cellulose materials were synthesised from Water hyacinth and different crosslinkers, such as kymene and a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and glutaraldehyde (GA).

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) Nanocomposites with Cellulose Nanocrystals

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is one of the most promising substitutes for the petroleum-based polymers used in the packaging and biomedical fields due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility, good stiffness, and strength, along with its good gas-barrier properties. One route to overcome some of the PHB’s weaknesses, such as its slow crystallization, brittleness, modest thermal stability, and low melt strength is the addition of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and the production of PHB/CNCs nanocomposites. Choosing the adequate processing technology for the fabrication of the PHB/CNCs nanocomposites and a suitable surface treatment for the CNCs are key factors in obtaining a good interfacial adhesion, superior thermal stability, and mechanical performances for the resulting nanocomposites. The information provided in this review related to the preparation routes, thermal, mechanical, and barrier properties of the PHB/CNCs nanocomposites may represent a starting point in finding new strategies to reduce the manufacturing costs or to design better technological solutions for the production of these materials at industrial scale. It is outlined in this review that the use of low-value biomass resources in the obtaining of both PHB and CNCs might be a safe track for a circular and bio-based economy. Undoubtedly, the PHB/CNCs nanocomposites will be an important part of a greener future in terms of successful replacement of the conventional plastic materials in many engineering and biomedical applications.

An Innovative Preparation, Characterization, and Optimization of Nanocellulose Fibers (NCF) Using Ultrasonic Waves

Recently, environmental and ecological concerns have become a major issue owing to the shortage of resources, high cost, and so forth. In my research, I present an innovative, environmentally friendly, and economical way to prepare nanocellulose from grass wastes with a sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) solution of different concentrations (1−6% mol) at different times 10−80 min, washed with distilled water, and treated with ultrasonic waves. The optimum yield of the isolated cellulose was 95%, 90%, and 87% NaClO at 25 °C for 20 min and with NaOH and H2SO4 at 25 °C with 5% M, respectively. The obtained samples were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The effect of test temperature and reaction times on the crystallinity index (IC) of GNFC with different treated mediums was carried out and investigated. The IC was analyzed using the diffraction pattern and computed according to the Segal empirical method (method A), and the sum of the area under the crystalline adjusted peaks (method B) and their values proved that the effect of temperature is prominent. In both methods, GNFC/H2SO4 had the highest value followed by GNFC/NaOH, GNFC/NaClO and real sample nano fiber cellulose (RSNFC). The infrared spectral features showed no distinct changes of the four cellulose specimens at different conditions. The particle size distribution data proved that low acid concentration hydrolysis was not sufficient to obtain nano-sized cellulose particles. The Zeta potential was higher in accordance with (GNFC/H2SO4 > GNFC/NaOH > GNFC/NaClO), indicating the acid higher effect.

Enhanced interfacial interaction between modified cellulose nanocrystals and epoxidized natural rubber via ultraviolet irradiation

This study aims at evaluating the reinforcement of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in epoxidized natural rubber (ENR). Both CNCs and maleic anhydride-modified CNCs (M-CNCs) were prepared from Napier grass stems and characterized by various techniques (e.g., TEM, FTIR, TGA, etc.). They were incorporated into ENR latex at various loadings prior to casting, and then curing by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Mechanical properties of the ENR vulcanizates were finally investigated. Results revealed that the prepared CNCs had an average diameter and length of 5 nm and 428 nm, respectively. After modification, M-CNCs contained double bonds in maleate units, which could react with ENR to form covalent bonds under UV irradiation through a proposed mechanism. Regardless of the filler type, mechanical properties including hardness, modulus, and tensile strength, increased considerably with increasing filler loading. At the same filler loading, M-CNCs exhibited greater reinforcement than CNCs due to the enhanced rubber–filler interaction.

Biopackaging Potential Alternatives: Bioplastic Composites of Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Vegetal Fibers

Initiatives to reduce plastic waste are currently under development worldwide. As a part of it, the European Union and private and public organizations in several countries are designing and implementing regulations for single-use plastics. For example, by 2030, plastic packaging and food containers must be reusable or recyclable. In another approach, researchers are developing biopolymers using biodegradable thermoplastics, such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), to replace fossil derivatives. However, their production capacity, high production costs, and poor mechanical properties hinder the usability of these biopolymers. To overcome these limitations, biomaterials reinforced with natural fibers are acquiring more relevance as the world of bioplastics production is increasing. This review presents an overview of PHA–vegetal fiber composites, the effects of the fiber type, and the production method’s impact on the mechanical, thermal, barrier properties, and biodegradability, all relevant for biopackaging. To acknowledge the behaviors and trends of the biomaterials reinforcement field, we searched for granted patents focusing on bio-packaging applications and gained insight into current industry developments and contributions.

Polymerizable Choline- and Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids Reinforced with Bacterial Cellulose for 3D-Printing

In this work, a novel approach is demonstrated for 3D-printing of bacterial cellulose (BC) reinforced UV-curable ion gels using two-component solvents based on 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride or choline chloride combined with acrylic acid. Preservation of cellulose's crystalline and nanofibrous structure is demonstrated using wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Rheological measurements reveal that cholinium-based systems, in comparison with imidazolium-based ones, are characterised with lower viscosity at low shear rates and improved stability against phase separation at high shear rates. Grafting of poly(acrylic acid) onto the surfaces of cellulose nanofibers during UV-induced polymerization of acrylic acid results in higher elongation at break for choline chloride-based compositions: 175% in comparison with 94% for imidazolium-based systems as well as enhanced mechanical properties in compression mode. As a result, cholinium-based BC ion gels containing acrylic acid can be considered as more suitable for 3D-printing of objects with improved mechanical properties due to increased dispersion stability and filler/matrix interaction.

Nanocelluloses Reinforced Bio-Waterborne Polyurethane

The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of two kinds of bio- nano-reinforcements, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and bacterial cellulose (BC), on the properties of castor oil-based waterborne polyurethane (WBPU) films. CNCs were obtained by the acidolysis of microcrystalline cellulose, while BC was produced from Komagataeibacter medellinensis. A WBPU/BC composite was prepared by the impregnation of a wet BC membrane and further drying, while the WBPU/CNC composite was obtained by casting. The nanoreinforcement was adequately dispersed in the polymer using any of the preparation methods, obtaining optically transparent compounds. Thermal gravimetric analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, dynamical mechanical analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, contact angle, and water absorption tests were carried out to analyze the chemical, physical, and thermal properties, as well as the morphology of nanocelluloses and composites. The incorporation of nanoreinforcements into the formulation increased the storage modulus above the glass transition temperature of the polymer. The thermal stability of the BC-reinforced composites was slightly higher than that of the CNC composites. In addition, BC allowed maintaining the structural integrity of the composites films, when they were immersed in water. The results were related to the relatively high thermal stability and the particular three-dimensional interconnected reticular morphology of BC.

Biosynthesis of Polyhydroxybutyrate with Cellulose Nanocrystals Using Cupriavidus necator

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a natural polyester synthesized by several microorganisms. Moreover, it has excellent biodegradability and is an eco-friendly material because it converts water and carbon dioxide as final decomposition products. However, the applications of PHB are limited because of its stiffness and brittleness. Because cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have excellent intrinsic mechanical properties such as high specific strength and modulus, they may compensate for the insufficient physical properties of PHB by producing their nanocomposites. In this study, natural polyesters were extracted from Cupriavidus necator fermentation with CNCs, which were well-dispersed in nitrogen-limited liquid culture media. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy results revealed that the additional O-H peak originating from cellulose at 3500-3200 cm-1 was observed for PHB along with the C=O and -COO bands at 1720 cm-1. This suggests that PHB-CNC nanocomposites could be readily obtained using C. necator fermented in well-dispersed CNC-supplemented culture media.

Cellulose supported magnetic nanohybrids: Synthesis, physicomagnetic properties and biomedical applications-A review

Cellulose and its forms are widely used in biomedical applications due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability and lack of cytotoxicity. It provides ample opportunities for the functionalization of supported magnetic nanohybrids (CSMNs). Because of the abundance of surface hydroxyl groups, they are surface tunable in either homogeneous or heterogeneous solvents and thus act as a substrate or template for the CSMNs' development. The present review emphasizes on the synthesis of various CSMNs, their physicomagnetic properties, and potential applications such as stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems, MRI, enzyme encapsulation, nucleic acid extraction, wound healing and tissue engineering. The impact of CSMNs on cytotoxicity, magnetic hyperthermia, and folate-conjugates is highlighted in particular, based on their structures, cell viability, and stability. Finally, the review also discussed the challenges and prospects of CSMNs' development. This review is expected to provide CSMNs' development roadmap in the context of 21st-century demands for biomedical therapeutics.

Alkenyl succinic anhydride modified tree-gum kondagogu: A bio-based material with potential for food packaging

Tree gums are a class of abundantly available carbohydrate polymers that have not been explored thoroughly in film fabrication for food packaging. Films obtained from pristine tree gums are often brittle, hygroscopic, and lack mechanical strength. This study focuses on the chemical modification of gum kondagogu using long-chain alkenyl groups of dodecenyl succinic anhydride (DDSA), an esterifying agent that introduces a 12-carbon hydrophobic chain to the kondagogu structure. The esterification reaction was confirmed by ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The effect of nano-cellulose as an additive on various film properties was investigated. The developed films were characterized for their mechanical, morphological, optical, barrier, antibacterial, and biodegradable properties. The inclusion of long-chain carbon groups acted as internal plasticizers and resulted in an amorphous structure with better film-forming ability, improved hydrophobicity, and higher elongation at break values. The modified films exhibited antibacterial properties and excellent biodegradability under aerobic conditions.

Development of quaternary nanocomposites made up of cassava starch, cocoa butter, lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion, and brewery spent grain fibers

We report on production of novel quaternary nanocomposite films based on thermoplastic starch (TPS, 8% w/v) derived from cassava, cocoa butter, (CB, 30% wt.%), and lemongrass essential oil (LEO, 1:1) nanoemulsions reinforced with different concentrations of brewery spent grain (BSG, 5 or 10 wt.%) fibers, by continuous casting. The chemical composition, the morphological, thermal, mechanical properties, film barrier, biodegradability in the vegetable compound, in addition to the application in chocolates, have been widely studied. The addition of CB, LEO, and BSG caused relevant changes in the starch-based films, such as increased extensibility (from 2.4-BSG5 to 9.4%-BSG10) and improved barrier to moisture (2.9 and 2.4 g.mm.kPa^-1 .h^-1 .m^-2 ). Contrastingly, the thermal stability of the starch film was slightly decreased. The biodegradability of the herein developed quaternary nanocomposite films was the same as that of TPS films, eliminating concerns on the supplementation with active ingredients that are expected to have some biocidal effect. Despite checking antimicrobial activity only by contact under the biocomposites, chocolates packed with the films were well accepted by consumers, especially the samples of white chocolate stored in the BSG5 biocomposite. Overall, this new approach towards quaternary active, biodegradable films produced in a pilot-scale lamination unit was successful in either improving or at least maintaining the essential properties of TPS-based films for food packaging applications, while providing them with unique features and functionalities. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This contribution relates to new approach toward quaternary films produced in a pilot-scale lamination unit. It relates to sustainability as it is both biodegradable and based on plant biomass, as well as produced via a clean, through high-yield process. The four components of the edible films we developed provide it with good in properties performance, as both a passive barrier (i.e. purely physical), and active, related to the sensory attributes of food, essential to be applied in food packaging. The valorization of a BSG also adds to the relevance of our contribution within the circular bioeconomy framework.

On the Use of OPEFB-Derived Microcrystalline Cellulose and Nano-Bentonite for Development of Thermoplastic Starch Hybrid Bio-Composites with Improved Performance

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) hybrid bio-composite films containing microcrystalline cellulose (C) and nano-bentonite (B) as hybrid fillers were studied to replace the conventional non-degradable plastic in packaging applications. Raw oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was subjected to chemical treatment and acid hydrolysis to obtain C filler. B filler was ultra-sonicated for better dispersion in the TPS films to improve the filler–matrix interactions. The morphology and structure of fillers were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). TPS hybrid bio-composite films were produced by the casting method with different ratios of B and C fillers. The best ratio of B/C was determined through the data of the tensile test. FTIR analysis proved the molecular interactions between the TPS and the hybrid fillers due to the presence of polar groups in their structure. XRD analysis confirmed the intercalation of the TPS chains between the B inter-platelets as a result of well-developed interactions between the TPS and hybrid fillers. SEM images suggested that more plastic deformation occurred in the fractured surface of the TPS hybrid bio-composite film due to the higher degree of stretching after being subjected to tensile loading. Overall, the results indicate that incorporating the hybrid B/C fillers could tremendously improve the mechanical properties of the films. The best ratio of B/C in the TPS was found to be 4:1, in which the tensile strength (8.52MPa), Young’s modulus (42.0 MPa), elongation at break (116.4%) and tensile toughness of the film were increased by 92%, 146%, 156% and 338%, respectively. The significantly improved strength, modulus, flexibility and toughness of the film indicate the benefits of using the hybrid fillers, since these features are useful for the development of sustainable flexible packaging film.

Recent Developments in Nanocellulose-Reinforced Rubber Matrix Composites: A Review

Research and development of nanocellulose and nanocellulose-reinforced composite materials have garnered substantial interest in recent years. This is greatly attributed to its unique functionalities and properties, such as being renewable, sustainable, possessing high mechanical strengths, having low weight and cost. This review aims to highlight recent developments in incorporating nanocellulose into rubber matrices as a reinforcing filler material. It encompasses an introduction to natural and synthetic rubbers as a commodity at large and conventional fillers used today in rubber processing, such as carbon black and silica. Subsequently, different types of nanocellulose would be addressed, including its common sources, dimensions, and mechanical properties, followed by recent isolation techniques of nanocellulose from its resource and application in rubber reinforcement. The review also gathers recent studies and qualitative findings on the incorporation of a myriad of nanocellulose variants into various types of rubber matrices with the main goal of enhancing its mechanical integrity and potentially phasing out conventional rubber fillers. The mechanism of reinforcement and mechanical behaviors of these nanocomposites are highlighted. This article concludes with potential industrial applications of nanocellulose-reinforced rubber composites and the way forward with this technology.

Micro- and Nanocellulose in Polymer Composite Materials: A Review

The high demand for plastic and polymeric materials which keeps rising every year makes them important industries, for which sustainability is a crucial aspect to be taken into account. Therefore, it becomes a requirement to makes it a clean and eco-friendly industry. Cellulose creates an excellent opportunity to minimize the effect of non-degradable materials by using it as a filler for either a synthesis matrix or a natural starch matrix. It is the primary substance in the walls of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and upright, and can be found in plant sources, agriculture waste, animals, and bacterial pellicle. In this review, we discussed the recent research development and studies in the field of biocomposites that focused on the techniques of extracting micro- and nanocellulose, treatment and modification of cellulose, classification, and applications of cellulose. In addition, this review paper looked inward on how the reinforcement of micro- and nanocellulose can yield a material with improved performance. This article featured the performances, limitations, and possible areas of improvement to fit into the broader range of engineering applications.

Preparation of nanobiocomposite film based on lemon waste containing cellulose nanofiber and savory essential oil: A new biodegradable active packaging system

Lemon waste after industrial juice extraction encompasses of valuable bio-components that stimulated the development of novel and biodegradable films. Lemon waste powder (LWP) based nanobiocomposite films were prepared by incorporating different concentrations of cellulose nanofiber (CNF) (3 and 6% w/w) and savory essential oil (SEO) (1.5 and 3% w/w) in order to modify physical, mechanical and antimicrobial properties of the films. The fabricated film samples were characterized in terms of FTIR, XRD, FE-SEM and DSC analyses as well as mechanical, water vapor permeability and antimicrobial properties. FTIR and FE-SEM results indicated a good compatibility between LWP matrix and incorporated CNF and SEO. Physical and thermal analysis showed a significant effect of incorporating SEO and CNF on enhancing glass transition temperature, tensile strength and water barrier properties of the film samples. SEM analysis revealed non-uniform dispersion of CNF at higher concentration, while SEO incorporation improved the structure of the films. In addition, the LWP based films significantly showed antimicrobial properties against five food borne pathogens and this effect improved considerably by elevating the SEO loading concentration. In conclusion, LWP based nanobiocomposite films containing 3% CNF and 3% SEO could be introduced as a good candidate for development of active food packaging.

Research on the Strengthening Advantages on Using Cellulose Nanofibers as Polyvinyl Alcohol Reinforcement

The present work aims to combine the unique properties of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to obtain high-performance nanocomposites. CNF were obtained by means of TEMPO-mediated ((2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl) oxidation, incorporated into the PVA matrix by means of compounding in a single-screw co-rotating internal mixer and then processed by means of injection molding. It was found that CNF were able to improve the tensile strength of PVA in 85% when 4.50 wt % of CNF were added. In addition, the incorporation of a 2.25 wt % of CNF enhanced the tensile strength to the same level that when 40 wt % of microsized fibers (stone groundwood pulp, SGW) were incorporated, which indicated that CNF possessed significantly higher intrinsic mechanical properties than microsized fibers. SGW was selected as reference for microsized fibers due to their extended use in wood plastic composites. Finally, a micromechanical analysis was performed, obtaining coupling factors near to 0.2, indicating good interphase between CNF and PVA. Overall, it was found that the use of CNF is clearly advantageous to the use of common cellulosic fibers if superior mechanical properties are desired, but there are still some limitations that are related to processing that restrict the reinforcement content at low contents.