Assessing the Aflatoxin B₁ Adsorption Capacity between Biosorbents Using an In Vitro Multicompartmental Model Simulating the Dynamic Conditions in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Poultry

One stone two birds: Recycling of an agri-waste to synthesize laccase-immobilized hierarchically porous magnetic biochar for efficient degradation of aflatoxin B1 in aqueous solutions and corn oil

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of oils is a serious concern for the safety of edible oil consumers. Enzyme-assisted detoxification of AFB1 is an efficient and safe method for decontaminating oils, but pristine enzymes are unstable in oils and require modifications before use. Therefore, we designed a novel and magnetically separable laccase-carrying biocatalyst containing spent-mushroom-substrate (SMS)-derived biochar (BF). Laccase was immobilized on NH2-activated magnetic biochar (BF-NH2) through covalent crosslinking, which provided physicochemical stability to the immobilized enzyme. After 30 days of storage at 4 °C, the immobilized laccase (product named "BF-NH2-Lac") retained ~95 % of its initial activity, while after five repeated cycles of ABTS oxidation, ~85 % activity retention was observed. BF-NH2-Lac was investigated for the oxidative degradation of AFB1, which exhibited superior performance compared to free laccase. Among many tested natural compounds as mediators, p-coumaric acid proved the most efficient in activating laccase for AFB1 degradation. BF-NH2-Lac demonstrated >90 % removal of AFB1 within 5.0 h, while the observed degradation efficiency in corn oil and buffer was comparable. An insight into the adsorptive and degradative removal of AFB1 revealed that AFB1 removal was governed mainly by degradation. The coexistence of multi-mycotoxins did not significantly affect the AFB1 degradation capability of BF-NH2-Lac. Investigation of the degradation products revealed the transformation of AFB1 into non-toxic AFQ1, while corn oil quality remained unaffected after BF-NH2-Lac treatment. Hence, this study holds practical importance for the research, knowledge-base and industrial application of newly proposed immobilized enzyme products.

Synthesis and characterization of aluminosilicate and zinc silicate from sugarcane bagasse fly ash for adsorption of aflatoxin B1

Sugarcane bagasse fly ash, a residual product resulting from the incineration of biomass to generate power and steam, is rich in SiO2. Sodium silicate is a fundamental material for synthesizing highly porous silica-based adsorbents to serve circular practices. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a significant contaminant in animal feeds, necessitates the integration of adsorbents, crucial for reducing aflatoxin concentrations during the digestive process of animals. This research aimed to synthesize aluminosilicate and zinc silicate derived from sodium silicate based on sugarcane bagasse fly ash, each characterized by a varied molar ratio of aluminum (Al) to silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) to silicon (Si), respectively. The primary focus of this study was to evaluate their respective capacities for adsorbing AFB1. It was revealed that aluminosilicate exhibited notably superior AFB1 adsorption capabilities compared to zinc silicate and silica. Furthermore, the adsorption efficacy increased with higher molar ratios of Al:Si for aluminosilicate and Zn:Si for zinc silicate. The N2 confirmed AFB1 adsorption within the pores of the adsorbent. In particular, the aluminosilicate variant with a molar ratio of 0.08 (Al:Si) showcased the most substantial AFB1 adsorption capacity, registering at 88.25% after an in vitro intestinal phase. The adsorption ability is directly correlated with the presence of surface acidic sites and negatively charged surfaces. Notably, the kinetics of the adsorption process were best elucidated through the application of the pseudo-second-order model, effectively describing the behavior of both aluminosilicate and zinc silicate in adsorbing AFB1.

Role of Clay Substrate Molecular Interactions in Some Dairy Technology Applications

The use of clay materials in dairy technology requires a multidisciplinary approach that allows correlating clay efficiency in the targeted application to its interactions with milk components. For profitability reasons, natural clays and clay minerals can be used as low-cost and harmless food-compatible materials for improving key processes such as fermentation and coagulation. Under chemical stability conditions, clay materials can act as adsorbents, since anionic clay minerals such as hydrotalcite already showed effectiveness in the continuous removal of lactic acid via in situ anion exchange during fermentation and ex situ regeneration by ozone. Raw and modified bentonites and smectites have also been used as adsorbents in aflatoxin retention and as acidic species in milk acidification and coagulation. Aflatoxins and organophilic milk components, particularly non-charged caseins around their isoelectric points, are expected to display high affinity towards high silica regions on the clay surface. Here, clay interactions with milk components are key factors that govern adsorption and surface physicochemical processes. Knowledge about these interactions and changes in clay behavior according to the pH and chemical composition of the liquid media and, more importantly, clay chemical stability is an essential requirement for understanding process improvements in dairy technology, both upstream and downstream of milk production. The present paper provides a comprehensive review with deep analysis and synthesis of the main findings of studies in this area. This may be greatly useful for mastering milk processing efficiency and envisaging new prospects in dairy technology.

Highly efficient adsorptive removal of the carcinogen aflatoxin B1 using the parasitic plant Cuscuta corymbosa Ruiz & Pavon

The ever-growing consumption of herbs around the globe has motivated the researchers to acquire practical knowledge about other potential applications in human and animal health. In this research, an unmodified adsorbent prepared from the holoparasitic herb C. corymbosa was utilized for the removal of the carcinogen aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) from aqueous solutions. The adsorbent was characterized by Fourier transform near-infrared/mid-infrared spectrophotometry (FT-NIR/MIR), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and point of zero charge (pHpzc). Adsorption experiments were carried out in batch systems, and the experimental data was used for isothermal (Langmuir and Freundlich) and kinetic (linear and non-linear forms of the pseudo-first and pseudo-second order) models. In general, the unmodified adsorbent removed AFB1 independent of the solution pH, showing a theoretical adsorption capacity of 555.76 mg AFB1/g at 303 K, significantly higher than that reported for other plant-based adsorbents and comparable with the efficiency of various inorganic adsorbents. Non-electrostatic attractions such as hydrogen bonding and dispersion forces along with complexation mechanisms were the primary interactions responsible for the adsorption of the pollutant. Our results clearly show that C. corymbosa could be a promising material for practical adsorption applications in the drinking water industry.

Removal of Aflatoxin B1 Using Alfalfa Leaves as an Adsorbent Material: A Comparison between Two In Vitro Experimental Models

An adsorbent material derived from alfalfa leaves was prepared and further characterized, and its efficacy for removing aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was investigated. Characterization consisted of the use of attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), point of zero charge (pHpzc), zeta potential (ζ-potential), UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, and spectral analysis. To determine the adsorption capacity against AFB1 (250 ng AFB1/mL), pH-dependent and avian intestinal in vitro models were used. The adsorbent inclusion percentage was 0.5% (w/w). In general, the pH-dependent model gave adsorption percentages of 98.2%, 99.9%, and 98.2%, evaluated at pH values of 2, 5, and 7, respectively. However, when the avian intestinal model was used, it was observed that the adsorption percentage of AFB1 significantly decreased (88.8%). Based on the characterization results, it is proposed that electrostatic, non-electrostatic, and the formation of chlorophyll-AFB1 complexes were the main mechanisms for AFB1 adsorption. From these results, it can be concluded that the adsorbent derived from alfalfa leaves could be used as an effective material for removing AFB1 in in vitro digestion models that mimic the physiological reality.

Pathological Role of Oxidative Stress in Aflatoxin-Induced Toxicity in Different Experimental Models and Protective Effect of Phytochemicals: A Review

Aflatoxin B1 is a secondary metabolite with a potentially devastating effect in causing liver damage in broiler chickens, and this is mainly facilitated through the generation of oxidative stress and malonaldehyde build-up. In the past few years, significant progress has been made in controlling the invasion of aflatoxins. Phytochemicals are some of the commonly used molecules endowed with potential therapeutic effects to ameliorate aflatoxin, by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species and enhancing intracellular antioxidant enzymes. Experimental models involving cell cultures and broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxin or contaminated diet have been used to investigate the ameliorative effects of phytochemicals against aflatoxin toxicity. Electronic databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar were used to identify relevant data sources. The retrieved information reported on the link between aflatoxin B1-included cytotoxicity and the ameliorative potential/role of phytochemicals in chickens. Importantly, retrieved data showed that phytochemicals may potentially protect against aflatoxin B1-induced cytotoxicity by ameliorating oxidative stress and enhancing intracellular antioxidants. Preclinical data indicate that activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), together with its downstream antioxidant genes, may be a potential therapeutic mechanism by which phytochemicals neutralize oxidative stress. This highlights the need for more research to determine whether phytochemicals can be considered a useful therapeutic intervention in controlling mycotoxins to improve broiler health and productivity.

Effect of the Structure of Highly Porous Silica Extracted from Sugarcane Bagasse Fly Ash on Aflatoxin B1 Adsorption

Sugarcane bagasse fly ash is industrial waste produced by incinerating biomass to generate power and steam. The fly ash contains SiO₂ and Al₂O₃, which can be used to prepare aluminosilicate. This latter material exhibits high potential as an adsorbent in various applications, including the livestock industry where issues related to contamination of aflatoxins in animal feeds need to be addressed; addition of adsorbents can help decrease the concentration of aflatoxins during feed digestion. In this study, the effect of the structure of silica prepared from sugarcane bagasse fly ash on physicochemical properties and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) adsorption capability compared with that of bentonite was investigated. BPS-5, Xerogel-5, MCM-41, and SBA-15 mesoporous silica supports were synthesized using sodium silicate hydrate (Na₂SiO₃) from sugarcane bagasse fly ash as a silica source. BPS-5, Xerogel-5, MCM-41, and SBA-15 exhibited amorphous structures, while sodium silicate possessed a crystalline structure. BPS-5 possessed larger pore size, pore volume, and pore size distribution with a bimodal mesoporous structure, while Xerogel-5 exhibited lower pore size and pore size distribution with a unimodal mesoporous structure. BPS-5 with a negatively charged surface exhibited the highest AFB1 adsorption capability compared with other porous silica. However, the AFB1 adsorption capability of bentonite was superior to those of all porous silica. Sufficient pore diameter with high total pore volume as well as high intensity of acid sites and negative charge on the surface of the adsorbent is required to increase AFB1 adsorption in the in vitro gastrointestinal tract of animals.

Humic Acids Preparation, Characterization, and Their Potential Adsorption Capacity for Aflatoxin B1 in an In Vitro Poultry Digestive Model

Vermicompost was used for humic acid (HA) preparation, and the adsorption of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) was investigated. Two forms of HA were evaluated, natural HA and sodium-free HA (SFHA). As a reference, a non-commercial zeolitic material was employed. The adsorbents were characterized by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), zeta potential (ζ-potential), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and point of zero charge (pHpzc). The adsorbent capacity of the materials when added to an AFB₁-contaminated diet (100 µg AFB₁/kg) was evaluated using an in vitro model that simulates the digestive tract of chickens. Characterization results revealed the primary functional groups in HA and SFHA were carboxyl and phenol. Furthermore, adsorbents have a highly negative ζ-potential at the three simulated pH values. Therefore, it appears the main influencing factors for AFB₁ adsorption are electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding. Moreover, the bioavailability of AFB₁ in the intestinal section was dramatically decreased when sorbents were added to the diet (0.2%, w/w). The highest AFB₁ adsorption percentages using HA and SFHA were 97.6% and 99.7%, respectively. The zeolitic material had a considerable adsorption (81.5%). From these results, it can be concluded that HA and SFHA from vermicompost could be used as potential adsorbents to remove AFB₁ from contaminated feeds.

Effectiveness of citrus fruit peel as a biosorbent for the mitigation of aflatoxins in vitro

We assessed the effectiveness of novel and cost-effective citrus fruit peel (oranges, agro-waste material) for the removal of four aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂ in vitro. The biosorbent was described using SEM, XRF, XRD, FITR spectroscopy, and point of zero charge. The adsorption performance was optimised in a batch experiment by altering the various parameters, such as biosorbent dose (1-15 mg/mL), the preliminary concentration of AFs (20-200 ng/mL), pH (1-9), the incubation period (10-60 min), and temperature (10-45 °C). Maximum removal (90%) was achieved when using biosorbent at 10 mg, each AF concentration 100 ng/mL, pH 3, and incubation time 45 min at 37 °C. The experimental data were well-described by the Langmuir isotherm model and the monolayer coverage (Qe) was calculated to be 78.5, 77.8, 79.2, and 75.6 ng/mg for aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂, respectively. The thermodynamic and kinetic studies suggested that the adsorption performance was endothermic and obeyed the pseudo-second-order rate model. Studies at different pH also proved that the adsorption of toxins would be strong and sufficient under pH variation, as found in the gastrointestinal tract. Thus the biosorption of AFs by orange peel powder might be an efficient low price detoxification method in humans and animals.

Artificial gut and the applications in poultry: A review

Artificial gut models including both the gastric and intestinal phases have been used in poultry research for decades to predict the digestibility of nutrients, the efficacy of feed enzymes and additives, and caecal fermentation. However, the models used in the past are static and cannot be used to predict interactions between the feed, gut environment and microbiome. It is imperative that a standard artificial gut model for poultry is established, to enable these interactions to be examined without continual reliance on animals. To ensure the validity of an artificial model, it should be validated with in vivo studies. This review describes current practices in the use of artificial guts in research, their importance in poultry nutrition studies and highlights an opportunity to develop a dynamic gut model for poultry to reduce the number of in vivo experiments.

Pyracantha fortuneana (Maxim.) Li: A comprehensive review of its phytochemistry, pharmacological properties, and product development

Pyracantha fortuneana (Maxim.) Li has been used as a herbal medicine in China in its long history. Since ancient times, the fruits of P. fortuneana has been considered a functional food to improve various diseases. Many bioactive substances, including proanthocyanidins, phenols, polysaccharides, and dietary fibers, have been isolated and identified from the P. fortuneana, which possess diverse biological properties both in vitro and in vivo. Although the researches on the P. fortuneana have achieved extensive progress, the systematic study of its biological activities is still relatively lacking. In addition, accumulating researches focus on the landscape value of the P. fortuneana and the development of its by-products. The by-products of P. fortuneana, which show good development potentials in the field of agricultural production and environmental protection, are important for improving the economic value of P. fortuneana and its significance. After extensive reviewing and analyzing the existing published articles, books, and patents, this study aims to a systematic and summarized research trends of P. fortuneana and its phytochemical compositions, nutritional values, pharmacological effects and health benefits of its extracts/monomers, which would be beneficial for the future development of this medicinal plant as functional food or drugs.

Removal of Aflatoxins Using Agro-Waste-Based Materials and Current Characterization Techniques Used for Biosorption Assessment

Aflatoxins are the most hazardous fungal-generated secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic Aspergillus species. These toxins are frequently detected in food and feed and impose either acute or chronic effects in humans and animals, causing great public concern. Because of the adverse effects of aflatoxins, many physical, chemical, and biological decontamination approaches have been developed. However, the most commonly used procedure is the addition of adsorbent materials into aflatoxin-contaminated diets to reduce toxin absorption and distribution to blood and target organs. In recent times, sorption technology with agro-waste-based materials has appeared as a promising alternative over conventional binding agents with the benefits of low cost, higher rentability, feasibility, and exceptional efficiencies. This review is mainly focused on discussing the most important agro-waste-based materials able to adsorb aflatoxins such as pomaces, seeds, stems, hulls, peels, leaves, berries, lignins, fibers, weeds, and various horticultural byproducts. Further data of the in vitro, in vivo, and in silico efficacy of these biomaterials to adsorb and then desorb aflatoxins are given. Besides, an overview of the main characterization techniques used to elucidate the most important physical and chemical mechanisms involved in the biosorption is presented. Finally, conclusions and future research necessities are also outlined.

Comprehensive Review on the Interactions of Clay Minerals With Animal Physiology and Production

Clay minerals are naturally occurring rock and soil materials primarily composed of fine-grained aluminosilicate minerals, characterized by high hygroscopicity. In animal production, clays are often mixed with feed and, due to their high binding capacity towards organic molecules, used to limit animal absorption of feed contaminants, such as mycotoxins and other toxicants. Binding capacity of clays is not specific and these minerals can form complexes with different compounds, such as nutrients and pharmaceuticals, thus possibly affecting the intestinal absorption of important substances. Indeed, clays cannot be considered a completely inert feed additive, as they can interfere with gastro-intestinal (GI) metabolism, with possible consequences on animal physiology. Moreover, clays may contain impurities, constituted of inorganic micronutrients and/or toxic trace elements, and their ingestion can affect animal health. Furthermore, clays may also have effects on the GI mucosa, possibly modifying nutrient digestibility and animal microbiome. Finally, clays may directly interact with GI cells and, depending on their mineral grain size, shape, superficial charge and hydrophilicity, can elicit an inflammatory response. As in the near future due to climate change the presence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs will probably become a major problem, the use of clays in feedstuff, given their physico-chemical properties, low cost, apparent low toxicity and eco-compatibility, is expected to increase. The present review focuses on the characteristics and properties of clays as feed additives, evidencing pros and cons. Aims of future studies are suggested, evidencing that, in particular, possible interferences of these minerals with animal microbiome, nutrient absorption and drug delivery should be assessed. Finally, the fate of clay particles during their transit within the GI system and their long-term administration/accumulation should be clarified.

Protective effects of Aloe vera powder supplementation on some quantitative and qualitative characteristics of egg, histopathological changes and serum biochemistry of laying hens fed by Aflatoxin B1

In the recent years, the use of medicinal plants to reduce the effects of mycotoxins in foods and feeds has been considered. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of Aloe vera on performance, serum biochemical parameters and liver histopathology in laying hens fed on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-contaminated diet. Seventy-two White Leghorns (Hy-Line W-36) were randomly allocated to four treatments. 1) basal diet (control), 2) control plus 1.00 mg kg^-1 AFB1, 3) control diet plus 1.00 mg kg^-1 AFB1 + 100 ppm Aloe vera powder, and 4) control diet plus 1.00 mg kg^-1 AFB1 + 300 ppm Aloe vera powder. Each treatment consisted of three replicates of 6 birds. Egg weight and Haugh units were not affected by AFB1. Egg production and eggshell thickness were lower for groups fed 1.00 mg kg^-1 AFB1. Egg production, egg weight and eggshell thickness were improved by incorporation of Aleo vera in the AFB1 contaminated feed but were not significant. Chickens fed AFB1 had significantly lower aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and uric acid and higher cholesterol than other groups. Aloe vera powder improved levels of cholesterol, uric acid, AST, and ALT. AFB1 also caused histopathological changes in liver tissues, such as vacuolar degeneration, fatty infiltration, and necrosis. The addition of Aloe vera powder to the aflatoxin containing diet reduced the severity of lesions in liver. The data demonstrated the ability of Aloe vera to reduce the adverse effects of AFB1 exposure in laying hens.

Potential of Kale and Lettuce Residues as Natural Adsorbents of the Carcinogen Aflatoxin B1 in a Dynamic Gastrointestinal Tract-Simulated Model

Adsorption of the carcinogen aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) onto agro-waste-based materials is a promising alternative over conventional inorganic binders. In the current study, two unmodified adsorbents were eco-friendly prepared from kale and lettuce agro-wastes. A dynamic gastrointestinal tract-simulated model was utilized to evaluate the removal efficiency of the sorptive materials (0.5%, w/w) when added to an AFB1-contaminated diet (100 µg AFB1/kg). Different characterization methodologies were employed to understand the interaction mechanisms between the AFB1 molecule and the biosorbents. Based on adsorption results, the biosorbent prepared from kale was the best; its maximum adsorption capacity was 93.6%, which was significantly higher than that of the lettuce biosorbent (83.7%). Characterization results indicate that different mechanisms may act simultaneously during adsorption. Non-electrostatic (hydrophobic interactions, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding) and electrostatic interactions (ionic attractions) together with the formation of AFB1-chlorophyll complexes appear to be the major influencing factors driving AFB1 biosorption.

Mitigation of AFB1-Related Toxic Damage to the Intestinal Epithelium in Broiler Chickens Consumed a Yeast Cell Wall Fraction

In vivo experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a yeast cell wall fraction (YCW) to reduce the negative impact of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) to the intestinal epithelium in broiler chickens. Zeta potential (ζ-potential), point of zero charge (pH_pzc), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques were used to characterize the YCW. Two hundred one-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chickens were randomly allocated into four treatments: (1) control, chickens fed an AFB₁-free diet; (2) AF, chickens feed an AFB₁-contaminated diet (500 ng AFB₁/g); (3) YCW, chickens fed an AFB₁-free diet + 0.05% YCW; and (4) AF + YCW, chickens fed an AFB₁-contaminated diet (500 ng AFB₁/g) + 0.05% YCW. At the end of the 21-day feeding period, fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-d) was administered to chicks by oral gavage to evaluate gastrointestinal leakage. Blood and duodenum samples were collected to assess serum biochemistry and histomorphology, respectively. Compared to the control group, chicks of the AF group significantly diminished weight gain (WG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI), and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR), mortality rate (MR), and intestinal lesion scores (p < 0.05). Alterations in some serum biochemical parameters, and damage to the intestinal integrity were also evident in the AF-intoxicated birds. YCW supplementation improved WG and FCR and increased villus height, villus area, crypt depth, and the number of goblet cells in villi. The effects of YCW on growth performance were not significant in chicks of the AF + YCW group; however, the treatment decreased MR and significantly ameliorated some biochemical and histomorphological alterations. The beneficial effect of YCW was more evident in promoting gut health since chickens of the AF + YCW group presented a significant reduction in serum FITC-d concentration. This positive effect was mainly related to the changes in negative charges of YCW due to changes in pH, the net negative surface charge above the pH_pzc, the higher quantities of negative charged functional groups on the YCW surface, and its ability to form large aggregates. From these results, it can be concluded that YCW at low supplementation level can partially protect broilers' intestinal health from chronic exposure to AFB₁.

Ability of low contents of biosorbents to bind the food carcinogen aflatoxin B1in vitro

In vitro experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of two new biosorbents (lettuce and field horsetail) in removing aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Formosa firethorn was used as reference material. The adsorption of AFB1 (190 ng/mL) was investigated at two sorbent contents (0.5% and 0.1% w/v) and three pHs (2, 5, and 7). Batch experiments were performed at 40 °C for 2 h. Several methodologies were used to characterize the nature of the biosorbent-AFB1 interaction. In general, when using biosorbents at 0.5% w/v, AFB1 was well adsorbed by the three tested biomaterials (70 to 100%). Furthermore, with the lowest biosorbent content (0.1% w/v), significant AFB1 adsorption efficiencies were attained at pH 5 (33 to 50%). Nevertheless, at pH 7, lettuce showed the highest ability against AFB1 removal (95%). Further characterization of the AFB1-loaded biosorbents demonstrated that chemical and physical mechanisms were involved in the adsorption process.

Evaluation of berberine efficacy in reducing the effects of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A added to male broiler rations

Many types of mycotoxins are found in food sources contaminated with fungi, and if these are ingested in large quantities or over a long period, they can affect the health of humans and domestic animals. Berberine (BBR) is a plant alkaloid with multiple pharmacological functions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of different levels of the plant alkaloid BBR on reducing toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in broilers by examining performance characteristics, blood biochemistry, antioxidant systems, ileum morphology, and histopathology of the liver. The experiment was performed with 288 Ross 308 broilers reared in floor pens for 42 d in a randomized design with 9 treatments. Each treatment was replicated 4 times, and each replicate contained 8 chicks. Experimental treatments included (1) negative control diet with no additives (NC); (2) NC + 2 ppm AFB (positive control AFB; PCAFB); (3) NC + 2 ppm OTA (positive control OTA; PCOTA); (4) PCAFB + 200 mg/kg BBR; (5) PCAFB + 400 mg/kg BBR; (6) PCAFB + 600 mg/kg BBR; (7) PCOTA + 200 mg/kg BBR; (8) PCOTA + 400 mg/kg BBR; and (9) PCOTA + 600 mg/kg BBR. Compared with NC, feeding PCAFB and PCOTA diets reduced average daily feed intake, weight gain, serum concentrations of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and the length and width of ileum villi (P < 0.05). At the same time, these parameters increased in birds fed PCAFB or PCOTA diets supplemented with 600 mg/kg of BBR (P < 0.05). Feeding PCAFB and PCOTA diets increased feed conversion ratio (FCR), serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activities, serum urea, and liver lesions compared with NC. By contrast, compared with PCAFB and PCOTA, adding 600 mg/kg BBR decreased FCR, AST, LDH, ALT, and GGT activities, urea, and liver lesions (P < 0.05). Overall, supplementation with 600 mg/kg BBR may improve growth performance, liver function, and antioxidant status of broilers fed diets contaminated with AFB and OTA.

Synthesised magnetic nano-zeolite as a mycotoxins binder to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxins, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, and deoxynivalenol in barley

Agricultural commodities, particularly cereals can be contaminated with mycotoxins during the pre- and post-harvest stage. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of magnetic zeolite nanocomposite (MZNC) as an adsorbent for the reduction of mycotoxins in barley flour. The MZNC is synthesised using an eco-friendly and efficient procedure and characterised by zeta potential, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The adsorbent amount that affects the adsorption capacity was optimised. Low amounts of the nanocomposite removed >99% of aflatoxins, 50% of ochratoxin A, 22% of zearalenone, and 1.8% of the deoxynivalenol from the contaminated sample and adsorption by MZNC was better than the natural zeolite; this phenomenon is related to the wide surface of nanocomposites. Results provide new insights into possible future research that could overcome the challenges of using nanotechnology to eliminate mycotoxins from agricultural products. It can be hoped that the presence of cheap and eco-friendly mycotoxin binders such as the MZNC that is synthesised and utilised in this research will help to produce secure food and feed products.

Assessing the Aflatoxins Mitigation Efficacy of Blueberry Pomace Biosorbent in Buffer, Gastrointestinal Fluids and Model Wine

Blueberry (BB) and cherry pomace were investigated as new biosorbents for aflatoxins (AFs) sequestration from buffered solutions, gastrointestinal fluids and model wine. Among the tested biosorbents, BB exhibited the maximum adsorption performance for AFs and hence was further selected for the optimization of experimental parameters like pH, dosage, time and initial concentration of AFs. Material characterizations via scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, N2 adsorption-desorption isothermal studies, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS) techniques revealed useful information about the texture and chemical composition of the biosorbents. The fitting of isothermal data with different models showed the model suitability trend as: Sips model > Langmuir model > Freundlich model, where the theoretical maximum adsorption capacity calculated from the Sips model was 4.6, 2.9, 2.7 and 2.4 mg/g for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, respectively. Kinetics study revealed the fast AFs uptake by BB (50-90 min) while thermodynamics studies suggested the exothermic nature of the AFs adsorption from both, single as well as multi-toxin buffer systems, gastrointestinal fluids and model wine. Accrediting to the fast and efficient adsorption performance, green and facile fabrication approach and cost-effectiveness, the newly designed BB pomace can be counted as a promising contender for the sequestration of AFs and other organic pollutants.

A Theoretical Study of the Adsorption Process of B-aflatoxins Using Pyracanthakoidzumii (Hayata) Rehder Biomasses

Employing theoretical calculations with density functional theory (DFT) using the B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) functional and basis set, the interaction of the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) molecule and the functional groups present in the Pyracantha koidzumii biosorbent was investigated. Dissociation free energy and acidity equilibrium constant values were obtained theoretically both in solution (water) and gas phases. Additionally, the molecular electrostatic potential for the protonated molecules was calculated to verify the reactivity. Thus, methanol (hydroxyl group), methylammonium ion (amino group), acetate ion (carboxyl group), and acetone (carbonyl group), were used as representatives of the substrates present in the biomass; these references were considered using the corresponding protonated or unprotonated forms at a pH value of 5. The experimental infrared spectrophotometric data suggested the participation of these functional groups in the AFB1 biosorption process, indicating that the mechanism was dominated by electrostatic interactions between the charged functional groups and the positively charged AFB1 molecule. The theoretical determination indicated that the carboxylate ion provided the highest interaction energy with the AFB1 molecule. Consequently, an enriched biosorbent with compounds containing carboxyl groups could improve the yield of the AFB1 adsorption when using in vitro and in vivo trials.

A Sustainable Graphene Aerogel Capable of the Adsorptive Elimination of Biogenic Amines and Bacteria from Soy Sauce and Highly Efficient Cell Proliferation

A graphene aerogel (GA) with a three-dimensional (3D) structure, ultra-lightweight nature, and high hydrophobicity was simply fabricated by the one-step pyrolysis of glucose and ammonium chloride. The as-synthesized GA exhibited a 3D interconnected microporous architecture with a high surface area of ∼2860 m² g^-1 and pore volume of 2.24 cm³ g^-1. The hydrophobic GA (10 mg 100 mL^-1) demonstrated rapid and excellent adsorption performance for the removal of food toxins such as various biogenic amines (histamine, cadaverine, and spermine) and the hazardous bacterium Staphylococcus aureus (a food contaminant and a cause of poor wound healing) from a liquid matrix with a maximum simultaneous adsorption capacity for multiple biogenic amines of >85.19% (histamine), 74.1% (cadaverine), and 70.11% (spermidine) and a 100% reduction in the viable cell count of S. aureus within 80 min of interaction. The outstanding adsorption capacity can be attributed to a highly interconnected porous network in the 3D architecture and a high surface-to-volume ratio. A case study using soy sauce spiked with multiple biogenic amines showed successful removal of toxins with excellent recyclability without any loss in absorption performance. Biocompatibility of the GA in terms of cell viability was observed even at high concentrations (83.46% and 75.28% at 25 and 50 mg mL^-1, respectively). Confirmatory biocompatibility testing was conducted via live/dead cell evaluation, and the morphology of normal lung epithelial cells was examined via scanning electron microscopy showed no cellular shrinkage. Moreover, GA showed excellent removal of live colonies of S. aureus from the food matrix and immunoblotting analysis showed elevated protein expression levels of β-catenin and α-SMA (α-smooth muscle actin). The biocompatible sugar-based GA could simultaneously adsorb multiple biogenic amines and live bacteria and was easy to regenerate via simple separation due to its high floatability, hydrophobicity, surface area, and porosity without any structural and functional loss, making it especially relevant for food safety and biomedical applications.

Aflatoxin B1-Adsorbing Capability of Pleurotus eryngii Mycelium: Efficiency and Modeling of the Process

Aflatoxin B₁ (AfB₁) is a carcinogenic mycotoxin that contaminates food and feed worldwide. We determined the AfB₁-adsorption capability of non-viable Pleurotus eryngii mycelium, an edible fungus, as a potential means for removal of AfB₁ from contaminated solutions. Lyophilized mycelium was produced and made enzymatically inert by sterilization at high temperatures. The material thus obtained was characterized by scanning electron microscopy with regard to the morpho-structural properties of the mycotoxin-adsorbing surfaces. The active surfaces appeared rough and sponge-like. The AfB₁-mycelium system reached equilibrium at 37°C, 30 min, and pH 5–7, conditions that are compatible with the gastro-intestinal system of animals. The system remained stable for 48 h at room temperature, at pH 3, pH 7, and pH 7.4. A thermodynamic study of the process showed that this is a spontaneous and physical adsorption process, with a maximum of 85 ± 13% of removal efficiency of AfB₁ by P. eryngii mycelium. These results suggest that biosorbent materials obtained from the mycelium of the mushroom P. eryngii could be used as a low-cost and effective feed additive for AfB₁ detoxification.

The first in vivo application of synthetic polymers based on methacrylic acid as an aflatoxin sorbent in an animal model

This study attempts to evaluate the potential aflatoxin binder activity of a molecularly imprinted polymer (TMU95) synthesized to target the aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) analog molecule in comparison to a commercial toxin binder (CTB). Adsorption experiments were carried out to assess the ability to bind to AFB₁ at various pH values. The strength of binding was investigated by the chemisorption index. The isothermal analysis was used to determine the maximum adsorption capacity values. The ability of TMU95 and CTB to adsorb essential minerals was evaluated and the obtained data suggested that CTB would significantly reduce availability of them compared to TMU95. The in vivo efficacy of TMU95 as an aflatoxin (AF) binder in duckling exposed to aflatoxin-contaminated feed from 4 to 18 days of age in comparison to the CTB was also assessed. TMU95 and CTB were effective in reducing the adverse effects caused by AFs on feed conversion ratio of duckling (p ≤ 0.01), and also showed a minor reduction of injuries caused by AFs on visceral organs enlargement (p ≤ 0.01). It was concluded that TMU95 could absorb AFB₁ in vitro efficiently and had beneficial health effects that could alleviate some of the toxic effects of AFs on growing duckling performance similar to CTB.