Detoxification of Mycotoxins through Biotransformation

A comprehensive review of biodetoxification of trichothecenes: Mechanisms, limitations and novel strategies

Trichothecenes are Fusarium mycotoxins with sesquiterpenoid structure, which are widely occurred in grains. Due to high efficiency and environmental friendliness, biological detoxification methods have been of great interest to treat this global food and feed safety concern. This review summarized the biological detoxification methods of trichothecenes from three aspects, biosorption, biotransformation and biotherapy. The detoxification efficiency, characteristics, mechanisms and limitations of different strategies were discussed in detail. Computer-aided design will bring a new research paradigm for more efficient discovery of biodetoxifier. Integrating different detoxification approaches assisted with computational tools will become a promising research direction in the future, which will help to maximize the detoxification effect, or provide precise detoxification programs for the coexistence of various toxins at different levels in actual production. In addition, technical and regulatory issues in practical application were also discussed. These findings contribute to the exploration of efficient, applicable and sustainable methods for trichothecenes detoxification, ensuring the safety of food and feed to reduce the deleterious effects of trichothecenes on humans and animals.

Oerskovia flava sp. nov., a deoxynivalenol (DON)-degrading actinomycete isolated from the rhizosphere soil of long-term continuous cropping cucumber

The deoxynivalenol (DON)-degrading bacterium JB1-3-2 T was isolated from a rhizosphere soil sample of cucumber collected from a greenhouse located in Zhenjiang, Eastern China. The JB1-3-2 T strain is a Gram-stain-positive, nonmotile and round actinomycete. Growth was observed at temperatures between 15 and 40 ℃ (optimum, 35 ℃), in the presence of 15% (w/v) NaCl (optimum, 3%), and at pH 3 and 11 (optimum, 7). The major cellular fatty acids identified were anteiso-C15:0, iso-C16:0 and anteiso-C17:0. Genome sequencing revealed a genome size of 4.11 Mb and a DNA G + C content of 72.5 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that the JB1-3-2 T strain was most closely related to type strains of the Oerskovia species, with the highest sequence similarity to Oerskovia turbata NRRL B-8019 T (98.2%), and shared 98.1% sequence identity with other valid type strains of this genus. Digital DNA‒DNA hybridization (dDDH) and average nucleotide identity (ANI) showed 21.8-22.2% and 77.2-77.3% relatedness, respectively, between JB1-3-2 T and type strains of the genus Oerskovia. Based on genotypic, phylogenetic, chemotaxonomic, physiological and biochemical characterization, Oerskovia flava, a novel species in the genus Oerskovia, was proposed, and the type strain was JB1-3-2 T (= CGMCC 1.18555 T = JCM 35248 T). Additionally, this novel strain has a DON degradation ability that other species in the genus Oerskovia do not possess, and glutathione-S-transferase was speculated to be the key enzyme for strain JB1-3-2 T to degrade DON.

Food-Grade Expression of Two Laccases in Pichia pastoris and Study on Their Enzymatic Degradation Characteristics for Mycotoxins

Mycotoxin contamination poses substantial health risks to humans and animals. In this study, the two laccases PpLac1 and AoLac2 from Pleurotus pulmonarius and Aspergillus oryzae were selected and heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris in a food-grade manner to detoxify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON). Both laccases exhibited degradation activity toward these three mycotoxins, while the efficiency of these for DON was relatively low. Therefore, molecular docking between these laccases and DON was conducted to analyze their potential interaction mechanisms. Furthermore, the degradation conditions of AFB1 and ZEN by the two laccases were optimized, and the optimal degradation rates for AFB1 and ZEN by PpLac1 reached 78.51 and 78.90%, while those for AFB1 and ZEN by AoLac2 reached 72.27 and 80.60%, respectively. The laccases PpLac1 and AoLac2 successfully transformed AFB1 and ZEN into the compounds AFQ1 and 15-OH-ZEN, which were 90 and 98% less toxic than the original compounds, respectively. Moreover, the culture supernatants demonstrated effective mycotoxin degradation results for AFB1 and ZEN in contaminated feed samples. The residual levels of AFB1 and ZEN in all samples ranged from 6.61 to 8.72 μg/kg and 3.44 to 98.15 μg/kg, respectively, and these levels were below the limit set by the European Union standards. All of the results in this study indicated that the two laccases have excellent application potential in the feed industry.

Estrogenic, androgenic, and genotoxic activities of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in in vitro bioassays including exogenous metabolic activation

Zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON) and their derivatives are well-known mycotoxins, which can occur not only in crops but also in water bodies, including drinking water sources. In vitro bioassays can be used to detect biological effects of hazardous compounds in water. To this, when studying biological effects and toxicity in vitro, metabolism is important to consider. In this study, ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), DON, 3-acetyl DON, and 15-acetyl DON were evaluated in vitro for hormone receptor-mediated effects (estrogen receptor [ER] and androgen receptor [AR]) and genotoxicity (micronucleus assay) in the presence of an exogenous metabolic activation system (MAS). The ER bioassay proved to be a highly sensitive method to detect low concentrations of the ZEN compounds (EC10 values of 31.4 pM for ZEN, 3.59 pM for α-ZEL) in aqueous solutions. In the presence of the MAS, reduced estrogenic effects were observed for both ZEN compounds (EC10 values of 6.47 × 103 pM for ZEN, 1.55 × 102 pM for α-ZEL). Of the DON compounds, only 3-acetyl DON was estrogenic (EC10 of 0.31 µM), and the effect was removed in the presence of the MAS. Anti-androgenic effects of the ZEN compounds and androgenic effects of the DON compounds were detected in the micromolar range. No induction of genotoxicity was detected for ZEN or DON in the presence of the MAS. Our study highlighted that inclusion of exogenous MAS is a useful tool to detect biological effects of metabolites in in vitro bioassays.

Supplementation of Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii) diet with different zinc sources: effects on growth performance, digestive enzymes activity, hemato-biochemical parameters, antioxidant response and liver histology

An 8-week feeding trial was carried out to examine the effect of different sources of dietary Zn on some physiological responses (performance, digestive enzymes activity, hemato-biochemical parameters, antioxidant status and liver histology) of Siberian sturgeon, Acipenser baerii. For this purpose, fish with an average weight of 100 g ± 5 were randomly allocated into four groups including control, inorganic zinc (Zn-sulfate), organic zinc (Zn-gluconate), and zinc-oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) at 50 mg Zn kg- 1 feed. Improved growth indices, namely weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were observed in fish fed Zn-gluconate supplemented diet (P < 0.0.5). The highest digestive enzymes activity was recorded in fish fed Zn-gluconate supplementation (P < 0.0.5). Hematological indices significantly increased in fish fed diet containing ZnO-NPs (P < 0.0.5). Serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) of fish fed ZnO-NPs contained diet were the highest (P < 0.0.5). The highest serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) enzymes activity were observed in fish fed ZnO-NPs and inorganic/organic Zn contained diets, respectively. While liver tissue SOD and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzymes activity Zn were significantly increased in fish fed inorganic/organic Zn supplemented diet (P < 0.0.5). Based on liver histological results, a severe tissue changes such as necrosis and pyknosis were observed in fish fed with Zn-sulfate in comparison to other forms. In conclusion, the data of the present study confirmed that organic Zn (mainly) and nano-Zn (to some extent) could be more efficient Zn sources in Siberian sturgeon.

Natural feed additives and bioactive supplements versus chemical additives as a safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses

This review highlights the possible hazard of mycotoxins occurrence in foods and feeds in regards to foodborne diseases. The possible management of the risk of contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins by using natural feed additives, protecting against deleterious effects of mycotoxins or inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production, is deeply investigated in the available literature and some effective measures for safe utilization of mycotoxin contaminated feed/food are proposed. The biological methods of decontamination, degradation or biotransformation of mycotoxins are deeply analyzed and discussed. Some natural antagonists against target fungi are also reviewed and a comparison is made with conventional fungicides for ensuring a safe prevention of mycotoxin contamination. The most common and useful chemical methods of mycotoxins decontamination of agricultural commodities or raw materials are also investigated, e.g., chemical additives inactivating or destroying and/or adsorbing mycotoxins as well as chemical additives inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production. The practical use and safety of various kind of feed/food additives or herbal/biological supplements as possible approach for ameliorating the adverse effects of some dangerous mycotoxins is deeply investigated and some suggestions are given. Various possibilities for decreasing mycotoxins toxicity, e.g., by clarifying the mechanisms of their toxicity and using some target antidotes and vitamins as supplements to the diet, are also studied in the literature and appropriate discussions or suggestions are made in this regard. Some studies on animal diets such as low carbohydrate intake, increased protein content, calorie restriction or the importance of dietary fats are also investigated in the available literature for possible amelioration of the ailments associated with mycotoxins exposure. It could be concluded that natural feed additives and bioactive supplements would be more safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses as compared to chemical additives.

Solvent directed morphogenesis of a peptidic-benzimidazolium dipodal receptor: ratiometric detection and catalytic degradation of ochratoxin A

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is the most abundant and harmful toxin found in agriculture and processed food. The environment and human health are both harmed by this mycotoxin. As a result, in various scenarios, selective detection and biodegradation of ochratoxin A are essential. The current study reveals the morphogenesis of a peptidic-benzimidazolium dipodal receptor (SS4) and its application as a catalytic and sensing unit for the detection and degradation of OTA in an aqueous medium. Initially, a facile and scalable method was executed to synthesize SS4, and solvent-directed morphogenesis were examined under SEM analysis. Consequently, molecular recognition properties of self-assembled architectures were explored using UV-visible absorption, fluorescence spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The designed probe showed a ratiometric response for OTA and served as a catalytic unit for the degradation of OTA at a short interval of 25 min. The biodegradation pathway for OTA was accomplished using LC-MS analysis. Furthermore, the reliability of the developed method was checked by determining the spiked concentrations of the OTA in cereals and wine samples. The results obtained are in good agreement with the % recovery and RSD values. The present work provides a robust, selective, and sensitive method of detection and degradation for OTA.

Fusarium biocontrol: antagonism and mycotoxin elimination by lactic acid bacteria

Mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species are secondary metabolites with low molecular weight formed by filamentous fungi generally resistant to different environmental factors and, therefore, undergo slow degradation. Contamination by Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals and millets is the foremost quality challenge the food and feed industry faces across the globe. Several types of chemical preservatives are employed in the mitigation process of these mycotoxins, and they help in long-term storage; however, chemical preservatives can be used only to some extent, so the complete elimination of toxins from foods is still a herculean task. The growing demand for green-labeled food drives to evade the use of chemicals in the production processes is getting much demand. Thus, the biocontrol of food toxins is important in the developing food sector. Fusarium mycotoxins are world-spread contaminants naturally occurring in commodities, food, and feed. The major mycotoxins Fusarium species produce are deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, zearalenone, and T2/HT2 toxins. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), generally regarded as safe (GRAS), is a well-explored bacterial community in food preparations and preservation for ages. Recent research suggests that LAB are the best choice for extenuating Fusarium mycotoxins. Apart from Fusarium mycotoxins, this review focuses on the latest studies on the mechanisms of how LAB effectively detoxify and remove these mycotoxins through their various bioactive molecules and background information of these molecules.

Mechanisms of Alternaria pathogenesis in animals and plants

Alternaria species are cosmopolitan fungi darkly pigmented by melanin that infect numerous plant species causing economically important agricultural spoilage of various food crops. Alternaria spp. also infect animals, being described as entomopathogenic fungi but also infecting warm-blooded animals, including humans. Their clinical importance in human health, as infection agents, lay in the growing number of immunocompromised patients. Moreover, Alternaria spp. are considered some of the most abundant and potent sources of airborne sensitizer allergens causing allergic respiratory diseases, as severe asthma. Among the numerous strategies deployed by Alternaria spp. to attack their hosts, the production of toxins, carrying critical concerns to public health as food contaminant, and the production of hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, can be highlighted. Alternaria proteases also trigger allergic symptoms in individuals with fungal sensitization, acting as allergens and facilitating antigen access to the host subepithelium. Here, we review the current knowledge about the mechanisms of Alternaria pathogenesis in plants and animals, the strategies used by Alternaria to cope with the host defenses, and the involvement Alternaria allergens and mechanisms of sensitization.

Deoxynivalenol accumulation and detoxification in cereals and its potential role in wheat-Fusarium graminearum interactions

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a prominent mycotoxin showing significant accumulation in cereal plants during infection by the phytopathogen Fusarium graminearum. It is a virulence factor that is important in the spread of F. graminearum within cereal heads, and it causes serious yield losses and significant contamination of cereal grains. In recent decades, genetic and genomic studies have facilitated the characterization of the molecular pathways of DON biosynthesis in F. graminearum and the environmental factors that influence DON accumulation. In addition, diverse scab resistance traits related to the repression of DON accumulation in plants have been identified, and experimental studies of wheat-pathogen interactions have contributed to understanding detoxification mechanisms in host plants. The present review illustrates and summarizes the molecular networks of DON mycotoxin production in F. graminearum and the methods of DON detoxification in plants based on the current literature, which provides molecular targets for crop improvement programs. This review also comprehensively discusses recent advances and challenges related to genetic engineering-mediated cultivar improvements to strengthen scab resistance. Furthermore, ongoing advancements in genetic engineering will enable the application of these molecular targets to develop more scab-resistant wheat cultivars with DON detoxification traits.

Purification and evaluation of 2, 4-di-tert butylphenol (DTBP) as a biocontrol agent against phyto-pathogenic fungi

A fungal strain, Marasmiellus sp (PUK64), isolated from the mangrove forests in Muthupet, Tamil Nadu, East coast of India, along with others were screened for the search of potent bioactive compounds. A phenolic compound, 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol (DTBP), was isolated from the most promising strain PUK64 and its chemical structure was ascertained. DTBP demonstrated remarkable antifungal activity against the phytopathogenic fungi Aspergillus oryzae, Curvularia lunata and Fusarium verticillioides. In an in-vitro experimental setup, DTBP suppressed the growth of all three fungi, among which F. verticillioides was found to be highly susceptible. This effect relates with the inhibition of spore germination and hyphal growth that we observed. DTBP showed high affinity with the F. verticillioides's β-tubulin protein (determined by ligand-protein docking) as compared to the standard fungicide carbendazim (CBZ). Molecular docking and simulation studies of DTBP with target β-tubulin further confirmed the potential of β-tubulin binding in F. verticillioides. To our knowledge, this is the first report on DTBP-mediated biocontrol of phytopathogenic fungi, produced by Marasmiellus sp. PUK64 that can be potent inhibitor of β-tubulin protein of F. verticillioides.

Drug-independent control strategy of clostridial infection in broiler chickens using anti-toxin environmentally friendly multienzymes

The study investigated the effect of enzymes as a toxin detoxifier (DETOXIZYME) dietary supplementation on performance during growth, blood chemistry, and immunity under clostridia infection in chickens. A total of 480, day-old male chicks were randomly distributed to four groups, with six replicates of 20 birds each. The first control negative treatment (A) fed the basal formula as commercial feed prepared following the strain's needs, the second control positive group (B) fed the basal formula challenged with Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) type A, the third group (C) fed the basal formula with 100 g DETOXIZYME/ton of feed and challenged with clostridia, and the fourth group (D) fed the control basal formula with 100 g DETOXIZYME/ton of feed. DETOXIZYME dietary supplementation significantly boosted body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and European production efficiency factor (EPEF) and improved the feed conversion rate (FCR) of the broilers. The dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME significantly increased carcass trait and spleen. However, liver and abdominal fat weight significantly decreased compared with clostridia-challenged groups. The values of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), uric acid, creatinine, and Malondialdehyde (MDA) were decreased. While calcium, phosphate, zinc, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) levels were improved in birds that took basal formulas fortified with DETOXIZYME contrary to the other treatment groups during 35 days of age. Plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) values were reduced versus the other treatment groups. Dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME increased total protein, albumin, globulin, and Newcastle Disease (ND) immunity titer levels in the overall period compared to other groups. Dietary DETOXIZYME supplementation decreased clostridia and E. coli bacteria counts and improved gut morphometry. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME had a positive impact on performance, blood biochemistry, immunity, and bacterial counts and improved the gut morphology in broilers under clostridia infection.

Lactic acid bacteria biofilms and their antimicrobial potential against pathogenic microorganisms

The continuous growth of pathogenic microorganisms and associated biofilms poses severe public health challenges, particularly in food and clinical environments. However, these difficulties have enabled scientists to develop novel and safe methods for combating pathogens. The use of biofilms produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) against pathogenic bacteria has recently gained popularity. This review provides an in-depth look at LAB biofilms, their distribution, and mechanisms of action against pathogenic bacteria. More importantly, the bioactive substances produced by LAB-forming biofilm may be active against undesirable microorganisms and their products, which is of great interest in improving human health. Therefore, this review implies that a combination of LAB biofilms and other LAB products like bacteriocins could provide viable alternatives to traditional methods of combating pathogenic microorganisms and their biofilms.

Differential effects of Bacillus subtilis- and Bacillus licheniformis-fermented products on growth performance, intestinal morphology, intestinal antioxidant and barrier function gene expression, cecal microbiota community, and microbial carbohydrate-active enzyme composition in broilers

This study investigated the differential effects of Bacillus subtilis-fermented products (SFPs) and Bacillus licheniformis-fermented products (LFPs) on the growth performance, intestinal morphology, intestinal gene expression, cecal microbiota community, and microbial carbohydrate-active enzyme composition of broilers. In total, 160 one-day-old unsexed Arbor Acres broiler chicks were randomly allocated to 4 treatment groups (with 8 replicates per group and 5 chicks per replicate): control (CON), enramycin (ENM), SFP, and LFP groups, which were fed a basal diet, basal diet supplemented with 10 mg/kg ENM, basal diet supplemented with 10⁸ colony-forming units (CFU) of B. subtilis spores per gram of feed, and basal diet supplemented with 10⁸ CFU of B. licheniformis spores per gram of feed, respectively. LFP treatment resulted in a higher (P < 0.01) body weight at the age of 35 d and higher average daily gain over 15 to 35 (P < 0.05) and 1 to 35 (P < 0.05) d of age than did the CON and SFP treatments. The average villus heights in the jejunum were longer (P < 0.05) in the LFP group than those in the SFP group. Moreover, the LFP group exhibited a higher jejunal barrier function gene expression (mucin 2, zonula occludens-1, and occludin) and cecal antioxidant gene expression (superoxide dismutase) than did the CON group (P < 0.05). A principal coordinate analysis of cecal microbiota and carbohydrate-active enzyme composition demonstrated distinct clustering among the groups. Lactobacillus crispatus abundance in the cecal digesta was higher (P < 0.01) in the SFP group than in the CON and LFP groups. Finally, microbial glycosyltransferase 2 gene expression in the cecal digesta was higher in the LFP group than in the CON and ENM groups. In conclusion, LFPs can improve the growth performance, increase intestinal barrier function and antioxidant gene expression, and modulate cecal microflora composition and carbohydrate-active enzyme composition of broilers. The overall effect of LFPs on growth promotion in broilers was superior to that of SFPs.

Detoxification impacts of dietary probiotic and prebiotic supplements against aflatoxins: an updated knowledge

The widespread prevalence of food pollutants seriously threatens human and animal health. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites primarily formed by toxigenic fungal genera, including Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria, demonstrating one of the principal pollutants in diets or feed products. Mycotoxin contamination in food can harm health, including stunted development, immune system suppression, infertility, vomiting, and gastrointestinal and cancerous conditions. These effects can occur both acutely and chronically. The complex food chain can be contaminated with mycotoxins at any point, including during harvest, industrial processing, shipping, or storage, putting the food sector under societal pressure owing to the waste generated by infected goods. One of the biological controls of mycotoxin is provided by probiotics and prebiotics, controlled as foods and dietary supplements made of bacteria or yeast. Aflatoxin's bioavailability and gastrointestinal absorption can be reduced using various probiotics and prebiotics.

Destruction of Mycotoxins in Poultry Waste under Anaerobic Conditions within Methanogenesis Catalyzed by Artificial Microbial Consortia

To reduce the toxicity of modern feeds polluted by mycotoxins, various sorbents are added to them when feeding animals. A part of the mycotoxins is excreted from the body of animals with these sorbents and remains in the manure. As a result, bulk animal wastes containing mixtures of mycotoxins are formed. It is known that it is partially possible to decrease the initial concentration of mycotoxins in the process of anaerobic digestion (AD) of contaminated methanogenic substrates. The aim of this review was to analyze the recent results in destruction of mycotoxins under the action of enzymes present in cells of anaerobic consortia catalyzing methanogenesis of wastes. The possible improvement of the functioning of the anaerobic artificial consortia during detoxification of mycotoxins in the bird droppings is discussed. Particular attention was paid to the possibility of effective functioning of microbial enzymes that catalyze the detoxification of mycotoxins, both at the stage of preparation of poultry manure for methanogenesis and directly in the anaerobic process itself. The sorbents with mycotoxins which appeared in the poultry wastes composed one of the topics of interest in this review. The preliminary alkaline treatment of poultry excreta before processing in AD was considered from the standpoint of effectively reducing the concentrations of mycotoxins in the waste.

Influence of Biotreatment on Hordeum vulgare L. Cereal Wholemeal Contamination and Enzymatic Activities

Crop contamination with mycotoxins is a global problem with a negative impact on human and animal health as well as causing economical losses in food and feed chains. This study was focused on the evaluation of the effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strain (Levilactobacillus brevis-LUHS173, Liquorilactobacillus uvarum-LUHS245, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum-LUHS135, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei-LUHS244 and Lacticaseibacillus casei-LUHS210) fermentation on the changes in the level of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its conjugates in Fusarium spp.-contaminated barley wholemeal (BWP). Samples, with different contamination of DON and its conjugates, were treated separately (for 48 h). In addition to mycotoxin content, enzymatic activities (amylolytic, xylanolytic, and proteolytic) of BWP (before and after fermentation) were evaluated. It was established that the effect of decontamination depends on the LAB strain used, and a significant reduction in DON and the concentration of its conjugates in Lc. casei fermented samples was achieved: the amount of DON decreased on average by 47%, and the amount of D3G, 15-ADON and 3-ADON decreased by 82.4, 46.1, and 55.0%, respectively. Lc. casei also showed viability in the contaminated fermentation medium and an effective production of organic acids was obtained. Additionally, it was found that enzymes are involved to the detoxification mechanism of DON and its conjugates in BWP. These findings indicate that fermentation with selected LAB strains could be applied for contaminated barley treatment in order to significantly reduce Fusarium spp. mycotoxin levels in BWP and improve the sustainability of grain production.

Identification of Genes Essential for Fluorination and Sulfamylation within the Nucleocidin Gene Clusters of Streptomyces calvus and Streptomyces virens

The gene cluster in Streptomyces calvus associated with the biosynthesis of the fluoro- and sulfamyl-metabolite nucleocidin was interrogated by systematic gene knockouts. Out of the 26 gene deletions, most did not affect fluorometabolite production, nine abolished sulfamylation but not fluorination, and three precluded fluorination, but had no effect on sulfamylation. In addition to nucI, nucG, nucJ, nucK, nucL, nucN, nucO, nucQ and nucP, we identified two genes (nucW, nucA), belonging to a phosphoadenosine phosphosulfate (PAPS) gene cluster, as required for sulfamyl assembly. Three genes (orf(-3), orf2 and orf3) were found to be essential for fluorination, although the activities of their protein products are unknown. These genes as well as nucK, nucN, nucO and nucPNP, whose knockouts produced results differing from those described in a recent report, were also deleted in Streptomyces virens - with confirmatory outcomes. This genetic profile should inform biochemistry aimed at uncovering the enzymology behind nucleocidin biosynthesis.

Molecular Docking and In Vitro Studies of Ochratoxin A (OTA) Biodetoxification Testing Three Endopeptidases

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered one of the main mycotoxins responsible for health problems and considerable economic losses in the feed industry. The aim was to study OTA's detoxifying potential of commercial protease enzymes: (i) Ananas comosus bromelain cysteine-protease, (ii) bovine trypsin serine-protease and (iii) Bacillus subtilis neutral metalloendopeptidase. In silico studies were performed with reference ligands and T-2 toxin as control, and in vitro experiments. In silico study results showed that tested toxins interacted near the catalytic triad, similar to how the reference ligands behave in all tested proteases. Likewise, based on the proximity of the amino acids in the most stable poses, the chemical reaction mechanisms for the transformation of OTA were proposed. In vitro experiments showed that while bromelain reduced OTA's concentration in 7.64% at pH 4.6; trypsin at 10.69% and the neutral metalloendopeptidase in 8.2%, 14.44%, 45.26% at pH 4.6, 5 and 7, respectively (p < 0.05). The less harmful α-ochratoxin was confirmed with trypsin and the metalloendopeptidase. This study is the first attempt to demonstrate that: (i) bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyse OTA in acidic pH conditions with low efficiency and (ii) the metalloendopeptidase was an effective OTA bio-detoxifier. This study confirmed α-ochratoxin as a final product of the enzymatic reactions in real-time practical information on OTA degradation rate, since in vitro experiments simulated the time that food spends in poultry intestines, as well as their natural pH and temperature conditions.

Detoxification of Fumonisins by Three Novel Transaminases with Diverse Enzymatic Characteristics Coupled with Carboxylesterase

Fumonisin (FB) is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating feed and food, causing severe public health threat to human and animals worldwide. Until now, only several transaminases were found to reduce FB toxicity, thus, more fumonisin detoxification transaminases with excellent catalytic properties required urgent exploration for complex application conditions. Herein, through gene mining and enzymatic characterization, three novel fumonisin detoxification transaminases-FumTSTA, FumUPTA, FumPHTA-were identified, sharing only 61-74% sequence identity with reported fumonisin detoxification transaminases. Moreover, the recombinant proteins shared diverse pH reaction ranges, good pH stability and thermostability, and the recombinant protein yields were also improved by condition optimum. Furthermore, the final products were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. This study provides ideal candidates for fumonisin detoxification and meets diverse required demands in food and feed industries.

Microbial Enzymes Involved in the Biotransformation of Major Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins, the most researched biological toxins, can contaminate food and feed, resulting in severe health implications for humans and animals. Physical, chemical, and biological techniques are used to mitigate mycotoxin contamination. The biotransformation method using whole microbial cells or isolated enzymes is the best choice to mitigate mycotoxins. Using specific enzymes may avoid the disadvantages of utilizing a full microbe, such as accidental harm to the product's organoleptic characteristics and hazardous safety features. Moreover, the degradation rates of the isolated enzymes are higher than those of the whole-cell reactions, and they are substrate-specific. Their specificity is comprehensive and is shown at the positional and/or chiral center in many circumstances. Currently, only a few enzymes of microbial origin are commercially available. Therefore, there is a need to identify more novel enzymes of microbial origin that can mitigate mycotoxins. In this review, we conducted an in-depth summary of the microbial enzymes involved in the biotransformation of mycotoxins.

Isolation and Characterization of Two New Deoxynivalenol-Degrading Strains, Bacillus sp. HN117 and Bacillus sp. N22

Deoxynivalenol (DON), produced by Fusarium species, is one of the most common trichothecenes detected in cereals pre- and post-harvest, which poses a great threat to the health of livestock and human beings due to its strong toxicity. In this study, we isolated and characterized two DON-degrading bacterial strains, Bacillus sp. HN117 and Bacillus sp. N22. Both strains could degrade DON efficiently in a wide range of temperatures (from 25 °C to 42 °C) and concentrations (from 10 mg/L to 500 mg/L). After optimization of the degradation conditions, 29.0% DON was eliminated by HN117 in 72 h when it was incubated with 1000 mg/L DON; meanwhile, the DON degradation rate of N22 was boosted notably from 7.41% to 21.21% within 120 h at 500 mg/L DON. Degradation products analysis indicated HN117 was able to transform DON into a new isomer M-DOM, the possible structure of which was deduced based on LC-MS and NMR analysis, and N22 could convert DON into potential low-toxic derivatives norDON E and 9-hydroxymethyl DON lactone. These two strains have the potential to be developed as new biodegrading agents to control DON contamination in food and feed industries.

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Deoxynivalenol and Its Acetylated Derivatives from Grains and Grain Products in Zhejiang Province, China (2017–2020)

Deoxynivalenol (DON) together with its acetylated derivatives cause detrimental effects on human health, and the purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of DON and its acetylated derivatives from grains and grain products in Zhejiang province, China, and to assess the risk of DON and its acetylated derivatives due to multiple consumptions of grains and grain products among the Zhejiang population. Food samples numbering 713 were collected, and the LC-MS/MS method was used to determine the toxins. The levels of toxins from grains and grain products were relatively low: DON was the toxin at the highest levels. The food frequency questionnaire was used to collect food consumption data. The result of exposure assessments showed that the population was overall at low levels of toxin exposure. The probable mean group daily intake of toxins was 0.21 μg/kg bw/day, which was far from the group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 1 μg/kg bw/day, but 0.71% of participants were at high exposure levels. Rice and dried noodles (wheat-based food) were the main sources of toxin exposure, and reducing the consumption of rice and dried noodles while consuming more of other foods with lower levels of toxins is recommended.

Mycotoxins in Cattle Feed and Feed Ingredients in Brazil: A Five-Year Survey

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungi, which when ingested can cause several deleterious effects to the health of humans and animals. In this work, the detection and quantification of six major mycotoxins (aflatoxins-AFLA, deoxynivalenol-DON, fumonisins-FUMO, ochratoxin A-OTA, T-2 toxin-T-2 and zearalenone-ZON) in 1749 samples of feed and feed ingredients for cattle, collected in Brazil between 2017 and 2021, was carried out using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In total, 97% of samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin, yet, very few samples exceeded the lowest European Union guidance values for cattle, and the estimated daily intake also showed a low risk for the animals. However, co-occurrences were widely observed, as 87% of samples contained two or more mycotoxins at the same time, and the presence of more than one mycotoxin at the same time in feed can lead to interactions. In conclusion, the contamination of feed and feed ingredients for cattle with mycotoxins in Brazil is very common. Hence, the monitoring of these mycotoxins is of significant importance for food safety.

The unsung roles of microbial secondary metabolite effectors in the plant disease cacophony

Plants counter disease with an array of responses to styme pathogen ingress. In contrast to this cacophony, plant pathogens orchestrate a finely tuned repertoire of virulence mechanisms in their attempt to cause disease. One such example is the production of secondary metabolite effectors (SMEs). Despite many attempts to functionally categorize SMEs, their many roles in plant disease have proven they march to the beat of their producer's drum. Some lesser studied features of SMEs in plant disease include self-resistance (SR) and manipulation of the microbiome to enhance pathogen virulence. SR can be accomplished in three general compositions, with the first being the transport of the SME to a benign location; the second being modification of the SME so it cannot harm the producer; and the third being metabolic regulation of the SME or the producer homolog of the SME target. SMEs may also play an interlude prior to disease by shaping the plant microbial community, allowing producers to better establish themselves. Taken together, SMEs are integral players in the phytopathology canon.

Roles of stress response-related signaling and its contribution to the toxicity of zearalenone in mammals

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin frequently found in cereal crops and cereal-derived foodstuffs worldwide. It affects plant productivity, and is also a serious hazard to humans and animals if being exposed to food/feed contaminated by ZEA. Studies over the last decade have shown that the toxicity of ZEA in animals is mainly mediated by the various stress responses, such as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, oxidative stress, and others. Accumulating evidence shows that oxidative stress and ER stress signaling are actively implicated in and contributes to the pathophysiology of various diseases. Biochemically, the deleterious effects of ZEA are associated with apoptosis, DNA damage, and lipid peroxidation by regulating the expression of genes implicated in these biological processes. Despite these findings, the underlying mechanisms responsible for these alterations remain unclear. This review summarized the characteristics, metabolism, toxicity and the deleterious effects of ZEA exposure in various tissues of animals. Stress response signaling implicated in the toxicity as well as potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of ZEA in animals were highlighted and discussed.

Native Endophytes of Tripterygium wilfordii-Mediated Biotransformation Reduces Toxicity of Celastrol

Celastrol (1), obtained from the roots of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F., is most likely to become an antitumor drug, but with severe cytotoxicity. Due to the lack of modifiable sites in the structure of celastrol, the structural diversity of the modified products obtained by synthesis in the previous studies is insufficient, which hinders the pace of its patent medicine. This study describes a method of microbial transformation to increase the modification site of celastrol and reduce its toxicity. The screening of endophytes from native plants was introduced in this context, which led to two novel stereoselective oxidation products such as S-16-hydroxyl celastrol (2) and A-ring aromatized S-16-hydroxyl celastrol (3), along with a rare 7,9-octadecadienoic acid ester of celastrol (4). Their structures were determined by extensive spectroscopic data analysis, especially 1D and 2D NMR. Compared with 1, compounds 3 and 4 exhibited similar antitumor activity in U251, A549, KG-1, and B16 cell lines. Compound 2 had slightly decreased antitumor activity when compared with compound 1. Furthermore, compound 2–4 showed lower cytotoxicity against BV-2 (about 21-fold lower, 2: 92.82 μM, 3: 34.25 μM, and 4: 74.75 μM vs. celastrol: 4.35 μM), and also identical trends against H9c2 and PC12 cell lines.

Carry-Over of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites to Intestinal Tissues and the Expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the Colon of Gilts before Puberty

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether low doses of zearalenone (ZEN) affect the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to intestinal tissues and the expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the large intestine. Prepubertal gilts (with a BW of up to 14.5 kg) were exposed in group ZEN to daily ZEN5 doses of 5 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN10, 10 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN15, 15 μg/kg BW (n = 15); or were administered a placebo (group C, n = 15) throughout the experiment. After euthanasia, tissues were sampled on exposure days 7, 21, and 42 (D1, D2, and D3, respectively). The results confirmed that the administered ZEN doses (LOAEL, NOAEL, and MABEL) were appropriate to reliably assess the carry-over of ZEN. Based on the observations made during 42 days of exposure to pure ZEN, it can be hypothesized that all mycotoxins (ZEN, α-zearalenol, and β-zearalenol) contribute to a balance between intestinal cells and the expression of selected genes encoding enzymes that participate in biotransformation processes in the large intestine; modulate feminization processes in prepubertal gilts; and elicit flexible, adaptive responses of the macroorganism to mycotoxin exposure at the analyzed doses.

More than a Virulence Factor: Patulin Is a Non-Host-Specific Toxin that Inhibits Postharvest Phytopathogens and Requires Efflux for Penicillium Tolerance

Mycotoxin contamination is a leading cause of food spoilage and waste on a global scale. Patulin, a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium spp. during postharvest pome fruit decay, causes acute and chronic effects in humans, withstands pasteurization, and is not eliminated by fermentation. While much is known about the impact of patulin on human health, there are significant knowledge gaps concerning the effect of patulin during postharvest fruit-pathogen interactions. Application of patulin on six apple cultivars reproduced some blue mold symptoms that were cultivar-independent and dose-dependent. Identical symptoms were also observed in pear and mandarin orange. Six Penicillium isolates exposed to exogenous patulin exhibited delayed germination after 24 h, yet all produced viable colonies in 7 days. However, four common postharvest phytopathogenic fungi were completely inhibited by patulin during conidial germination and growth, suggesting the toxin is important for Penicillium to dominate the postharvest niche. Using clorgyline, a broad-spectrum efflux pump inhibitor, we demonstrated that efflux plays a role in Penicillium auto-resistance to patulin during conidial germination. The work presented here contributes new knowledge of patulin auto-resistance, its mode of action, and inhibitory role in fungal-fungal interactions. Our findings provide a solid foundation to develop toxin and decay mitigation approaches.

Detoxification approaches of mycotoxins: by microorganisms, biofilms and enzymes

Mycotoxins are generally found in food, feed, dairy products, and beverages, subsequently presenting serious human and animal health problems. Not surprisingly, mycotoxin contamination has been a worldwide concern for many research studies. In this regard, many biological, chemical, and physical approaches were investigated to reduce and/or remove contamination from food and feed products. Biological detoxification processes seem to be the most promising approaches for mycotoxins removal from food. The current review details the newest progress in biological detoxification (adsorption and metabolization) through microorganisms, their biofilms, and enzymatic degradation, finally describing the detoxification mechanism of many mycotoxins by some microorganisms. This review also reports the possible usage of microorganisms as mycotoxins’ binders in various food commodities, which may help produce mycotoxins-free food and feed.

Study on the mechanism of inhibiting patulin production by fengycin

Penicillium expansum is the main cause of apple rot. Besides, it can also produce mycotoxin patulin (PAT). Therefore, the search for substances that can inhibit the activity and toxigenicity of P. expansum has become a hot research topic. This study investigates the inhibitory effects of fengycin on patulin production in P. expansum. P. expansum was cultured under different environments with different concentrations of fengycin. The patulin content produced per unit weight of P. expansum mycelium was detected and determined by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Synergy brands (SYBR) GreenI Real-time PCR was used to detect the expression levels of 6-methylsalicylic acid synthase (6-MSAS) and isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (IDH), which were the key genes of producing patulin of P. expansum mycelium, in the conditions treated by fengycin and untreated. After fengycin treatments, not only the patulin content in every unit weight of P. expansum mycelium but also the expression level of 6-MSAS decreased significantly. The expression level of 6-MSAS of treatment was 0.11 folds of control. However, the expression level of IDH treated by fengycin decreased slightly. Fengycin could inhibit the P. expansum from producing patulin by downregulating the expression of key synthetic genes 6-MSAS.

Machine learning-aided design of composite mycotoxin detoxifier material for animal feed

The development of food and feed additives involves the design of materials with specific properties that enable the desired function while minimizing the adverse effects related with their interference with the concurrent complex biochemistry of the living organisms. Often, the development process is heavily dependent on costly and time-consuming in vitro and in vivo experiments. Herein, we present an approach to design clay-based composite materials for mycotoxin removal from animal feed. The approach can accommodate various material compositions and different toxin molecules. With application of machine learning trained on in vitro results of mycotoxin adsorption–desorption in the gastrointestinal tract, we have searched the space of possible composite material compositions to identify formulations with high removal capacity and gaining insights into their mode of action. An in vivo toxicokinetic study, based on the detection of biomarkers for mycotoxin-exposure in broilers, validated our findings by observing a significant reduction in systemic exposure to the challenging to be removed mycotoxin, i.e., deoxynivalenol (DON), when the optimal detoxifier is administrated to the animals. A mean reduction of 32% in the area under the plasma concentration–time curve of DON-sulphate was seen in the DON + detoxifier group compared to the DON group (P = 0.010).

Practical Application of Urinary Zearalenone Monitoring System for Feed Hygiene Management of a Japanese Black Cattle Breeding Herd—The Relationship between Monthly Anti-Müllerian Hormone and Serum Amyloid A Concentrations

This study addresses an advantageous application of a urinary zearalenone (ZEN) monitoring system not only for surveillance of ZEN exposure at the production site of breeding cows but also for follow-up monitoring after improvement of feeds provided to the herd. As biomarkers of effect, serum levels of the anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations were used. Based on the results of urinary ZEN measurement, two cows from one herd had urinary ZEN concentrations which were two orders of magnitude higher (ZEN: 1.34 mg/kg, sterigmatocystin (STC): 0.08 mg/kg in roughages) than the levels of all cows from three other herds (ZEN: not detected, STC: not detected in roughages). For the follow-up monitoring of the herd with positive ZEN and STC exposure, urine, blood, and roughage samples were collected from five cows monthly for one year. A monitoring series in the breeding cattle herd indicated that feed concentrations were not necessarily reflected in urinary concentrations; urinary monitoring assay by ELISA may be a simple and accurate method that reflects the exposure/absorption of ZEN. Additionally, although the ZEN exposure level appeared not to be critical compared with the Japanese ZEN limitation in dietary feeds, a negative regression trend between the ZEN and AMH concentrations was observed, indicating that only at extremely universal mycotoxin exposure levels, ZEN exposure may affect the number of antral follicles in cattle. A negative regression trend between the ZEN and SAA concentrations could also be demonstrated, possibly indicating the innate immune suppression caused by low-level chronic ZEN exposure. Finally, significant differences (p = 0.0487) in calving intervals between pre-ZEN monitoring (mean ± SEM: 439.0 ± 41.2) and post-ZEN monitoring (349.9 ± 6.9) periods were observed in the monitored five cows. These preliminary results indicate that the urinary ZEN monitoring system may be a useful practical tool not only for detecting contaminated herds under field conditions but also provides an initial look at the effects of long-term chronic ZEN/STC (or other co-existing mycotoxins) exposure on herd productivity and fertility.

Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins: Current Status and Future Advances

Mycotoxins are highly toxic metabolites produced by fungi that pose a huge threat to human and animal health. Contamination of food and feed with mycotoxins is a worldwide issue, which leads to huge financial losses, annually. Decades of research have developed various approaches to degrade mycotoxins, among which the biological methods have been proved to have great potential and advantages. This review provides an overview on the important advances in the biological removal of mycotoxins over the last decade. Here, we provided further insight into the chemical structures and the toxicity of the main mycotoxins. The innovative strategies including mycotoxin degradation by novel probiotics are summarized in an in-depth discussion on potentialities and limitations. We prospected the promising future for the development of multifunctional approaches using recombinant enzymes and microbial consortia for the simultaneous removal of multiple mycotoxins.

Distribution, toxicity, interactive effects, and detection of ochratoxin and deoxynivalenol in food: A review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that cause severe damage to agricultural products and food in the food supply chain. These detrimental pollutants have been directly linked with poor socioeconomic patterns and human health issues. Among the natural micropollutants, ochratoxin A (OTA) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are widely distributed in food materials. The primary occurrence of these mycotoxins is reported in almost all cereal grains and fresh agro-products. Both mycotoxins have shown harmful effects, such as nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and genotoxic effects, in humans due to their complex structural formation during the degradation/acetylation reaction. In addition, improper preharvest, harvest, and postharvest handling tend to lead to the formation of OTA and DON in various food commodities, which allows different harmful fungicides in practice. Therefore, this review provides more insight into the distribution and toxicity of OTA/DON in the food matrix and human health. Furthermore, the interactive effects of OTA/DON with co-contaminated organic and inorganic compounds are discussed. Finally, international regulation and mitigation strategies for detoxication are critically evaluated to meet food safety and good agriculture practices.

Multi-mycotoxin occurrence in feed, metabolism and carry-over to animal-derived food products: A review

The world requests for raw materials used in animal feed has been steadily rising in the last years driven by higher demands for livestock production. Mycotoxins are frequent toxic metabolites present in these raw materials. The exposure of farm animals to mycotoxins could result in undesirable residues in animal-derived food products. Thus, the potential ingestion of edible animal products (milk, meat and fish) contaminated with mycotoxins constitutes a public health concern, since they enter the food chain and may cause adverse effects upon human health. The present review summarizes the state-of-the-art on the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed, their metabolism and carry-over into animal source foodstuffs, focusing particularly on the last decade. Maximum levels (MLs) for various mycotoxins have been established for a number of raw feed materials and animal food products. Such values are sometimes exceeded, however. Aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCs) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed, with aflatoxin M₁ (AFM1) predominating in milk and dairy products, and OTA in meat by-products. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed raw materials tends to be the rule rather than the exception, and the carry-over of mycotoxins from feed to animal source foods is more than proven.

Efficient Degradation of Aflatoxin B1 and Zearalenone by Laccase-like Multicopper Oxidase from Streptomyces thermocarboxydus in the Presence of Mediators

Multicopper oxidases (MCOs) are a diverse group of enzymes that could catalyze the oxidation of different xenobiotic compounds, with simultaneous reduction in oxygen to water. Aside from laccase, one member of the MCO superfamily has shown great potential in the biodegradation of mycotoxins; however, the mycotoxin degradation ability of other MCOs is uncertain. In this study, a novel MCO-encoding gene, StMCO, from Streptomyces thermocarboxydus, was identified, cloned, and heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. The purified recombinant StMCO exhibited the characteristic blue color and bivalent copper ion-dependent enzyme activity. It was capable of oxidizing the model substrate ABTS, phenolic compound DMP, and azo dye RB5. Notably, StMCO could directly degrade aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and zearalenone (ZEN) in the absence of mediators. Meanwhile, the presence of various lignin unit-derived natural mediators or ABTS could significantly accelerate the degradation of AFB1 and ZEN by StMCO. Furthermore, the biological toxicities of their corresponding degradation products, AFQ1 and 13-OH-ZEN-quinone, were remarkably decreased. Our findings suggested that efficient degradation of mycotoxins with mediators might be a common feature of the MCOs superfamily. In summary, the unique properties of MCOs make them good candidates for degrading multiple major mycotoxins in contaminated feed and food.

Determination of zearalenone in raw milk from different provinces of Ecuador

Background and Aim:

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin from the fungus Fusarium. ZEA can adopt a similar configuration to 17b-estradiol and other natural estrogens. Problems in the reproductive function of humans and animals have been reported for ZEA and its metabolites. This study aimed to determine ZEA in raw milk produced in representative milk production areas in Ecuador.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 209 samples were obtained in April and November 2019 (rainy season) and June and August 201ue wa9 (dry season). A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniqs used to detect ZEA concentrations.

Results:

ZEA was determined in 99.5% (208 of 209) of the samples; however, all samples were below the maximum limits allowed (0.03-1 mg/L) in food for direct human consumption according to the Food and Agriculture Organization and European legislations. The mean (range) concentration was 0.0015 (0-0.0102) mg/L. The results did not vary significantly (p≥0.05) by cantons, provinces, weather, climate regions, types of producers, and production systems according to Wilcoxon and Kruskal–Wallis non-parametric tests. There were significant differences only between the months under study (p≤0.05).

Conclusion:

ZEA in raw milk from Ecuador does not represent a threat to public health. However, it is recommended to continue analyzing ZEA due to its presence in milk. It could also be present with other mycotoxins that cause harmful synergistic and additive effects to consumers.

Baicalin protects against zearalenone-induced chicks liver and kidney injury by inhibiting expression of oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines and caspase signaling pathway

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi such as Fusarium and Fusarium flavum, which is classified as a mycotoxin. Crops and feed in a humid surrounding are widely polluted by ZEA, which further endangering the healthful aquaculture of poultry and even human health. Up to now, prevention and cure of mycotoxicosis is still a crucial subject of poultry husbandry. Baicalin (BAI) is a flavonoid refined from dried roots of Scutellaria baicalensis possessing the function of hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-atherosclerotic efficacies.etc. But whether Baicalin also has a protective effect against ZEA intoxication is unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish a model of ZEA-induced toxic injury in chicks, and then to investigate the way in which Baicalin plays a protective role in the mechanism of ZEA-induced liver and kidney injury in chicks. The results exhibit that Baicalin could not only significantly decrease aspartate aminotransferase (AST) , alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and creatinine (Cre) levels in serum, but also ameliorate ZEA-induced pathologic changes of liver and kidney. Baicalin could also significantly regulate ZEA-induced the changes of catalase (CAT) , malondialdehyde (MDA) , total sulfhydryl group , except for glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px) , and inhibit the mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) , interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) with caspase-3 and caspase-11 in the caspase signaling pathway , meanwhile inhibit the cell apoptosis in immunohistochemistry. In summary, we successfully established a model of ZEA-induced liver injury in chicks, and confirm that Baicalin can reduce ZEA-induced liver and kidney injury in chicks. The mechanism of these effects is via inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis, which also indicates the potential applicability of Baicalin for the prevention and treatment of ZEA-induced toxicity in chicks.

Differential Effects of Green Tea Powders on the Protection of Brown Tsaiya and Kaiya Ducklings against Trichothecene T-2 Toxin Toxicity

Simple Summary

The objective of this study is to examine the effects of T-2 toxin (T-2) and green tea powders (GTP) on growth performance, hematology, and pathology parameters in Brown Tsaiya ducklings (BTDs) and Kaiya ducklings (KDs). T-2 toxin shows a strong and differential toxicity in growth suppression, as well as abnormalities in the hematological and pathological parameters of BTDs and KDs. We found that GTP could potentially prevent T-2-induced poor growth performance and improve some hematological parameters. Moreover, BTDs were more sensitive than KDs in terms of responses to T-2 toxicity and GTP detoxification.

Abstract

A 3-week feeding trial in a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial design was conducted with three concentrations (0, 0.5, and 5 mg/kg) of T-2 toxin (T-2) and two levels (0% and 0.5%) of green tea powder (GTP) supplements used in the diets of female brown Tsaiya ducklings (BTDs) and Kaiya ducklings (KDs), respectively. Breed had a significant effect on the growth performances and the relative weights of organs and carcass. In general, the growth performances of KDs were better than BTDs. The relative weights of organs and carcass of BTDs were typically heavier than those of KDs; however, the breast of KDs was heavier than those of BTDs. Both ducklings received 5 mg/kg of T-2 blended in the diet showed lower feed intake and body weight gain (BWG) in the second and the third week. The diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 and 0.5% GTP improved the BWG compared to those fed the diet supplemented with 5 mg/kg of T-2 without GTP in BTDs. Ducklings fed the diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 induced hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia, as well as decreased concentrations of creatine phosphokinase and alkaline phosphatase. The concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) were increased in KDs and BTDs fed the diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 without GTP, respectively. However, duckling diets containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 with 0.5% GTP lowered concentrations of BUN and GOT in the blood plasma of KDs and BTDs, respectively. The diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 increased the relative kidney weight but decreased the relative breast weight of ducklings. Enlarged gizzards and reduced relative leg weights were observed in BTDs fed the diets containing 5 mg/kg of T-2. In summary, BTDs are more sensitive than KDs in responding to T-2 toxicity and GTP detoxification. Green tea powder has detoxification ability and could potentially mitigate T-2 toxicity on BWG, BUN, and GOT in ducklings.

Changes of DNA Damage Effect of T-2 or Deoxynivalenol Toxins during Three Weeks Exposure in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Revealed by LORD-Q PCR

The present study aimed to adapt a Long-run Real-time DNA Damage Quantification (LORD-Q) qPCR-based method for the analysis of the mitochondrial genome of Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) and detect the DNA damaging effect of T-2 (4.11 mg kg⁻¹) and deoxynivalenol (5.96 mg kg⁻¹) mycotoxins in a 3-week feeding period. One-year-old Common carp were treated in groups (control, T-2 and DON). The mycotoxins were sprayed over the complete pelleted feed, and samples were taken weekly. Following the adaptation of LORD-Q PCR method for the Common carp species, the number of lesions were calculated to determine the amount of DNA damage. In the first and second weeks, the T-2 and the DON treated groups differed significantly from each other; however these differences disappeared in the third week. There was a significant difference in the DNA lesion values between weeks 1 and 3 in the deoxynivalenol-contaminated groups. While in the T-2 treated groups, the DNA lesion values were significantly reduced on weeks 2 and 3 compared to week 1. The results suggested that the trichothecene mycotoxins have a relevant DNA damaging effect.

Enzymatic Degradation of Multiple Major Mycotoxins by Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidase from Bacillus subtilis

The co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON), widely exists in cereal-based animal feed and food. At present, most reported mycotoxins degrading enzymes target only a certain type of mycotoxins. Therefore, it is of great significance for mining enzymes involved in the simultaneous degradation of different types of mycotoxins. In this study, a dye-decolorizing peroxidase-encoding gene BsDyP from Bacillus subtilis SCK6 was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21/pG-Tf2. The purified recombinant BsDyP was capable of oxidizing various substrates, including lignin phenolic model compounds 2,6-dimethylphenol and guaiacol, the substrate 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), anthraquinone dye reactive blue 19 and azo dye reactive black 5, as well as Mn²⁺. In addition, BsDyP could efficiently degrade different types of mycotoxins, including AFB₁, ZEN and DON, in presence of Mn²⁺. More important, the toxicities of their corresponding enzymatic degradation products AFB₁-diol, 15-OH-ZEN and C₁₅H₁₈O₈ were significantly lower than AFB₁, ZEN and DON. In summary, these results proved that BsDyP was a promising candidate for the simultaneous degradation of multiple mycotoxins in animal feed and food.

Aflatoxins: History, Significant Milestones, Recent Data on Their Toxicity and Ways to Mitigation

In the early 1960s the discovery of aflatoxins began when a total of 100,000 turkey poults died by hitherto unknown turkey "X" disease in England. The disease was associated with Brazilian groundnut meal affected by Aspergillus flavus. The toxin was named Aspergillus flavus toxin-aflatoxin. From the point of view of agriculture, aflatoxins show the utmost importance. Until now, a total of 20 aflatoxins have been described, with B1, B2, G1, and G2 aflatoxins being the most significant. Contamination by aflatoxins is a global health problem. Aflatoxins pose acutely toxic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects. Besides food insecurity and human health, aflatoxins affect humanity at different levels, such as social, economical, and political. Great emphasis is placed on aflatoxin mitigation using biocontrol methods. Thus, this review is focused on aflatoxins in terms of historical development, the principal milestones of aflatoxin research, and recent data on their toxicity and different ways of mitigation.