Citrinin Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed: Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Detection and Management Strategies

Insight into selenium biofortification and the selenite metabolic mechanism of Monascus ruber M7

Monascus species are functional fermentation fungi with great potential for selenium (Se) supplementation. This study investigated the effects of Se bio-fortification on the growth, morphology, and biosynthesis of Monascus ruber M7. The results demonstrated a significant increase in the yield of orange and red Monascus pigments (MPs) in red yeast rice (RYR) by 38.52% and 36.57%, respectively, under 20 μg/mL of selenite pressure. Meanwhile, the production of citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin, decreased from 244.47 μg/g to 175.01 μg/g. Transcriptome analysis revealed significant upregulation of twelve genes involved in MPs biosynthesis, specifically MpigE, MpigF, and MpigN, and downregulation of four genes (mrr3, mrr4, mrr7, and mrr8) associated with CIT biosynthesis. Additionally, three genes encoding cysteine synthase cysK (Log2FC = 1.6), methionine synthase metH (Log2FC = 2.2), and methionyl-tRNA synthetase metG (Log2FC = 1.8) in selenocompound metabolism showed significantly upregulated. These findings provide insights into Se biotransformation and metabolism in filamentous fungi.

Development and validation of an analytical method for determination of citrinin in red rice and red yeast rice-based food supplements by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

Citrinin is a hepato-nephrotoxic mycotoxin produced by fungal species. The Monascus purpureus fungus plays a crucial role in the fermentation of red rice to produce red yeast rice-based food supplements, which represent the primary source of human exposure to citrinin. In this study, a simple and sensitive analytical method was successfully developed and validated for the citrinin determination in these products. The extraction process involved a QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) step and citrinin determination by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The proposed method provided satisfactory linearity, percentage of recovery from 82 to 104% with relative standard deviations (RSD) lower than 14%, and limits of detection and quantification of 0.07 μg/Kg and 0.24 μg/kg, respectively. Among the 14 samples analyzed, citrinin was found in two red rice samples (0.24 and 0.46 μg/kg) and in six food supplements (from 0.44 to 87 μg/kg).

Endoplasmic reticulum stress promotes oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis: A novel mechanism of citrinin-induced renal injury and dysfunction

Citrinin (CTN) has been reported to induce renal failure and structural damage, but its nephrotoxic effects and mechanisms are not fully understood. Therefore, we established a model by orally administering CTN (0, 1.25, 5, or 20 mg/kg) to mice for 21 consecutive days. Histological and biochemical analyses revealed that CTN caused structural damage to renal tubules, increased inflammatory cell infiltration, and elevated levels of serum markers of renal function (creatinine, urea, and uric acid). Moreover, mRNA transcript levels of the inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were increased, indicating the occurrence of an inflammatory response. Furthermore, exposure to CTN induced renal oxidative stress by decreasing antioxidant GSH levels, antioxidant enzyme (SOD, CAT) activities, and increasing oxidative products (ROS, MDA). In addition, CTN increased the expression of proteins associated with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)stress and apoptotic pathways. ER stress has been shown to be involved in regulating various models of kidney disease, but its role in CTN-induced renal injury has not been reported. We found that pretreatment with the ER stress inhibitor 4-PBA (240 mg/kg, ip) alleviated CTN-induced oxidative stress, NF-κB pathway mediated inflammatory response, and apoptosis. Interestingly, 4-PBA also partially alleviated renal structural damage and dysfunction. Thus, ER stress may be a novel target for the prevention and treatment of CTN-induced renal injury.

Apoptosis mediated by crosstalk between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum: A possible cause of citrinin disruption of the intestinal barrier

Citrinin (CTN) is a mycotoxin commonly found in contaminated foods and feed, posing health risks to both humans and animals. However, the mechanism by which CTN damages the intestine remains unclear. In this study, a model of intestinal injury was induced by administering 1.25 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg of CTN via gavage for 28 consecutive days in 6-week-old Kunming mice, aiming to explore the potential mechanisms underlying intestinal injury. The results demonstrate that CTN can cause structural damage to the mouse jejunum. Additionally, CTN reduces the protein expression of Claudin-1, Occludin, ZO-1, and MUC2, thereby disrupting the physical and chemical barriers of the intestine. Furthermore, exposure to CTN alters the structure of the intestinal microbiota in mice, thus compromising the intestinal microbial barrier. Meanwhile, the results showed that CTN exposure could induce excessive apoptosis in intestinal cells by altering the expression of proteins such as CHOP and GRP78 in the endoplasmic reticulum and Bax and Cyt c in mitochondria. The mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum are connected through the mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membrane (MAM), which regulates the membrane. We found that the expression of bridging proteins Fis1 and BAP31 on the membrane was increased after CTN treatment, which would exacerbate the endoplasmic reticulum dysfunction, and could activate proteins such as Caspase-8 and Bid, thus further inducing apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway. Taken together, these results suggest that CTN exposure can cause intestinal damage by disrupting the intestinal barrier and inducing excessive apoptosis in intestinal cells.

Citrinin disrupts microtubule assembly in cardiac cells: Impact on mitochondrial organization and function

Citrinin (CTN) is a mycotoxin commonly present in various foods and feeds worldwide, as well as dietary supplements in Asian countries, but the risks and cellular mechanisms associated with its cardiotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, RNA-seq analysis of CTN-treated H9c2 cardiac cells demonstrated significant perturbations in pathways related to microtubule cytoskeleton and mitochondrial network organization. CTN disrupted microtubule polymerization and downregulated mRNA levels of microtubule-assembling genes, Map2 and Tpx2, in H9c2 cardiac cells. Additionally, CTN interfered with the distribution of mitochondrial network along the microtubules, leading to the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria characterized by elevated superoxide levels and reduced membrane potential. This disruption also caused the buildup of lysosomes and ubiquitinated proteins, which hindered waste clearance in microtubule-disassembled H9c2 cells. Molecular docking analysis indicated that CTN could bind to the colchicine binding site on β-tubulin, thereby mimicking the microtubule-disrupting effect of colchicine. This study provides morphological, transcriptomic, and mechanistic evidence to elucidate the cardiotoxic mechanisms of CTN, which involve the dysregulated microtubule network, subsequent mitochondrial mislocalization, and impaired proteolysis of damaged proteins/organelles in cardiac cells. Our findings may enhance the fundamental understanding and facilitate future risk assessment of CTN.

An overview of mycotoxicoses in rabbits

Mycotoxicoses are usually a consideration in large animal species but can affect companion animals as well. Due to increasing interest and the ease of using rabbits as laboratory models, a growing number of published experimental studies discuss the effects of various mycotoxins on this species. However, the available evidence is fragmented and heterogeneous, and has not recently been collated in a review, to my knowledge. Although mycotoxicoses in rabbits are typically subclinical, clinical signs can include weight loss, anorexia, gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, reproductive abnormalities, and susceptibility to infections. An antemortem diagnosis typically relies on a comprehensive clinical history, and assessment of clinical signs and relevant laboratory findings, with confirmation of exposure achieved through the measurement of mycotoxin concentrations in feed or target organs. My review focuses on the clinicopathologic and histopathologic effects of the mycotoxins most important in rabbits, including fumonisins, ochratoxins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. This review offers a thorough overview of the effects of mycotoxins in rabbits, serving as a one-stop resource for veterinary practitioners, diagnosticians, and researchers.

Mycotoxins in food: Occurrence, health implications, and control strategies-A comprehensive review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various filamentous fungi, including Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Claviceps, Mucor, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Myrothecium, Pyrenophora, and Stachybotrys. They can contaminate various plants or animal foods, resulting in a significant loss of nutritional and commercial value. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, such as humidity, temperature, oxygen levels, fungal species, and substrate. When contaminated food is consumed by animals and humans, mycotoxins are rapidly absorbed, affecting the liver, and causing metabolic disorders. The detrimental effects on humans and animals include reduced food intake and milk production, reduced fertility, increased risk of abortion, impaired immune response, and increased occurrence of diseases. Therefore, it is imperative to implement strategies for mycotoxin control, broadly classified as preventing fungal contamination and detoxifying their toxic compounds. This review aims to discuss various aspects of mycotoxins, including their occurrence, and risk potential. Additionally, it provides an overview of mycotoxin detoxification strategies, including the use of mycotoxin absorbents, as potential techniques to eliminate or mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins and masked mycotoxins on human and animal health while preserving the nutritional and commercial value of affected food products.

Fluoride in Raw Rice (Oryza sativa): a Global Systematic Review and Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment

Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the essential staple foods highly consumed globally, with nearly 40% to 45% of the global population estimated to consume rice. Therefore, consumable rice should have low levels of harmful elements. This study investigates fluoride (F¯) content in raw rice (uncooked rice) and evaluates Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment (PHRA) through Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) due to the consumption of F¯ enriched rice. The literature review reveals that limited studies have been conducted on the investigation of F¯ in raw rice. The fluoride (F¯) concentration in raw rice varies across the studied countries, indicating the need for additional studies to facilitate a more accurate comparison. The F¯ content in raw rice varied among the studied countries, making it difficult to definitively state that the concentration of F¯ in one country is higher. However, the concentration of F¯ in raw rice in India is notably elevated. This study also highlighted the importance of investigating the F¯ content in raw rice. The study will be highly helpful for policymakers to formulate guidelines for water used for irrigation.

Degradation of citrinin by different types of light and hydrogen peroxide

Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin produced by Monascus, Penicillium, and other fungies, can contaminate red yeast rice and other foods, thus constraining their application and development. Exploring efficient degradation methods of citrinin is becoming as one of the hot research topics. In this study, the degradation of citrinin, irradiated by visible (Vis) light, ultraviolet (UV) light, and simulated sunlight alone, as well as in combination with hydrogen peroxide (light/H2O2), was investigated. The research demonstrates UV, Vis, and simulated sunlight all have a degree of degradation on citrinin, and the degradation efficiency correlates with light source and light intensity. Interestingly, when combined with 100 W Vis and 0.01 M H2O2, the citrinin degradation rate increases to 32%, compared to 1% and 5% achieved by Vis and H2O2 alone. Hydroxyl radicals, arising from the uniform cracking of H2O2 under Vis, were experimentally validated by electron spin resonance measurement and could accelerate the dissociation of citrinin by nucleophilic attacking. Employing the density functional theory, we deduced nucleophilic •OH mainly attack onto C8 and C5 site by comparing the electrophilic Parr functions (Pk+) value of main C atom of citrinin. This research presents a rapid and efficient degradation of citrinin by combining visible light with H2O2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research presents a rapid and efficient method for the degradation of citrnin in red yeast rice and other citrnin containing products by combining visible light with H2O2.

Multiple mycotoxins associated with maize (Zea mays L.) grains harvested from subsistence farmers' fields in southwestern Ethiopia

Fifty-four maize grain samples freshly harvested from subsistence farmers' fields in southwestern Ethiopia were analyzed for multiple mycotoxins using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method following extraction by acetonitrile/water/acetic acid on a rotary shaker. The grain samples were contaminated with a total of 164 metabolites, of which Fusarium and Penicillium metabolites were the most prevalent accounting for 27 and 30%, respectively. All the major mycotoxins and derivatives except one (citrinin) were of Fusarium origin. Zearalenone was the most frequent major mycotoxin occurring in 74% of the samples at concentrations of 0.32-1310 µg/kg. It was followed by nivalenol (63%), zearalenone-sulfate (44%), and fumonisin B1 (41%). Nivalenol, nivalenol glucoside, and fusarenon-X were detected at unusually high levels of 8-1700 µg/kg, 21-184 µg/kg, and 33-149 µg/kg, respectively. Deoxynivalenol and DON-3 glucoside contaminated 32% of the samples, each at levels of 15.9-5140 µg/kg and 10-583 µg/kg, respectively. Moniliformin and W493B occurred in 96 and 22% samples at levels of 3.27-4410 µg/kg and 3-652 µg/kg, respectively. Fumonisins were also detected in the samples at levels of 9-6770 µg/kg (B1), 16-1830 µg/kg (B2), 9.5-808 µg/kg (B3), and 1.3-128 µg/kg (A1). This study confirmed the presence of an array of mycotoxins contaminating maize grains right from the field. The effect of the co-occurring mycotoxins on consumers' health should be investigated along with that of the newly emerging ones. Results of the current study call for application of pre-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to safeguard maize-based food and feed.

Citrinin Provoke DNA Damage and Cell-Cycle Arrest Related to Chk2 and FANCD2 Checkpoint Proteins in Hepatocellular and Adenocarcinoma Cell Lines

Citrinin (CIT), a polyketide mycotoxin produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Monascus species, is a contaminant that has been found in various food commodities and was also detected in house dust. Several studies showed that CIT can impair the kidney, liver, heart, immune, and reproductive systems in animals by mechanisms so far not completely elucidated. In this study, we investigated the CIT mode of action on two human tumor cell lines, HepG2 (hepatocellular carcinoma) and A549 (lung adenocarcinoma). Cytotoxic concentrations were determined using an MTT proliferation assay. The genotoxic effect of sub-IC50 concentrations was investigated using the alkaline comet assay and the impact on the cell cycle using flow cytometry. Additionally, the CIT effect on the total amount and phosphorylation of two cell-cycle-checkpoint proteins, the serine/threonine kinase Chk2 and Fanconi anemia (FA) group D2 (FANCD2), was determined by the cell-based ELISA. The data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism statistical software. The CIT IC50 for HepG2 was 107.3 µM, and for A549, it was >250 µM. The results showed that sensitivity to CIT is cell-type dependent and that CIT in sub-IC50 and near IC50 induces significant DNA damage and cell-cycle arrest in the G2/M phase, which is related to the increase in total and phosphorylated Chk2 and FANCD2 checkpoint proteins in HepG2 and A549 cells.

Effect of Spirulina and Fish Processing By-Products Extracts on Citrinin-Induced Cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y Cells

Citrinin (CIT) is a mycotoxin commonly found in grains, fruits, herbs, and spices. Its toxicity primarily affects the kidney and liver. Meanwhile, food industry by-products, particularly from fishing and aquaculture, contribute significantly to environmental concerns but can also serve as valuable sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds. Additionally, microalgae like spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) offer interesting high-added-value compounds with potential biological and cytoprotective properties. This study aims to reduce CIT's toxicity on SH-SY5Y cells using natural extracts from the microalgae spirulina and fish processing by-products (sea bass head). The combination of these extracts with CIT has shown increased cell viability up to 15% for fish by-products extract and about 10% for spirulina extract compared to CIT alone. Furthermore, a notable reduction of up to 63.2% in apoptosis has been observed when fish by-products extracts were combined with CIT, counteracting the effects of CIT alone. However, the extracts' effectiveness in preventing CIT toxicity in the cell cycle remains unclear. Overall, considering these nutrient and bioactive compound sources is crucial for enhancing food safety and mitigating the harmful effects of contaminants such as mycotoxins. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to investigate their mechanisms of action and better understand their protective effects more comprehensively.

Quality Control and Safety Assessment of Online-Purchased Food Supplements Containing Red Yeast Rice (RYR)

Dietary supplements containing red yeast rice (RYR), a fermentation product of the fungus Monascus purpureus grown on white rice, remain popular in Europe as proclaimed cholesterol-lowering aids. The cholesterol-lowering effects are due to the occurrence of monacolin K, which is often present as a mixture of monacolin K lactone (MK) and as monacolin K hydroxy acid (MKA). MK is structurally similar to the cholesterol-lowering medicine lovastatin. Recently, due to safety concerns linked to the use of statins, the European Commission prohibited RYR supplements with a maximum serving exceeding 3 mg of total monacolins per day. Moreover, the amount of the mycotoxin citrinin, potentially produced by M. purpureus, was also reduced to 100 µg/kg. Evidently, manufacturers that offer their products on the European market, including the online market, must also be compliant with these limits in order to guarantee the safety of their products. Therefore, thirty-five different RYR supplements, purchased from an EU-bound e-commerce platform or from registered online pharmacies, were screened for their compliance to the European legislation for citrinin content and the amount of total monacolin K. This was conducted by means of a newly developed LC-MS/MS methodology that was validated according to ISO 17025. Moreover, these supplements were also screened for possible adulteration and any contamination by micro-organisms and/or mycotoxins. It was found that at least four of the thirty-five RYR supplements (≈11%) might have reason for concern for the safety of the consumer either due to high total monacolin K concentrations exceeding the European predefined limits for total monacolins or severe bacterial contamination. Moreover, three samples (≈9%) were likely adulterated, and the labeling of six of the seventeen samples (≈35%) originating from an EU-based e-commerce platform was not compliant, as either the mandatory warning was missing or incomplete or the total amount of monacolins was not mentioned.

Climate Change and Mycotoxins Trends in Serbia and Croatia: A 15-Year Review

This review examines the 15-year presence of mycotoxins in food from Serbia and Croatia to provide a comprehensive overview of trends. Encompassing the timeframe from 2009 to 2023, this study integrates data from both countries and investigates climate change patterns. The results from Serbia focus primarily on maize and milk and show a strong dependence of contamination on weather conditions. However, there is limited data on mycotoxins in cereals other than maize, as well as in other food categories. Conversely, Croatia has a broader spectrum of studies, with significant attention given to milk and maize, along with more research on other cereals, meat, and meat products compared to Serbia. Over the investigated 15-year period, both Serbia and Croatia have experienced notable shifts in climate, including fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, and humidity levels. These changes have significantly influenced agriculture, consequently affecting the occurrence of mycotoxins in various food products. The results summarized in this 15-year review indicate the urgent need for further research and action to address mycotoxins contamination in Serbian and Croatian food supply chains. This urgency is further emphasized by the changing climatic conditions and their potential to exacerbate public health and food safety risks associated with mycotoxins.

A nivalenol imprinted quartz crystal microbalance sensor based on sulphur-incorporating cobalt ferrite and its application to rice samples

Nivalenol as a mycotoxin pesticide is toxic to humans and animals and causes major health problems including hemorrhage, anemia, and vomiting. Thus, the need for fast and reliable analytical systems in terms of the management of health risks resulting from nivalenol exposure has increased in recent years. The aim of this study involved a novel molecularly imprinted quartz crystal microbalance sensor preparation based on sulphur-incorporating cobalt ferrite for nivalenol detection in rice samples. For this aim, cobalt ferrite and sulfur incorporated cobalt ferrite were successfully synthesized by sol-gel and calcination methods, respectively. Then, nivalenol imprinted quartz crystal microbalance chips based on cobalt ferrite and sulfur incorporated cobalt ferrite were prepared by an ultraviolet polymerization technique including N,N'-azobisisobutyronitrile as the initiator, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as the cross-linker, methacryloylamidoglutamic acid as the monomer, and nivalenol as the analyte. After some spectroscopic, electrochemical and microscopic characterization studies, the developed sensor was applied to rice grain samples for the determination of nivalenol. The linearity of the prepared sensor was observed to be 1.0-10.0 ng L-1 and the limit of quantification and detection limit were found to be 1.0 and 0.33 ng L-1, respectively. Finally, the high selectivity, repeatability, and stability of the prepared sensor based on sulphur-incorporating cobalt ferrite and a molecularly imprinted polymer can ensure safe food consumption worldwide.

Exendin-4: A potential therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease

Neurodegenerative disorders, which affect millions worldwide, are marked by a steady decline of neurons that are selectively susceptible. Due to the complex pathological processes underlying neurodegeneration, at present, there is no viable therapy available for neurodegenerative disorders. Consequently, the establishment of a novel therapeutic approach for such conditions is a clinical void that remains. The potential significance of various peptides as neuroprotective interventions for neurodegenerative disorders is gaining increasing attention. In the past few years, there has been growing scientific interest in glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists due to their claimed neuroprotective effects. Exendin-4 is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist that is known to possess anti-diabetic effects and does not degrade for hours, making it a superior candidate for such disorders. Moreover, exendin-4's neuroprotective effects have been reported in several preclinical studies. Exendin-4's diverse therapeutic targets suggest its potential therapeutic uses in neurodegenerative ailments like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease and have garnered an increasing amount of attention. Given the substantial body of evidence supporting the neuroprotective potential of exendin-4 in various research models, this article is dedicated to exploring the promising role of exendin-4 as a therapeutic agent for the treatment and management of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. This review draws insights from the findings of numerous preclinical and clinical studies to highlight the collective neuroprotective advantages of exendin-4 and the potential mechanisms that underlie its neuroprotective effects.

Metabolic Regulation of Two pksCT Gene Transcripts in Monascus ruber Impacts Citrinin Biosynthesis

Citrinin (CIT), a secondary metabolite produced by the filamentous fungi Monascus species, exhibits nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic effects in mammals, remarkably restricting the utilization of Monascus-derived products. CIT synthesis is mediated through the pksCT gene and modified by multiple genetic factors. Here, the regulatory effects of two pksCT transcripts, pksCTα, and pksCTβ, generated via pre-mRNA alternative splicing (AS), were investigated using hairpin RNA (ihpRNA) interference, and their impact on CIT biosynthesis and the underlying mechanisms were assessed through chemical biology and transcriptome analyses. The CIT yield in ihpRNA-pksCTα and ihpRNA-pksCT (α + β) transformants decreased from 7.2 μg/mL in the wild-type strain to 3.8 μg/mL and 0.08 μg/mL, respectively. Notably, several genes in the CIT biosynthetic gene cluster, specifically mrl3, mrl5, mrr1, and mrr5 in the ihpRNA-pksCT (α + β) transformant, were downregulated. Transcriptome results revealed that silencing pksCT has a great impact on carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, and AS events. The key enzymes in the citrate cycle (TCA cycle) and glycolysis were significantly inhibited in the transformants, leading to a decrease in the production of biosynthetic precursors, such as acetyl-coenzyme-A (acetyl-coA) and malonyl-coenzyme-A (malonyl-coA). Furthermore, the reduction of CIT has a regulatory effect on lipid metabolism via redirecting acetyl-coA from CIT biosynthesis towards lipid biosynthesis. These findings offer insights into the mechanisms underlying CIT biosynthesis and AS in Monascus, thus providing a foundation for future research.

Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.

Multiplex metabolic pathway engineering of Monascus pilosus enhances lovastatin production

Monascus sp. is an important food microbial resource with the production of cholesterol-lowering agent lovastatin and other healthy metabolites. However, the mycotoxin citrinin naturally produced by Monascus sp. and the insufficient productivity of lovastatin limit its large-scale use in food industry. The aim of this paper is to modify a lovastatin-producing strain Monascus pilosus GN-01 through metabolic engineering to obtain a citrinin-free M. pilosus strain with higher yield of lovastatin. The citrinin synthesis regulator gene ctnR was firstly disrupted to obtain GN-02 without citrinin production. Based on that, the lovastatin biosynthesis genes (mokC, mokD, mokE, mokF, mokH, mokI, and LaeA) were, respectively, overexpressed, and pigment-regulatory gene (pigR) was knocked out to improve lovastatin production. The results indicated ctnR inactivation effectively disrupted the citrinin release by M. pilosus GN-01. The overexpression of lovastatin biosynthesis genes and pigR knockout could lead higher contents of lovastatin, of which pigR knockout strain achieved 76.60% increase in the yield of lovastatin compared to GN-02. These studies suggest that such multiplex metabolic pathway engineering in M. pilosus GN-01 is promising for high lovastatin production by a safe strain for application in Monascus-related food. KEY POINTS: • Disruption of the regulator gene ctnR inhibited citrinin production of M. pilosus. • Synchronous overexpression of biosynthesis gene enhanced lovastatin production. • pigR knockout enhanced lovastatin of ΔctnR strain of M. pilosus.

Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research

Medicinal and recreational uses of Cannabis sativa, commonly known as cannabis or hemp, has increased following its legalization in certain regions of the world. Cannabis and hemp plants interact with a community of microbes (i.e., the phytobiome), which can influence various aspects of the host plant. The fungal composition of the C. sativa phytobiome (i.e., mycobiome) currently consists of over 100 species of fungi, which includes phytopathogens, epiphytes, and endophytes, This mycobiome has often been understudied in research aimed at evaluating the safety of cannabis products for humans. Medical research has historically focused instead on substance use and medicinal uses of the plant. Because several components of the mycobiome are reported to produce toxic secondary metabolites (i.e., mycotoxins) that can potentially affect the health of humans and animals and initiate opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients, there is a need to determine the potential health risks that these contaminants could pose for consumers. This review discusses the mycobiome of cannabis and hemp flowers with a focus on plant-infecting and toxigenic fungi that are most commonly found and are of potential concern (e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Mucor spp.). We review current regulations for molds and mycotoxins worldwide and review assessment methods including culture-based assays, liquid chromatography, immuno-based technologies, and emerging technologies for these contaminants. We also discuss approaches to reduce fungal contaminants on cannabis and hemp and identify future research needs for contaminant detection, data dissemination, and management approaches. These approaches are designed to yield safer products for all consumers.

Genetic assessment of the effect of red yeast (Sporidiobolus pararoseus) as a feed additive on mycotoxin toxicity in laying hens

Toxic fungal species produce hazardous substances known as mycotoxins. Consumption of mycotoxin contaminated feed and food causes a variety of dangerous diseases and can even lead to death of animals and humans, raising global concerns for adverse health effects. To date, several strategies have been developed to counteract with mycotoxin contamination. Red yeast as a novel biological dietary agent is a promising strategy to eliminate mycotoxicity in living organisms. Poultry are most susceptible animals to mycotoxin contamination, as they are fed a mixture of grains and are at higher risk of co-exposure to multiple toxic fungal substances. Therefore, this study investigated the genetic mechanism underlying long-term feeding with red yeast supplementation in interaction with multiple mycotoxins using transcriptome profiling (RNA_Seq) in the liver of laying hens. The results showed a high number of significantly differentially expressed genes in liver of chicken fed with a diet contaminated with mycotoxins, whereas the number of Significantly expressed genes was considerably reduced when the diet was supplemented with red yeast. The expression of genes involved in the phase I (CYP1A1, CYP1A2) and phase II (GSTA2, GSTA3, MGST1) detoxification process was downregulated in animals fed with mycotoxins contaminated diet, indicating suppression of the detoxification mechanisms. However, genes involved in antioxidant defense (GSTO1), apoptosis process (DUSP8), and tumor suppressor (KIAA1324, FBXO47, NME6) were upregulated in mycotoxins-exposed animals, suggesting activation of the antioxidant defense in response to mycotoxicity. Similarly, none of the detoxification genes were upregulated in hens fed with red yeast supplemented diet. However, neither genes involved in antioxidant defense nor tumor suppressor genes were expressed in the animals exposed to the red yeast supplemented feed, suggesting decreases the adsorption of biologically active mycotoxins in the liver of laying hens. We conclude that red yeast can act as a mycotoxin binder to decrease the adsorption of mycotoxins in the liver of laying hens and can be used as an effective strategy in the poultry feed industry to eliminate the adverse effects of mycotoxins for animals and increase food safety for human consumers.

Peniciriols A and B, two new citrinin derivatives from an endophytic fungus Penicillum citrinum TJNZ-27

Two undescribed citrinin derivatives, named peniciriols A-B (1-2), together with six known compounds were isolated from endophytic fungus Penicillum citrinum TJNZ-27. The structures of two new compounds were well established by the detail interpretation of NMR and HRESIMS data as well as ECD measurement powered by molecular calculation. Among them, compound 1 shared an unprecedented dimerized citrinin skeleton with the formation of an intriguing 9H-xanthene ring system, whereas compound 2 possess a highly substituted phenylacetic acid skeleton, which was rarely-occurring in natural secondary metabolites. Moreover, these novel compounds were tested for cytotoxic and antibacterial activities, whereas these novel compounds did not exhibit any noticeable cytotoxic or antibacterial activities.

B-Type Fumonisins in Post-Fermented Tea: Occurrence and Consumer Dietary Exposure in Guangxi, China

Post-fermented tea (PFT), a commonly consumed beverage worldwide, is characterized by the rapid growth of its microbial groups and the substantial changes they undergo. Consequently, PFT may contain mycotoxins such as B-type fumonisins (FBs). This study aimed to assess the intake of FBs through the consumption of PFT among consumers in Guangxi, China. A novel quantitative method using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to determine the FB concentration in PFT products. Additionally, a PFT consumption survey was conducted using a face-to-face questionnaire, recording their body weight and PFT consumption patterns based on a three-day dietary recall method. Finally, hazard index was calculated to estimate the health risk of FBs from the consumption of PFT products in Guangxi. The results revealed that the occurrence of FBs in PFT was 20% (24/120), with a concentration ranging from 2.14 to 18.28 μg/kg. The results of the survey showed that the average daily consumption of PFT by consumers was 9.19 ± 11.14 g. The deterministic risk assessment revealed that only 0.026% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of FBs was consumed through PFT, indicating that FB contamination in PFT is not a public health risk.

Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges

While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.

The potential of citrus by-products in the development of functional food and active packaging

Food by-product valorization has become an important research area for promoting the sustainability of the food chain. Citrus fruits are among the most widely cultivated fruit crops worldwide. Citrus by-products, including pomace, seeds, and peels (flavedo and albedo), are produced in large amounts each year. Those by-products have an important economic value due to the high content on bioactive compounds, namely phenolic compounds and carotenoids, and are considered a valuable bio-resource for potential applications in the food industry. However, green extraction techniques are required to ensure their sustainability. This chapter addresses the main components of citrus by-products and their recent applications in food products and active food packaging, towards a circular economy. In addition, the concern regarding citrus by-products contamination (e.g. with pesticides residues and mycotoxins) is also discussed.

Biocontrol of Pathogen Microorganisms in Ripened Foods of Animal Origin

Ripened foods of animal origin comprise meat products and dairy products, being transformed by the wild microbiota which populates the raw materials, generating highly appreciated products over the world. Together with this beneficial microbiota, both pathogenic and toxigenic microorganisms such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Escherichia coli, Candida spp., Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp., can contaminate these products and pose a risk for the consumers. Thus, effective strategies to hamper these hazards are required. Additionally, consumer demand for clean label products is increasing. Therefore, the manufacturing sector is seeking new efficient, natural, low-environmental impact and easy to apply strategies to counteract these microorganisms. This review gathers different approaches to maximize food safety and discusses the possibility of their being applied or the necessity of new evidence, mainly for validation in the manufacturing product and its sensory impact, before being implemented as preventative measures in the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programs.

Combined toxicity assessment of a naturally occurring toxin and a triazole fungicide on different biological processes through toxicogenomic data mining with mixtures

Fungicides are widely used to prevent fungal growth and reduce mycotoxin contamination in food, which provides the opportunity for the co-occurrence of mycotoxins and fungicide residues in food and poses a greater risk to human health. To assess the combined effects of a naturally occurring mycotoxin, citrinin (CIT), and a widely used triazole fungicide, triadimefon (TAD) on different biological processes, the comparative toxicogenomics database was used to obtain phenotypes and response genes for CIT or TAD exposure. Then individual and combined exposure models were developed with zebrafish embryos, and the interaction between CIT and TAD was analyzed using the 2 × 2 factorial design approach to observe the toxic effects. Through data mining analysis, our results showed that CIT or TAD exposure is related to different biological phenotypes, such as cell death, regulation of antioxidant systems, and thyroid hormone metabolism. Our results also showed that CIT (4-day LC₅₀ value of 12.7 mg/L) exposure possessed higher toxicity to zebrafish embryos compared with TAD (4-day LC₅₀ value of 29.6 mg/L). Meanwhile, individual exposure to CIT and TAD altered the expression levels of biomarkers related to oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis. Notably, combined exposure to CIT and TAD induced changes in the mentioned biological processes and had an interactive effect on the expression of multiple biomarkers. In conclusion, we evaluated the toxic effects of CIT and TAD in isolation and combination by in-vivo experiments, which provide a new methodological basis and reference for future risk assessment and setting of safety limits for foodborne toxicants.

Citrinin Exposure Induced Testicular Damage and Spermatogenesis Disorder by Triggering Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Damage to the reproductive system is the key factor leading to male infertility. Citrinin (CTN) is produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus in nature, and is definitely found in food and animal feed. Studies have revealed that CTN can cause damage to male reproductive organs and reduce fertility, but the mechanism of toxicity has not been revealed. In the present study, male Kunming mice were given different doses of CTN (0, 1.25, 5 or 20 mg/kg BW) by intragastric administration. The results demonstrated that CTN exposure caused disorder of androgen, a decline in sperm quality, and histopathological damage of testis. The inhibition of the expression of ZO-1, claudin-1 and occludin suggests that the blood-testis barrier (BTB) was damaged. Simultaneously, CTN inhibited the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as CAT and SOD, and promoted the production of MDA and ROS, resulting in oxidative damage of testis. Additionally, apoptotic cells were detected and the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 was increased. Not only that, CTN activated the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related proteins IRE1, ATF6, CHOP, and GRP78. Interestingly, 4-Phenylbutyric Acid (4-PBA, an ERS inhibitor) treatment blocked the adverse effects of CTN exposure on male reproduction. In short, the findings suggested that CTN exposure can cause damage to mouse testis tissue, in which ERS exhibited an important regulatory role.

Food Toxicity of Mycotoxin Citrinin and Molecular Mechanisms of Its Potential Toxicity Effects through the Implicated Targets Predicted by Computer-Aided Multidimensional Data Analysis

The mycotoxin citrinin, which can contaminate food, is a major global concern. Citrinin is regarded as an inevitable pollutant in foods and feed since fungi are widely present in the environment. To identify contentious toxicity and lessen its severity by understanding the targets of citrinin in the human body and the impacted biosynthetic pathways, we analyzed the production of citrinin from Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium notatum and used a thorough bioinformatics analysis to characterize the toxicity and predict genes and protein targets for it. The predicted median fatal dosage (LD50) for citrinin was 105 mg/kg weight, and it belonged to toxicity class 3 (toxic if swallowed). Citrinin was found to be well absorbed by human intestinal epithelium and was a Pgp nonsubstrate (permeability glycoprotein), which means that once it is absorbed, it cannot be pumped out, hence leading to bioconcentration or biomagnification in the human body. The main targets of toxicity were casp3, TNF, IL10, IL1B, BAG3, CCNB1, CCNE1, and CDC25A, and the biological pathways implicated were signal transduction involved in DNA damage checkpoints, cellular and chemical responses to oxidative stress, DNA damage response signal transduction by P53, stress-activated protein kinase signaling cascade, netrin–UNC5B signaling, PTEN gene regulation, and immune response. Citrinin was linked to neutrophilia, squamous cell carcinoma, Fanconi anemia, leukemia, hepatoblastoma, and fatty liver diseases. The transcription factors E2F1, HSF1, SIRT1, RELA, NFKB, JUN, and MYC were found to be responsible. When data mining was performed on citrinin targets, the top five functional descriptions were a cell’s response to an organic cyclic compound, the netrin–UNC5B signaling pathway, lipids and atherosclerosis, thyroid cancer, and controlling the transcription of the PTEN gene.

New perspectives in application of kidney biomarkers in mycotoxin induced nephrotoxicity, with a particular focus on domestic pigs

The gradual spread of Aspergilli worldwide is adding to the global shortage of food and is affecting its safe consumption. Aspergillus-derived mycotoxins, including aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, and fumonisins (members of the fusariotoxin group) can cause pathological damage to vital organs, including the kidney or liver. Although the kidney functions as the major excretory system in mammals, monitoring and screening for mycotoxin induced nephrotoxicity is only now a developmental area in the field of livestock feed toxicology. Currently the assessment of individual exposure to mycotoxins in man and animals is usually based on the analysis of toxin and/or metabolite contamination in the blood or urine. However, this requires selective and sensitive analytical methods (e.g., HPLC-MS/MS), which are time consuming and expensive. The toxicokinetic of mycotoxin metabolites is becoming better understood. Several kidney biomarkers are used successfully in drug development, however cost-efficient, and reliable kidney biomarkers are urgently needed for monitoring farm animals for early signs of kidney disease. β₂-microglobulin (β₂-MG) and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) are the dominant biomarkers employed routinely in environmental toxicology research, while kidney injury molecule 1 (KIM-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) are also emerging as effective markers to identify mycotoxin induced nephropathy. Pigs are exposed to mycotoxins due to their cereal-based diet and are particularly susceptible to Aspergillus mycotoxins. In addition to commonly used diagnostic markers for nephrotoxicity including plasma creatinine, NAG, KIM-1 and NGAL can be used in pigs. In this review, the currently available techniques are summarized, which are used for screening mycotoxin induced nephrotoxicity in farm animals. Possible approaches are considered, which could be used to detect mycotoxin induced nephropathy.

Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults

Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin known to exert nephrotoxicity, is a contaminant in food and feed. Since CIT contamination is not regularly analyzed, data on its occurrence and especially levels in food commodities are insufficient for conducting a conventional exposure assessment. Yet, human biomonitoring, i.e., an analysis of CIT and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) in urine samples allows to estimate exposure. This study investigated CIT exposure in young (2-14 years) and adult (24-61 years) residents of three federal states in Germany. A total of 179 urine samples from children and 142 from adults were collected and analyzed by a targeted LC-MS/MS based method for presence of CIT and DH-CIT. At least one of the biomarkers was detected and quantified in all urines, which indicated a widespread dietary exposure to the mycotoxin in Germany. Interestingly, the biomarker concentrations of CITtotal (sum of CIT and DH-CIT) were higher in children's urine (range 0.05-7.62 ng/mL; median of 0.54 ng/mL) than in urines from adults (range 0.04-3.5 ng/mL; median 0.3 ng/mL). The biomarker levels (CITtotal) of individual urines served to calculate the probable daily CIT intake, for comparison to a value of 0.2 µg/kg bw/day defined as 'level of no concern for nephrotoxicity' by the European Food Safety Authority. The median exposure of German adults was 0.013 µg/kg b.w., with only one urine donor exceeding this provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) for CIT. The median exposure of children was 0.05 µg/kg bw per day (i.e., 25% of the pTDI); however, CIT exposure in 12 individuals (6.3% of our study group) exceeded the limit value, with a maximum intake of 0.46 µg/kg b.w. per day. In conclusion, these results show evidence for non-negligible exposure to CIT in some individuals in Germany, mainly in children. Therefore, further biomonitoring studies and investigations aimed to identify the major sources of CIT exposure in food commodities are required.

Inhibition of Aflatoxin Production by Citrinin and Non-Enzymatic Formation of a Novel Citrinin-Kojic Acid Adduct

Screening for microorganisms that inhibit aflatoxin production from environments showed that Penicillium citrinum inhibited aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus. The inhibitory substance in the culture medium of P. citrinum was confirmed to be citrinin (CTN). RT-PCR analyses showed that CTN did not inhibit expressions of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes (aflR, pksL1, and fas-1) of A. parasiticus, whereas feeding experiments using A. parasiticus showed that CTN inhibited the in vivo conversion of dihydrosterigmatocystin to AFB₂·AFG₂. These results suggest that CTN inhibits a certain post-transcriptional step in aflatoxin biosynthesis. CTN in the culture medium of A. parasiticus was found to be decreased or lost with time, suggesting that a certain metabolite produced by A. parasiticus is the cause of the CTN decrease; we then purified, characterized, and then analyzed the substance. Physico-chemical analyses confirmed that the metabolite causing a decrease in CTN fluorescence was kojic acid (KA) and the resulting product was identified as a novel substance: (1R,3S,4R)-3,4-dihydro-6,8-dihydroxy-1-(3-hydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)-4-oxo-4H-pyran-2-yl)-3,4,5-trimethyl-1H-isochromene-7-carboxylic acid, which was named "CTN-KA adduct". Our examination of the metabolites' toxicities revealed that unlike CTN, the CTN-KA adduct did not inhibit aflatoxin production by A. parasiticus. These results indicate that CTN's toxicity was alleviated with KA by converting CTN to the CTN-KA adduct.

Genetic Regulation of Mycotoxin Biosynthesis

Mycotoxin contamination in food poses health hazards to humans. Current methods of controlling mycotoxins still have limitations and more effective approaches are needed. During the past decades of years, variable environmental factors have been tested for their influence on mycotoxin production leading to elucidation of a complex regulatory network involved in mycotoxin biosynthesis. These regulators are putative targets for screening molecules that could inhibit mycotoxin synthesis. Here, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of hierarchical regulators, including pathway-specific regulators, global regulators and epigenetic regulators, on the production of the most critical mycotoxins (aflatoxins, patulin, citrinin, trichothecenes and fumonisins). Future studies on regulation of mycotoxins will provide valuable knowledge for exploring novel methods to inhibit mycotoxin biosynthesis in a more efficient way.

Mycotoxins and Essential Oils-From a Meat Industry Hazard to a Possible Solution: A Brief Review

The preservation of food supplies has been humankind's priority since ancient times, and it is arguably more relevant today than ever before. Food sustainability and safety have been heavily prioritized by consumers, producers, and government entities alike. In this regard, filamentous fungi have always been a health hazard due to their contamination of the food substrate with mycotoxins. Additionally, mycotoxins are proven resilient to technological processing. This study aims to identify the main mycotoxins that may occur in the meat and meat products "Farm to Fork" chain, along with their effect on the consumers' health, and also to identify effective methods of prevention through the use of essential oils (EO). At the same time, the antifungal and antimycotoxigenic potential of essential oils was considered in order to provide an overview of the subject. Targeting the main ways of meat products' contamination, the use of essential oils with proven in vitro or in situ efficacy against certain fungal species can be an effective alternative if all the associated challenges are addressed (e.g., application methods, suitability for certain products, toxicity).

Aflatoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Based Products: Occurrence, Toxicity, Impact on Human Health, and Their Detoxification and Management Strategies

Cereals and cereal-based products are primary sources of nutrition across the world. However, contamination of these foods with aflatoxins (AFs), secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species, has raised serious concerns. AF generation in innate substrates is influenced by several parameters, including the substrate type, fungus species, moisture content, minerals, humidity, temperature, and physical injury to the kernels. Consumption of AF-contaminated cereals and cereal-based products can lead to both acute and chronic health issues related to physical and mental maturity, reproduction, and the nervous system. Therefore, the precise detection methods, detoxification, and management strategies of AFs in cereal and cereal-based products are crucial for food safety as well as consumer health. Hence, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, chemical characteristics, biosynthetic processes, health hazards, and detection techniques of AFs, along with a focus on detoxification and management strategies that could be implemented for food safety and security.

Nivalenol Mycotoxin Concerns in Foods: An Overview on Occurrence, Impact on Human and Animal Health and Its Detection and Management Strategies

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that infect a wide range of foods worldwide. Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene produced by numerous Fusarium species, has the ability to infect a variety of foods both in the field and during post-harvest handling and management. NIV is frequently found in cereal and cereal-based goods, and its strong cytotoxicity poses major concerns for both human and animal health. To address these issues, this review briefly overviews the sources, occurrence, chemistry and biosynthesis of NIV. Additionally, a brief overview of several sophisticated detection and management techniques is included, along with the implications of processing and environmental factors on the formation of NIV. This review’s main goal is to offer trustworthy and current information on NIV as a mycotoxin concern in foods, with potential mitigation measures to assure food safety and security.

Monascus spp. and citrinin: Identification, selection of Monascus spp. isolates, occurrence, detection and reduction of citrinin during the fermentation of red fermented rice

Red fermented rice (RFR) is rice fermented using Monascus spp. This product contains monacolin K, providing health benefits including mitigation of diarrhoea and improving blood circulation. RFR can produce pigments that can act as natural colour and flavouring agents. However, Monascus spp. (a fungal starter to ferment RFR) can also produce the mycotoxin, citrinin (CIT) which is believed to have adverse effects on human health. CIT in RFR has been reported worldwide by using different methods of detection. This review focuses on the production of RFR by solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF), the occurrence of CIT in RFR, CIT quantification, the factors affecting the growth of Monascus spp., pigments and CIT production in RFR, and possible methods to reduce CIT in RFR. This review will help the food industries, researchers, and consumers understand the risk of consuming RFR, and the possibility of controlling CIT in RFR.

Deoxynivalenol: An Overview on Occurrence, Chemistry, Biosynthesis, Health Effects and Its Detection, Management, and Control Strategies in Food and Feed

Mycotoxins are fungi-produced secondary metabolites that can contaminate many foods eaten by humans and animals. Deoxynivalenol (DON), which is formed by Fusarium, is one of the most common occurring predominantly in cereal grains and thus poses a significant health risk. When DON is ingested, it can cause both acute and chronic toxicity. Acute signs include abdominal pain, anorexia, diarrhea, increased salivation, vomiting, and malaise. The most common effects of chronic DON exposure include changes in dietary efficacy, weight loss, and anorexia. This review provides a succinct overview of various sources, biosynthetic mechanisms, and genes governing DON production, along with its consequences on human and animal health. It also covers the effect of environmental factors on its production with potential detection, management, and control strategies.