A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effect of eating rate on energy intake and hunger

Ultra-processed foods cause weight gain and increased energy intake associated with reduced chewing frequency: A randomized, open-label, crossover study

AIM

To elucidate the effects of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) on body weight and ad libitum energy intake compared with non-UPFs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this randomized, open-label crossover study conducted at the University of Tokyo Hospital, overweight/obese Japanese male participants were randomly assigned (1:1) to start the study with consumption of either UPFs or non-UPFs for 1 week, followed by a 2-week washout period, before crossing over to the alternate food diet for 1 week. Individuals with diabetes, hypertension or any other medical conditions who visited a hospital regularly were excluded. The meals were designed to be matched for the total energy and macronutrient levels. The primary outcome was the difference in the body weight change between the UPF and non-UPF periods. The differences in the average daily energy intake and chewing frequency were assessed as one of the prespecified secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

Nine eligible participants were randomly assigned to start the study with either UPFs or non-UPFs. All participants completed the study. During the UPF period, participants gained 1.1 kg more weight (95% confidence interval 0.2 to 2.0; P = .021) and consumed 813.5 kcal more per day (342.4 to 1284.7; P = .0041) compared with during the non-UPF period. Regarding the chewing frequency, the number of chews per calorie was significantly lower during the UPF period (P = .016).

CONCLUSIONS

Consumption of UPFs causes significant weight gain. Medical nutritional therapy focused on reducing the consumption of UPFs could be an effective strategy for preventing obesity.

Preliminary findings on the influence of the presence of others' eyes on food intake

Background: The presence of others' eyes has been shown to influence food evaluation. Aim: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the presence of others' gaze would lead to a reduction in food intake in accordance with social norms. Methods: In this study, we enlisted the participation of 30 volunteers. During the experiment, participants had the opportunity to consume noodles freely as much as they wanted while viewing one of the three images: (1) featuring a person with open eyes (Open condition), (2) depicting a person with closed eyes (Closed condition), and (3) displaying an image devoid of a person (None condition). Results: Food consumption in each condition was 460.00 ± 20.97 g for the Open condition, 515.57 ± 22.97 g in the Closed condition, and 505.03 ± 21.05 g in None condition. The condition had a statistically significant main effect (F = 4.656, p = .013). The Least-Square means analysis revealed that food consumption in the Open condition was significantly lower than in the other two conditions (Closed and None conditions) (Closed - Open: t = 2.872 [95% CI: 16.844-94.289], p = .006; None - Open: t = 2.328 [95% CI: 6.311-83.756], p = .023). There was no significant difference in food consumption between the Closed and None conditions (Closed - None: t = 0.545 [95% CI: -28.189-49.256], p = .588). Conclusion: The results of the present study suggest that the presence of others' eyes would reduce food intake in accordance with social norms.

Gut-derived appetite hormones do not explain energy intake differences in humans following low-carbohydrate versus low-fat diets

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to explore how dietary macronutrient composition influences postprandial appetite hormone responses and subsequent energy intake.

METHODS

A total of 20 adults (mean [SEM], age 30 [1] years, BMI 27.8 [1.3] kg/m2, n = 8 with normal weight, n = 6 with overweight, n = 6 with obesity) consumed a low-fat (LF) diet (10% fat, 75% carbohydrate) and a low-carbohydrate (LC) diet (10% carbohydrate, 75% fat) for 2 weeks each in an inpatient randomized crossover design. At the end of each diet, participants consumed isocaloric macronutrient-representative breakfast test meals, and 6-h postprandial responses were measured. Ad libitum energy intake was measured for the rest of the day.

RESULTS

The LC meal resulted in greater mean postprandial plasma active glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1; LC: 6.44 [0.78] pg/mL, LF: 2.46 [0.26] pg/mL; p < 0.0001), total glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP; LC: 578 [60] pg/mL, LF: 319 [37] pg/mL; p = 0.0004), and peptide YY (PYY; LC: 65.6 [5.6] pg/mL, LF: 50.7 [3.8] pg/mL; p = 0.02), whereas total ghrelin (LC: 184 [25] pg/mL, LF: 261 [47] pg/mL; p = 0.0009), active ghrelin (LC: 91 [9] pg/mL, LF: 232 [28] pg/mL; p < 0.0001), and leptin (LC: 26.9 [6.5] ng/mL, LF: 35.2 [7.5] ng/mL; p = 0.01) were lower compared with LF. Participants ate more during LC at lunch (244 [85] kcal; p = 0.01) and dinner (193 [86] kcal; p = 0.04), increasing total subsequent energy intake for the day compared with LF (551 [103] kcal; p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In the short term, endogenous gut-derived appetite hormones do not necessarily determine ad libitum energy intake.

Food oral processing and eating behavior from infancy to childhood: evidence on the role of food texture in the development of healthy eating behavior

Eating behaviors develop in early life and refine during childhood, shaping long-term food choice and dietary habits, which underpin optimum growth and health. The development of Food Oral Processing (FOP) is of major importance in the establishment of eating behaviors at two scale levels: for the initial acceptance of food texture and for the longer-term development of eating behaviors associated to food intake. To date, both processes have been studied as independent topics and the current review proposes a parallel vision on their development from the onset of complementary feeding to later childhood. Individual factors affecting these FOP-related behaviors as they relate to food texture acceptance are discussed, alongside examples of interventions aiming at modifying them. Opportunity to better consider food textures when designing foods for children is addressed. Altogether, the review demonstrates the critical role of food texture in the development of a child's FOP skills, eating habits, and dietary patterns. These scientific knowledges need to be considered for the development of healthier eating behavior. We identify research gaps that need to be addressed and highlight the need to design foods that can support the development of healthy oral processing and eating behaviors among infants and children.

Ultra-Processed Food Intake and Increased Risk of Obesity: A Narrative Review

The prevalence of obesity has become a global health concern, with significant impacts on quality of life and mortality rates. Recent research has highlighted the role of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) in driving the obesity epidemic. UPFs undergo extensive processing, often containing high levels of sugars, fats, and additives, while lacking essential nutrients. Studies have linked UPF consumption to obesity and cardiometabolic diseases, underscoring the importance of dietary patterns rich in whole foods. Thus, the aim of this narrative review is to elucidate the correlation between ultra-processed foods and the increased trend of obesity and its related complications. These foods, prevalent in modern diets, contribute to nutritional deficiencies and excessive caloric intake, exacerbating obesity rates. Lifestyle factors such as busy schedules and quick meal management further drive UPF consumption, disrupting hunger regulation and promoting overeating. UPF consumption correlates with adverse health outcomes, including dyslipidemia, hypertension, and insulin resistance. Promoting whole, minimally processed foods and implementing school-based nutrition education programs are crucial steps. Also, numerous challenges exist, including unequal access to healthy foods, the industry's influence, and behavioral barriers to dietary change. Future research should explore innovative approaches, such as nutrigenomics and digital health technologies, to personalize interventions and evaluate policy effectiveness. Collaboration across disciplines and sectors will be vital to develop comprehensive solutions and improve public health outcomes globally.

Development and validation of the mindful eating scale (mind-eat scale) in a general population

BACKGROUND

Mindful eating is a concept that is increasingly being used to promote healthy eating. Observational studies have suggested associations with healthier eating behaviors, lower weight status, and favorable cardiovascular biomarkers. However, existing scales assessing mindful eating have some limitations. Our study aimed to develop and validate a scale assessing the level of mindful eating in a general population.

METHODS

The Mind-Eat Scale was developed in four main steps: 1. Generating an initial item pool covering all aspects of mindful eating; 2. Reviewing items with experts and naive individuals; 3. Administering the scale to a large and representative sample from the NutriNet-Santé cohort (N = 3102); 4. Conducting psychometric analyses. Construct validity was assessed using exploratory (EFA) (N1 = 1302) and confirmatory (CFA) (N2 = 1302, N3 = 498) factor analyses. Content, discriminant, convergent, and divergent validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability were examined.

RESULTS

The initial pool of 95 items was refined to 24 items using EFA. The EFA highlighted six dimensions: Awareness, Non-reactivity, Openness, Gratitude, Non-judgement, and Hunger/Satiety, consisting of four items per dimension. CFAs showed a good fit for first and second-order models. Adequate content validity was confirmed. Discriminant, convergent, and divergent validity were supported by significant differences between subgroups of individuals, and correlations with eating behaviors and psychological well-being scales. The Mind-Eat Scale showed good reliability for all six dimensions, with high McDonald's ω and adequate intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC).

CONCLUSIONS

This study validated the first tool assessing a total mindful eating score and its sub-dimensions in a general population. This scale can be an asset for clinical and epidemiological research on dietary behavior and related chronic diseases.

Toward a science-based classification of processed foods to support meaningful research and effective health policies

Processed foods have been part of the American diet for decades, with key roles in providing a safe, available, affordable, and nutritious food supply. The USDA Food Guides beginning in 1916 and the US Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) since 1980 have included various types of commonly consumed processed foods (e.g., heated, fermented, dried) as part of their recommendations. However, there are multiple classification systems based on "level" of food processing, and additional evidence is needed to establish the specific properties of foods classified as "highly" or "ultra"-processed (HPF/UPFs). Importantly, many foods are captured under HPF/UPF definitions, ranging from ready-to-eat fortified whole grain breakfast cereals to sugar-sweetened beverages and baked goods. The consequences of implementing dietary guidance to limit all intake of foods currently classified as HPF/UPF may require additional scrutiny to evaluate the impact on consumers' ability to meet daily nutrient recommendations and to access affordable food, and ultimately, on health outcomes. Based on a meeting held by the Institute for the Advancement of Food and Nutrition Sciences in May 2023, this paper provides perspectives on the broad array of foods classified as HPF/UPFs based on processing and formulation, including contributions to nutrient intake and dietary patterns, food acceptability, and cost. Characteristics of foods classified as UPF/HPFs are considered, including the roles and safety approval of food additives and the effect of food processing on the food matrix. Finally, this paper identifies information gaps and research needs to better understand how the processing of food affects nutrition and health outcomes.

Unit size influences ad libitum intake in a snacking context via eating rate

Geometric and textural properties of food, like unit size, have previously been shown to influence energy intake. While mechanism(s) driving this effect are unclear, unit size may relate to intake by affecting eating microstructure (e.g., eating rate, bite size). In a randomized crossover study, we investigated relationships between unit size, eating microstructure, and intake. Adults (n = 75, 75% women) consumed an ad libitum snack three times in our laboratory. This snack was a 70-g portion (∼2.5 servings) of one of three sizes of pretzel (small, medium, large). Intake was measured in grams by difference in weight before and after the snack. Each session was video recorded to measure eating microstructure; snack duration (min) and number of bites were annotated and used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). Results revealed unit size influenced intake (grams and kcal; both p's ≤ 0.001), such that participants consumed 31% and 22% more of the large pretzels (16.9 ± 2.3 g) compared to the small (12.9 ± 2.3 g) and medium sizes (13.8 ± 2.3 g), respectively. Unit size also influenced eating rate and bite size (both p's < 0.001); the largest pretzel size yielded the fastest eating rate and largest mean bite size. Further analysis revealed that after accounting for eating microstructure, the effects of unit size on intake were no longer significant, suggesting eating microstructure was driving these effects. Together, these findings indicate that unit size influences intake by affecting eating microstructure and that food properties like unit size can be leveraged to moderate snack intake.

Rule-based systems to automatically count bites from meal videos

Eating behavior is a key factor for nutritional intake and plays a significant role in the development of eating disorders and obesity. The standard methods to detect eating behavior events (i.e., bites and chews) from video recordings rely on manual annotation, which lacks objective assessment and standardization. Yet, video recordings of eating episodes provide a non-invasive and scalable source for automation. Here, we present a rule-based system to count bites automatically from video recordings with 468 3D facial key points. We tested the performance against manual annotation in 164 videos from 15 participants. The system can count bites with 79% accuracy when annotation is available, and 71.4% when annotation is unavailable. The system showed consistent performance across varying food textures. Eating behavior researchers can use this automated and objective system to replace manual bite count annotation, provided the system's error is acceptable for the purpose of their study. Utilizing our approach enables real-time bite counting, thereby promoting interventions for healthy eating behaviors. Future studies in this area should explore rule-based systems and machine learning methods with 3D facial key points to extend the automated analysis to other eating events while providing accuracy, interpretability, generalizability, and low computational requirements.

Eating Habits and Lifestyle Factors Related to Childhood Obesity Among Children Aged 5-6 Years: Cluster Analysis of Panel Survey Data in Korea

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity has emerged as a major health issue due to the rapid growth in the prevalence of obesity among young children worldwide. Establishing healthy eating habits and lifestyles in early childhood may help children gain appropriate weight and further improve their health outcomes later in life.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to classify clusters of young children according to their eating habits and identify the features of each cluster as they relate to childhood obesity.

METHODS

A total of 1280 children were selected from the Panel Study on Korean Children. Data on their eating habits (eating speed, mealtime regularity, consistency of food amount, and balanced eating), sleep hours per day, outdoor activity hours per day, and BMI were obtained. We performed a cluster analysis on the children's eating habits using k-means methods. We conducted ANOVA and chi-square analyses to identify differences in the children's BMI, sleep hours, physical activity, and the characteristics of their parents and family by cluster.

RESULTS

At both ages (ages 5 and 6 years), we identified 4 clusters based on the children's eating habits. Cluster 1 was characterized by a fast eating speed (fast eaters); cluster 2 by a slow eating speed (slow eaters); cluster 3 by irregular eating habits (poor eaters); and cluster 4 by a balanced diet, regular mealtimes, and consistent food amounts (healthy eaters). Slow eaters tended to have the lowest BMI (P<.001), and a low proportion had overweight and obesity at the age of 5 years (P=.03) and 1 year later (P=.005). There was a significant difference in sleep time (P=.01) and mother's education level (P=.03) at the age of 5 years. Moreover, there was a significant difference in sleep time (P=.03) and the father's education level (P=.02) at the age of 6 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Efforts to establish healthy eating habits in early childhood may contribute to the prevention of obesity in children. Specifically, providing dietary guidance on a child's eating speed can help prevent childhood obesity. This research suggests that lifestyle modification could be a viable target to decrease the risk of childhood obesity and promote the development of healthy children. Additionally, we propose that future studies examine long-term changes in obesity resulting from lifestyle modifications in children from families with low educational levels.

Spread it on thick? Relative effects of condiment addition and slice thickness on eating rate of bread

Manipulating eating rate (ER) by food properties may enhance or reduce food intake. Within composite foods, such as bread with condiments, the shape of carrier food and the use of condiments are known to influence ER. However, not much is known about their quantitative impacts and interactions. This study investigates the effect of bread slice thickness and addition of condiment on oral processing (ER, chews per g, bite size). In a full factorial design, 30 participants (BMI 21.6 ± 2.0 kg m-2, 23.3 ± 2.1 year) consumed two types of bread (wholewheat (WB); and sourdough (SB)), in three different slice thicknesses (1, 2, 4 cm), with three conditions of margarine addition (0, 2, 4 g per slice of 28 cm2). The results showed that addition of margarine in both breads led to ∼50% higher ER in a non-linear fashion mainly via less chews per g (all P < 0.001). Increasing bread slice thickness in both breads, resulted in ∼15% higher ER, mainly via larger bite sizes (all P < 0.001). The addition of margarine reduced or overruled the effect of slice thickness on all oral processing characteristics (interaction margarine × slice thickness, all P < 0.01). Perceived sensory dryness showed a strong negative correlation with ER. In conclusion, this study highlighted the importance of bread slice thickness, amount of a condiment, and their interactions in controlling ER. Lubrication of the dry crumbs was a main mechanism in controlling ER in this study. These insights can help the design of products with lower ER.

The effect of preprandial versus postprandial physical activity on glycaemia: Meta-analysis of human intervention studies

This meta-analysis aims to investigate the effect of preprandial physical activity (PA) versus postprandial PA on glycaemia in human intervention studies. Medline and Embase.com were searched until February 2023 for intervention studies in adults, directly comparing preprandial PA versus postprandial PA on glycaemia. Studies were screened using ASReview (34,837) and full texts were read by two independent reviewers (42 full text, 28 included). Results were analysed using pooled mean differences in random-effects models. Studies were either acute response studies (n = 21) or Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) over multiple weeks (n = 7). In acute response studies, postprandial outcomes followed the expected physiological patterns, and outcomes measured over 24 h showed no significant differences. For the RCTs, glucose area under the curve during a glucose tolerance test was slightly, but not significantly lower in preprandial PA vs postprandial PA (-0.29 [95 %CI:-0.66, 0.08] mmol/L, I2 = 64.36 %). Subgroup analyses (quality, health status, etc.) did not significantly change the outcomes. In conclusion, we found no differences between preprandial PA versus postprandial PA on glycaemia both after one PA bout as well as after multiple weeks of PA. The studies were of low to moderate quality of evidence as assessed by GRADE, showed contradictive results, included no long-term studies and used various designs and populations. We therefore need better RCTs, with more similar designs, in larger populations and longer follow-up periods (≥12 weeks) to have a final answer on the questions eat first, then exercise, or the reverse?

Associations of minimally processed and ultra-processed food intakes with cardiovascular health in Korean adults: the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VI), 2013-2015

BACKGROUND

Although recent studies have suggested the adverse effects of processed foods on cardiovascular disease, few studies have been conducted on the effects of food processing on cardiovascular health (CVH) in Koreans.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the associations of minimally processed foods (MPF) and ultra-processed foods (UPF) intakes with CVH.

METHODS

We used the data of 6945 adults (≥19) from the sixth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. MPF and UPF intakes were based on the NOVA food classification. Using Life's simple 7 (LS7) proposed by the American Heart Association, the CVH indicator was estimated as the sum (0-12) of the scores of six components. Multiple linear and multinomial logistic regressions were used to estimate the associations between processed food intakes and CVH.

RESULTS

The mean (standard error) of MPF and UPF intake was 61.28 (0.28) and 20.27 (0.24) %kcal/day, respectively. After adjusting for sex, age, household income, educational attainment, family history of CVD, and stress, we found significant positive associations between MPF intake and CVH (p value < 0.001), while associations between UPF intake and CVH were significantly negative (p value < 0.001). Moreover, the magnitude of the observed association was more distinctive in females (p-interaction < 0.01) and with increasing age (p-interaction < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

A high intake of MPF is associated with improved CVH, while a high intake of UPF is associated with poorer CVH in Korean adults. Therefore, public health policies should be established to promote the choice of less processed foods to improve CVH among South Korean adults.

IMPACT STATEMENT

In modern society, processed foods have become ubiquitous and South Korea's consumption of processed foods is very high. This study had shown that the more processed a food is, the more negative impact it can have on cardiovascular health. Therefore, researching the effects of processed foods on the human body can increase understanding of population health and aid in the development of prevention and treatment strategies.

Consuming almonds with chocolate or lettuce influences oral processing behaviour, bolus properties and consequently predicted lipid release from almonds

Lipids in almonds are naturally encapsulated by cell walls which may reduce the actual metabolizable energy content of almonds. Oral processing increases the accessibility of lipids to digestive enzymes by grinding the almond matrix. This study aimed to investigate the effect of adding accompanying foods (chocolate and iceberg lettuce) to almonds on oral processing behaviour, bolus properties and predicted lipid release. Natural chewing times of four almond model foods including one almond (1.3 g), four almonds (4.6 g), one almond with chocolate (4.3 g) and one almond with iceberg lettuce (4.3 g) were collected from n = 59 participants in duplicate. Expectorated boli at the moment of swallowing were characterized for number and mean area of almond bolus particles. Predicted lipid bioaccessibility was estimated using a previously validated model. At similar bite size (4.3-4.6 g), the addition of chocolate and iceberg lettuce to almonds significantly decreased (p < 0.05) chewing time and significantly increased (p < 0.05) eating rate compared to consumption of almonds alone. Almond bolus particle sizes were similar for almonds consumed alone (one and four almonds) and with chocolate, while consuming almonds with lettuce generated significantly fewer and larger almond bolus particles (p < 0.05). Predicted lipid bioaccessibility of almonds consumed with iceberg lettuce was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than for almonds consumed alone (one and four almonds) and almonds consumed with chocolate. Eating rate correlated significantly and positively with the mean area of bolus particles and significantly and negatively with predicted lipid release. In conclusion, combining almonds with other foods such as chocolate and lettuce influences oral processing behaviour and bolus properties and consequently predicted lipid bioaccessibility of almonds, highlighting the impact of food matrix and consumption context on these aspects.

Reasons individuals stop eating questionnaire (RISE-Q) among adults in the United Arab Emirates

The relationship between obesity and satiation is complex and bidirectional. Understanding differences in reasons for meal termination may enhance our understanding of overeating risks and susceptibility to overconsumption. This study aimed to investigate the reasons why individuals in the UAE stop eating. A cross-sectional web-based study was conducted among adults ≥18 years in the UAE (n = 1482). Using a self-administered online questionnaire, we collected information on sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle habits, and eating behavior using the Reasons Individuals Stop Eating-Questionnaire (RISE-Q-15) used twice for breakfast/main meal. The items were categorized into five scales; decreased food appeal (DFA), physical satisfaction (PS), planned amount (PA), self-consciousness (SC), and decreased priority of eating (DPE). All items were scored from 1 to 7 ranging between 3 to 21 on each scale. A paired t-test was used to evaluate the difference between the RISE-Q scores on each scale concerning the two meals. The main reason why participants stopped eating breakfast was under the PS scale (14.91 ± 3.72), followed by the PA scale (14.58 ± 3.00). The main reason why participants stopped eating main meals was under the PS scale (14.78 ± 3.56), followed by the PA scale (14.77 ± 43.81). The mean score of the DPE scale was significantly higher for breakfast than the main meal (p = 0.038). More than half of the participants reported an average eating rate (58.7%). Pearson's chi-square analysis revealed that the eating rate was dependent on BMI (p<0.001). Considering individual mealtimes and addressing factors related to PS and PA of food is crucial when designing nutrition interventions aiming to promote healthy eating habits among adults in the UAE.

Discordance between gut-derived appetite hormones and energy intake in humans

Gut-derived hormones affect appetite and are thought to play an important role in body weight regulation. Dietary macronutrient composition can influence gut-derived appetite hormone concentrations, thereby providing theoretical basis for why some diets might facilitate weight loss better than others. We investigated postprandial gut-derived appetite hormones in 20 inpatient adults after 2 weeks of eating either a low carbohydrate (LC) or a low fat (LF) diet followed by the alternate diet in random order. A LC meal resulted in significantly greater postprandial GLP-1, GIP, and PYY but lower ghrelin compared to an isocaloric LF meal (all p≤0.02). However, differences in gut-derived appetite hormones were incommensurate with subsequent ad libitum energy intake over the rest of the day, which was 551±103 kcal (p<0.0001) greater with the LC as compared to the LF diet. The effects of gut-derived appetite hormones on ad libitum energy intake can be dominated by other diet-related factors, at least in the short-term.

Further evidence for sensitivity to energy density and a two-component model of meal size: Analysis of meal calorie intakes in Argentina and Malaysia

Previously, we demonstrated a non-linear association between meal caloric intake and meal energy density (ED, kcal/g) in data from a controlled trial in the US and from free-living participants in the UK [1]. In both datasets, meal caloric intake increased with ED in lower energy-dense meals (below ∼1.75 kcal/g) and decreased in higher energy-dense meals (above ∼1.75 kcal/g). In the current study, we sought to explore whether this pattern extends to data from free-living participants in Argentina (N = 2738 meals) and Malaysia (N = 4658 meals). Again, a significant breakpoint was found in both the Argentinean (2.04 kcal/g (SE = 0.06)) and Malaysian (2.17 kcal/g (SE = 0.06)) datasets with mean centered meal caloric intake increasing with ED below the breakpoint and decreasing above the breakpoint. These results lend further support for our two-component theoretical model of meal size (g) in which a volume signal is dominant in lower energy-dense meals and a calorie-content signal is dominant in higher energy-dense meals. Together, our research adds to evidence supporting human sensitivity to calories and exposes a complexity in the correspondence between meal energy content and meal size in everyday (non-manipulated) meals. Further research is needed to provide causal evidence for this sensitivity and whether individual variation impacts meal size and energy balance.

Speed limits: the effects of industrial food processing and food texture on daily energy intake and eating behaviour in healthy adults

PURPOSE

Frequent consumption of industrially processed foods has been associated with obesity. However, it is unknown what drives this association. Food textures of industrially processed foods that stimulate energy overconsumption may be an important driver of this association. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the independent and combined effects of food texture and level of industrial food processing (based on the NOVA classification) on daily energy intake and eating behaviour.

METHODS

Eighteen healthy adults (F/M: 11/7, 23 ± 3 y, 22.1 ± 2.0 kg/m2) participated in a 2 × 2 randomized crossover dietary intervention with four conditions (total of 288 meals): hard unprocessed, hard (ultra-)processed, soft unprocessed and soft (ultra-)processed. Daily diets were offered ad libitum and were equal in energy density (1 kcal/g). Food Intake (g) was measured by pre- and post-consumption weighing of the plates. Eating behaviour parameters were derived from video annotations.

RESULTS

Daily energy intake and food intake were, respectively, 33% (571 ± 135 kcal) and 14% (247 ± 146 g) lower in the hard compared to the soft conditions (main texture p < 0.001). Energy intake was lower in both hard conditions compared to the (ultra)processed soft condition (Tukey p < 0.04). Eating rate (g/min) was on average 85% slower (P < 0.001) in the hard compared to the soft conditions (p < 0.001). Level of processing did not affect food intake.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of hard-textured foods reduces daily energy intake of (ultra-) processed foods. This preliminary investigation shows that there is great variability in food properties that affect energy and food intake beyond industrial food processing. However, findings should be interpreted with precaution considering the limited sample size of this trial. Future classification systems for public health messaging should include energy intake rate to help reduce overconsumption.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY

NCT04280146, https://www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov , February 21st 2020.

The heat is on: Consumers modify their oral processing behavior when eating spicy foods

Food texture properties and consumer characteristics influence oral processing behaviors. Little is known about oral processing behavior of pungent spicy foods. In two experiments, we investigated how adding ground dried chilies to tomato soup or beef patties and curried rice altered oral processing behaviors. In Experiment One, tomato soups differing in concentration of added ground dried chilies (0.01, 0.03, 0.20 or 0.40% w/w) were consumed (n = 23). In Experiment Two, lunch meals that differed in added ground dried chilies consisting of beef patties (0.0, 0.6 or 1.2% w/w) and curried rice (0.0, 0.4 or 1.0% w/w) were consumed (n = 49). Sip/bite sizes were determined using hidden balances. Oral processing behavior was quantified using video recordings followed by post hoc annotations of specific behaviors. When eating tomato soup, increasing oral burn was associated with increasing number of water sips, water intake and total time between sips. For the solid meals (beef patties and curried rice), increasing oral burn was associated with increased time between bites and total sips of water; conversely, total oral exposure time, total number of chews and number of chews per bite all decreased with greater burn. Saliva content and rate of saliva incorporation into the solid food bolus increased with added ground dried chilies while oral exposure time decreased. We conclude consumers adapt their oral processing behaviors to oral burn of solid foods by reducing oro-sensory exposure time, chewing bites less, increasing time between bites, and consuming more water, potentially to mitigate the discomfort associated with the burn imparted by ground dried chilies.

Factors associated with eating rate: a systematic review and narrative synthesis informed by socio-ecological model

Accumulating evidence shows associations between rapid eating and overweight. Modifying eating rate might be a potential weight management strategy without imposing additional dietary restrictions. A comprehensive understanding of factors associated with eating speed will help with designing effective interventions. The aim of this review was to synthesise the current state of knowledge on the factors associated with eating rate. The socio-ecological model (SEM) was utilised to scaffold the identified factors. A comprehensive literature search of eleven databases was conducted to identify factors associated with eating rate. The 104 studies that met the inclusion criteria were heterogeneous in design and methods of eating rate measurement. We identified thirty-nine factors that were independently linked to eating speed and mapped them onto the individual, social and environmental levels of the SEM. The majority of the reported factors pertained to the individual characteristics (n = 20) including demographics, cognitive/psychological factors and habitual food oral processing behaviours. Social factors (n = 11) included eating companions, social and cultural norms, and family structure. Environmental factors (n = 8) included food texture and presentation, methods of consumption or background sounds. Measures of body weight, food form and characteristics, food oral processing behaviours and gender, age and ethnicity were the most researched and consistent factors associated with eating rate. A number of other novel and underresearched factors emerged, but these require replication and further research. We highlight directions for further research in this space and potential evidence-based candidates for interventions targeting eating rate.

Ultra-processed food consumption and obesity indicators in individuals with and without type 1 diabetes mellitus: a longitudinal analysis of the prospective Coronary Artery Calcification in Type 1 Diabetes (CACTI) cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the associations of ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption and obesity indicators among individuals with and without type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) from the Coronary Artery Calcification in Type 1 Diabetes cohort study.

DESIGN

A secondary analysis. The consumption of UPF was assessed using the dietary data collected with the Harvard FFQ, and each food item was categorised according to the NOVA food processing classification. Height, weight and waist circumference were measured at baseline and after a mean of 14·6-year follow-up. Generalised estimating equations stratified by diabetes status were used to assess the associations between UPF intake and obesity indicators over 14 years of follow-up.

SETTING

USA.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 600 adults (256 T1DM and 344 non-diabetic controls) aged 39 ± 9·1 years at baseline and followed up for over 14 years were included.

RESULTS

Participants with T1DM consumed significantly more UPF than non-diabetic controls at baseline: 7·6 ± 3·8 v. 6·6 ± 3·4 servings per day of UPF, respectively (P < 0·01). Participants with T1DM and with the highest UPF intake had the highest weight (βQ4 v. Q1 = 3·07) and BMI (βQ4 v. Q1 = 1·02, all P < 0·05) compared with those with the lowest UPF intake. Similar positive associations were observed in non-diabetic controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with T1DM may consume more UPF than non-diabetic controls. Positive associations between UPF consumption and obesity indicators suggest that limiting UPF can be recommended for obesity prevention and management. Further research is needed to confirm these findings.

Relationships of rapid eating with visceral and subcutaneous fat mass and plasma adiponectin concentration

Rapid eating has been demonstrated to be associated with obesity and overweight. However, few studies have characterized the separate relationships of eating speed with visceral and subcutaneous fat mass or circulating adiponectin concentration. We hypothesized that rapid eating is associated with the larger visceral fat tissue (VFT) area and lower adiponectin concentration, but not with the subcutaneous fat tissue (SFT) area in men and women. We performed a cross-sectional study of 712 adults aged 20-86 years (528 men and 184 women; mean ± SD age 59.36 ± 13.61 years). The participants completed a self-reported questionnaire, and underwent anthropometric and laboratory measurements and computed tomographic imaging of the abdomen as a part of annual medical check-ups. Multivariate linear regression analyses revealed that rapid eating was associated with larger visceral (B = 24.74; 95% CI 8.87-40.61, p = 0.002) and subcutaneous fat areas (B = 31.31; 95% CI 12.23-50.38, p = 0.001), lower adiponectin concentration (B =  - 2.92; 95% CI - 4.39- - 1.46, p < 0.001), higher body mass index (BMI) (B = 2.13; 95% CI 1.02-3.25, p < 0.001), and larger waist circumference (B = 5.23; 95% CI 2.16-8.30, p < 0.001) in men, which is partially consistent with the hypothesis. In contrast, rapid eating was found to be associated only with BMI, and not with abdominal adipose area or adiponectin concentration in women, which is a result that is not consistent with the hypothesis. These results suggest that there is no difference in the association of rapid eating with VFT and SFT areas.

Competition between stochastic neuropeptide signals calibrates the rate of satiation

We investigated how transmission of hunger- and satiety-promoting neuropeptides, NPY and αMSH, is integrated at the level of intracellular signaling to control feeding. Receptors for these peptides use the second messenger cAMP, but the messenger's spatiotemporal dynamics and role in energy balance are controversial. We show that AgRP axon stimulation in the paraventricular hypothalamus evokes probabilistic and spatially restricted NPY release that triggers stochastic cAMP decrements in downstream MC4R-expressing neurons (PVH ^MC4R ). Meanwhile, POMC axon stimulation triggers stochastic, αMSH-dependent cAMP increments. NPY and αMSH competitively control cAMP, as reflected by hunger-state-dependent differences in the amplitude and persistence of cAMP transients evoked by each peptide. During feeding bouts, elevated αMSH release and suppressed NPY release cooperatively sustain elevated cAMP in PVH ^MC4R neurons, thereby potentiating feeding-related excitatory inputs and promoting satiation across minutes. Our findings highlight how state-dependent integration of opposing, quantal peptidergic events by a common biochemical target calibrates energy intake.

Effect of Obesity on Masticatory Muscle Activity and Rhythmic Jaw Movements Evoked by Electrical Stimulation of Different Cortical Masticatory Areas

This study investigates rhythmic jaw movement (RJM) patterns and masticatory muscle activities during electrical stimulation in two cortical masticatory areas in obese male Zucker rats (OZRs), compared to their counterparts-lean male Zucker rats (LZRs) (seven each). At the age of 10 weeks, electromyographic (EMG) activity of the right anterior digastric muscle (RAD) and masseter muscles, and RJMs were recorded during repetitive intracortical micro-stimulation in the left anterior and posterior parts of the cortical masticatory area (A-area and P-area, respectively). Only P-area-elicited RJMs, which showed a more lateral shift and slower jaw-opening pattern than A-area-elicited RJMs, were affected by obesity. During P-area stimulation, the jaw-opening duration was significantly shorter (p < 0.01) in OZRs (24.3 ms) than LZRs (27.9 ms), the jaw-opening speed was significantly faster (p < 0.05) in OZRs (67.5 mm/s) than LZRs (50.8 mm/s), and the RAD EMG duration was significantly shorter (p < 0.01) in OZRs (5.2 ms) than LZR (6.9 ms). The two groups had no significant difference in the EMG peak-to-peak amplitude and EMG frequency parameters. This study shows that obesity affects the coordinated movement of masticatory components during cortical stimulation. While other factors may be involved, functional change in digastric muscle is partly involved in the mechanism.

The Association Between Eating Quickly and Excessive Gestational Weight Gain

Objectives

Maintaining an appropriate gestational weight gain (GWG) is essential for a safe pregnancy and delivery. This study aimed to determine the association between the habit of eating quickly and the risk of excessive GWG.

Methods

We administered a questionnaire on eating habits to 1246 pregnant Japanese women in their second to third trimesters. We categorized the participants into three groups according to their answers to the question "Do you eat quickly?" Group 1, "always" or "usually"; Group 2, "sometimes"; and Group 3, "rarely" or "never." We assessed GWG according to the "The Optimal Weight Gain Chart" (Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Japan), and those who exceeded the criteria were considered "excessive." Logistic regression analysis was performed with the risk of excess GWG as the dependent variable and quick food intake as the independent variable, to obtain relevant odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Model 1 was unadjusted, and Model 2 was adjusted for age, prepregnancy body mass index, energy intake, mother's educational attainment, household income, exercise habits, and childbearing experience.

Results

The OR (95% CI) for Groups 2 and 3 in Model 1, compared with Group 1, was 0.80 (0.62-1.05) and 0.61 (0.43-0.88), respectively (p for trend = 0.047). In Model 2, the OR (95% CI) for Groups 2 and 3 were 0.73 (0.55-0.96) and 0.59 (0.40-0.86), respectively (p for trend = 0.003).

Conclusion

These results suggest that quick food ingestion increases the risk of excessive GWG.

Ultra-processed foods and the development of obesity in adults

Ultra-processed foods (UPF) are ubiquitous in the modern-day food supply and widely consumed. High consumption of these foods has been suggested to contribute to the development of obesity in adults. The purpose of this review is to present and evaluate current literature on the relationship between UPF consumption and adult obesity. Cross-sectional studies (n = 9) among different populations worldwide show a positive association between UPF consumption and obesity. Longitudinal studies (n = 7) further demonstrate a positive association between UPF consumption and development of obesity, suggesting a potential causal influence of UPF consumption on obesity risk. However, only one randomized controlled trial has tested the causality of this association. The study included in this review found greater energy intake and weight gain with consumption of a high UPF diet compared to a high unprocessed food diet. The potential mechanisms by which UPF increase the risk of obesity include increased energy intake due to increased sugar consumption, decreased fiber consumption, and decreased protein density; however, more research is needed. Overall, the evidence identified in the current review consistently support a positive relation between high UPF consumption and obesity. While there is a need for more experimental research to establish causality and elucidate the mechanisms, the sum of the evidence supports a need for research on treatment modalities that include reductions in UPF consumption for the management of adult obesity.

Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Incidence of Obesity and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Adults: A Systematic Review of Prospective Studies

Ultra-processed foods (UPF) are energy-dense, nutritionally unbalanced products, low in fiber but high in saturated fat, salt, and sugar. Recently, UPF consumption has increased likewise the incidence of obesity and cardiometabolic diseases. To highlight a possible relationship, we conducted a systematic review of prospective studies from PubMed and Web of Science investigating the association between UPF consumption and the incidence of obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors. Seventeen studies were selected. Eight evaluated the incidence of general and abdominal obesity, one the incidence of impaired fasting blood glucose, four the incidence of diabetes, two the incidence of dyslipidemia, and only one the incidence of metabolic syndrome. Studies' quality was assessed according to the Critical Appraisal Checklist for cohort studies proposed by the Joanna Briggs Institute. Substantial agreement emerged among the studies in defining UPF consumption as being associated with the incident risk of general and abdominal obesity. More limited was the evidence on cardiometabolic risk. Nevertheless, most studies reported that UPF consumption as being associated with an increased risk of hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. In conclusion, evidence supports the existence of a relationship between UPF consumption and the incidence of obesity and cardiometabolic risk. However, further longitudinal studies considering diet quality and changes over time are needed.

Eating behaviors and incident cardiovascular disease in Japanese people: The population-based Panasonic cohort study 14

Evidence on common eating behaviors to support the prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in Japanese people is insufficient. This retrospective cohort study aimed to investigate the association of diet behaviors (e.g., skipping breakfast, eating speed, snack after dinner, and alcohol consumption) with incident CVD in Japanese individuals. Employees of Panasonic Corporation who underwent the annual health checkups and without a history of CVD at baseline were enrolled. The main outcome was incident 3-point major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). The secondary outcomes were incident coronary artery disease (CAD) and stroke. To assess the effect of BMI, the subgroup analysis was conducted. In total, 132,795 participants were included. Overall, 3,115, 1,982, and 1,165 participants developed 3-point MACE, CAD, and stroke, respectively. Skipping breakfast (HR: 1.13, 95% CI: 1.03-1.23) and fast eating (HR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.04-1.47) were associated with 3-point MACE in the participants overall. Skipping breakfast (HR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.10-1.37) and fast eating (HR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.12-1.71) were also associated with 3-point MACE in participants with BMI < 25 kg/m². In contrast, in participants with BMI ≥ 25 kg/m², these associations were not detectable (P value for the interaction between subgroups = 0.09 [skipping breakfast] and 0.03 [fast eating], respectively). The diet behavior is a potential risk factor of incident CVD in Japanese people, particularly in those with BMI < 25 kg/m².

Non-Classical Aspects of Obesity Pathogenesis and Their Relative Clinical Importance for Obesity Treatment

Obesity is a chronic disease and a major public health problem due to its association with non-communicable diseases and all-cause mortality. An increased energy intake and decreased physical activity have been long recognized as the classical parameters that contribute to the development of obesity. However, several other, non-classical factors have also been associated with obesity through various complex mechanisms. Some of them are diet related, such as diet quality, dietary habits and speed of eating. Other factors are non-dietary, such as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, sleep quality and quantity, psychotropic medications and light at night. The scope of the present narrative review is to address these non-classical factors that are implicated in the pathogenesis of obesity, to clarify their potential role in the management of obesity and, where possible, to provide some practical clinical recommendations.

Understanding consumer liking of beef patties with different firmness among younger and older adults using FaceReader™ and biometrics

Sensorial perceptions change as people age and biometrics analysis can be used to explore the unconscious consumer responses. Investigation was conducted of effects of consumer age (younger, 22-52 years; older, 60-76 years) on facial expression response (FER) during consumption of beef patties with varying firmness (soft, medium, hard) and taste (±plum sauce). Video images were collected and FERs analysed using FaceReader™. Younger people exhibited higher intensity for happy/sad/scared and lower intensity for neutral/disgusted, relative to older people. Interactions between age and texture/sauce showed little FER variation in older people, whereas younger people showed considerable FER variation. Younger people, but not older people, had lowest intensity of happy FER and highest intensity of angry FER for the hard patty. Sauce addition resulted in higher intensity of happy/contempt in younger consumers, but not older consumers. FER collected using FaceReader™ was successfully used to differentiate between the unconscious responses of younger and older consumers.

Combined effect of eating speed instructions and food texture modification on eating rate, appetite and later food intake

Modifying food texture and eating slowly each reduce appetite and energy intake. No study has evaluated the effect of combining these measures to slow eating speed and determine the effect on appetite. The aim of this study was to investigate whether there is a combined effect of manipulating oral processing behaviours (OPBs) in this manner on self-reported satiety and subsequent food intake. A 2 × 2 design was used with four breakfast conditions in total. Twenty-four participants attended four study visits where they were asked to consume one of two isocaloric fixed-portion breakfasts differing in texture: 1) granola with milk and 2) yogurt with muesli and conserve. Participants consumed each breakfast twice, with verbal instructions to chew slowly at one visit and at a normal rate at another. Consumption was video-recorded to behaviourally code OPBs. Participants completed visual analogue scales of self-reported appetite measures at the beginning of the test session, immediately prior to and immediately after breakfast consumption. They also completed a food diary documenting food intake for the remainder of the day. The breakfast designed to be eaten slowest (the harder-textured meal with instructions to eat slowly) was eaten at a slower rate, with a greater number of chews per bite and a slower bite rate (p < 0.001) compared to the other meals. No differences were observed between the breakfast conditions on subjective measures of post-prandial satiety, or subsequent energy or macronutrient consumption. Results of this study highlight that combined effects of texture and instructions are most effective at reducing eating rate, though eating slower was not shown to enhance post-meal satiety. Reduced eating speed has previously been shown to reduce ad-libitum energy intake. Future research should consider combined approaches to reduce eating speed, to mitigate the risk of overconsumption within meals.

Portion-control tableware differentially impacts eating behaviour in women with and without overweight

Portion control tableware has been described as a potentially effective approach for weight management, however the mechanisms by which these tools work remain unknown. We explored the processes by which a portion control (calibrated) plate with visual stimuli for starch, protein and vegetable amounts modulates food intake, satiety and meal eating behaviour. Sixty-five women (34 with overweight/obesity) participated in a counterbalanced cross-over trial in the laboratory, where they self-served and ate a hot meal including rice, meatballs and vegetables, once with a calibrated plate and once with a conventional (control) plate. A sub-sample of 31 women provided blood samples to measure the cephalic phase response to the meal. Effects of plate type were tested through linear mixed-effect models. Meal portion sizes (mean ± SD) were smaller for the calibrated compared with the control plate (served: 296 ± 69 vs 317 ± 78 g; consumed: 287 ± 71 vs 309 ± 79 g respectively), especially consumed rice (69 ± 24 vs 88 ± 30 g) (p < 0.05 for all comparisons). The calibrated plate significantly reduced bite size (3.4 ± 1.0 vs 3.7 ± 1.0 g; p < 0.01) in all women and eating rate (32.9 ± 9.5 vs 33.7 ± 9.2 g/min; p < 0.05), in lean women. Despite this, some women compensated for the reduced intake over the 8 h following the meal. Pancreatic polypeptide and ghrelin levels increased post-prandially with the calibrated plate but changes were not robust. Plate type had no influence on insulin, glucose levels, or memory for portion size. Meal size was reduced by a portion-control plate with visual stimuli for appropriate amounts of starch, protein and vegetables, potentially because of the reduced self-served portion size and the resulting reduced bite size. Sustained effects may require the continued use of the plate for long-term impact.

How Fast Do “Owls” and “Larks” Eat?

Chronotype is a reflection of an individual’s preference for sleeping, eating and activity times over a 24 h period. Based on these circadian preferences, three chronotype categories have been identified: morning (MC) (lark), intermediate (IC) and evening (EC) (owl). Chronotype categories have been reported to influence dietary habits; subjects with EC are more prone to follow unhealthy diets. In order to better characterize the eating habits of subjects with obesity belonging to three different chronotype categories, we investigated eating speed during the three main meals in a population of subjects with overweight/obesity. For this purpose, we included 81 subjects with overweight/obesity (aged 46.38 ± 16.62 years; BMI 31.48 ± 7.30 kg/m2) in a cross-sectional, observational study. Anthropometric parameters and lifestyle habits were studied. Chronotype score was assessed using the Morningness–Eveningness questionnaire (based on their scores, subjects were categorized as MC, IC or EC). To investigate the duration of main meals, a dietary interview by a qualified nutritionist was conducted. Subjects with MC spend significantly more time on lunch than subjects with EC (p = 0.017) and significantly more time on dinner than subjects with IC (p = 0.041). Furthermore, the chronotype score correlated positively with the minutes spent at lunch (p = 0.001) and dinner (p = 0.055, trend toward statistical significance). EC had a fast eating speed and this, in addition to better characterizing the eating habits of this chronotype category, could also contribute to the risk of developing obesity-related cardiometabolic diseases.

Eating speed and abdominal adiposity in middle-aged adults: a cross-sectional study in Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Several studies have associated fast eating speed with the risk of general obesity, but there are inadequate data on the association between eating speed and abdominal adiposity which may pose a higher threat to health than general obesity. The present study aimed to investigate the association between eating speed and abdominal obesity in a Vietnamese population.

METHODS

Between June 2019 and June 2020, the baseline survey of an ongoing prospective cohort study on the determinants of cardiovascular disease in Vietnamese adults was conducted. A total of 3,000 people aged 40-60 years old (1,160 men and 1,840 women) were recruited from eight communes in the rural district of Cam Lam, Khanh Hoa province, in Central Vietnam. Self-reported eating speed was assessed on a 5-point Likert scale, and responses were collapsed into the following three categories: slow, normal, and fast. Abdominal obesity was defined as a waist-to-height ratio of ≥ 0.5. Poisson regression with a robust variance estimator was used to assess the association between eating speed and abdominal obesity.

RESULTS

Compared with slow eating speed, the adjusted prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval) for abdominal obesity was 1.14 (1.05, 1.25)1.14 (1.05, 1.25) for normal eating speed and 1.30 (1.19, 1.41) for fast eating speed (P for trend < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

A faster eating speed was associated with a higher prevalence of abdominal obesity in a middle-aged population in rural Vietnam.

Eating Vegetables First Regardless of Eating Speed Has a Significant Reducing Effect on Postprandial Blood Glucose and Insulin in Young Healthy Women: Randomized Controlled Cross-Over Study

People with fast eating habits have been reported to have an increased risk of diabetes and obesity. To explore whether the speed of eating a test meal (tomato, broccoli, fried fish, and boiled white rice) influences postprandial blood glucose, insulin, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels, 18 young, healthy women consumed a 671 kcal breakfast at fast speed (10 min) and slow speed (20 min) with vegetables first and slow speed (20 min) with carbohydrate first on three separate days. This study was conducted using a within-participants cross-over design in which all participants consumed identical meals of three different eating speeds and food orders. Significant ameliorations of both fast and slow eating with vegetables first regimen on postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels at 30 and 60 min were observed compared with those of slow eating with carbohydrates first. In addition, the standard deviation, large amplitude of excursion, and incremental area under the curve for blood glucose and insulin in both fast and slow eating with vegetables first were all significantly lower than those of slow eating with carbohydrate first. Interestingly, there was no significant difference between fast and slow eating on postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels as long as vegetables were consumed first, although postprandial blood glucose at 30 min was significantly lower in slow eating with vegetables first than that of fast eating with the same food order. These results suggest that food order with vegetables first and carbohydrate last ameliorates postprandial blood glucose and insulin concentrations even if the meal was consumed at fast speed.

Ad libitum meal energy intake is positively influenced by energy density, eating rate and hyper-palatable food across four dietary patterns

Diets for the prevention and treatment of obesity are often informed by theories about food characteristics believed to support spontaneous reductions in ad libitum energy intake without inducing hunger. Here we estimated how energy density, hyper-palatability, protein content and eating rate affected ad libitum energy intake of 2,733 meals from four dietary patterns. Energy density, eating rate and hyper-palatable foods were consistently positively related to meal energy intake across all diets. Protein content was positively related to meal energy intake during ultraprocessed and unprocessed diets but was not significantly related to energy intake of minimally processed low-fat or low-carbohydrate meals.

A Conceptual Model for Mobile Health-enabled Slow Eating Strategies

Ingestive behaviors (IBs) (eg, bites, chews, oral processing, swallows, pauses) have meaningful roles in enhancing satiety, promoting fullness, and decreasing food consumption, and thus may be an underused strategy for obesity prevention and treatment. Limited IB monitoring research has been conducted because of a lack of accurate automated measurement capabilities outside laboratory settings. Self-report methods are used, but they have questionable validity and reliability. This paper aimed to present a conceptual model in which IB, specifically slow eating, supported by technological advancements, contributes to controlling hedonic and homeostatic processes, providing an opportunity to reduce energy intake, and improve health outcomes.

Dispositional need to belong and increased eating after social exclusion

Social exclusion affects the fundamental needs of individuals, and their coping behavior is moderated by their dispositional need to belong. Eating can be one such behavior. However, it is unclear how people with a higher or lower dispositional need to belong respond with respect to food consumption in response to social exclusion. Thus, this study aims to investigate which of these groups eat more food after social exclusion. Ninety-seven university students in Japan participated in two types of Cyberball games (where they either experienced social exclusion or social inclusion) in which their social exclusion status was manipulated. They subsequently participated in a test in which they ate as many cookies as they desired. Finally, they answered questions about their dispositional need to belong. Their BMI was also recorded. Results showed that when socially excluded, individuals with a low need to belong increased their consumption, while those with a high need to belong did not. We suggest that people with a lower need to belong are more inclined to focus on goals other than inclusion and instead use eating as a coping mechanism.

Systems biology of human aging: A Fibonacci time series model

Fractals are everywhere in nature, particularly at the interfaces where matter or energy must be transferred, since they maximize surface area while minimizing energy losses. Temporal fractals have been well studied at micro scales in human biology, but have received comparatively little attention at broader macro scales. In this paper, we describe a fractal time series model of human aging from a systems biology perspective. This model examines how intrinsic aging rates are shaped by entropy and Fibonacci fractal dynamics, with implications for the emergence of key life cycle traits. This proposition is supported by research findings. The finding of an intrinsic aging rate rooted in Fibonacci fractal dynamics represents a new predictive paradigm in evolutionary biology.

Eating pace instruction is effective in slowing eating rate in women with overweight and obesity

Slow eating is associated with lower body mass index (BMI), enhanced satiety, and reduced food intake in laboratory settings. This study developed and tested a 5-week slow-eating intervention, delivered either through individual or small group weekly meetings, in women with overweight and obesity. Women (n = 65; 20.5 ± 3.6 years; BMI 31.3 ± 2.7 kg/m²) were assigned to experimental or parallel non-treatment control. Main outcomes, measured pre- and post-intervention, included eating rate, meal duration, and energy intake during a standardized meal served on a universal eating monitor. Exploratory outcomes included Weight Related Eating Questionnaire (WREQ), Intuitive Eating Scale (IES), and Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ) scores. All women in the experimental group underwent the same slow-eating intervention, but half had individual sessions while the other half had small group sessions. No differences were seen for any outcomes between session modalities, so experimental data were pooled (n = 25) and compared to control data (n = 25). Time-by-group interactions showed reduced eating rate (F_(1,48df) = 13.04, η² = 0.214, p = .001) and increased meal duration (F_(1,48df) = 7.949, η² = 0.142, p = .007) in the experimental group compared to the control group but change in energy intake was not significant (F_(1,48df) = 3.298, η² = 0.064, p = .076). Experimental within-group changes for WREQ subscale scores External Cues (t₍₂₃₎ = 3.779, p = .001) and Emotional Eating (t₍₂₃₎ = 2.282, p = .032) decreased over time, along with increased total and summary IES (t₍₂₃₎ = 2.6330, p = .015) and MEQ (t₍₂₃₎ = 2.663, p = .014) scores. Promising findings of reduced eating rate, increased meal duration, and improved WREQ, IES, and MEQ scores should be followed up in larger more diverse samples for longer durations.

Eating rate and bite size were related to food intake across meals varying in portion size: A randomized crossover trial in adults

Serving larger portions leads to increased food intake, but behavioral factors that influence the magnitude of this portion size effect have not been well characterized. We investigated whether measures of eating microstructure such as eating rate and bite size moderated the portion size effect. We also explored how sensory-specific satiety (SSS; the relative hedonic decline of a food as it is eaten) was affected by eating microstructure and larger portions. In a randomized crossover design, 44 adults aged 18-68 y (66% women; 46% with overweight and obesity) ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for 4 weeks. The meal consisted of pasta that was varied in portion size (400, 500, 600, or 700 g) and 700 g of water. Meals were video-recorded to assess bite count and meal duration, which were used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). At each meal participants also completed an assessment of SSS. The results showed that as larger portions were served, meal intake increased in a curvilinear manner (p < 0.0001). Measures of eating microstructure did not moderate the portion size effect but were related to intake across all portions; faster eating rate, larger bite size, higher bite count, and longer meal duration were associated with greater consumption at all meals (all p < 0.0001). SSS was not influenced by any measure of eating microstructure or by portion size (all p > 0.10). In summary, the portion size effect was not moderated by eating microstructure, but relatively faster eating rates and larger bite sizes at meals, along with large portions, combined to increase food intake.

Influences of Child Temperament and Household Chaos on Preschoolers' Emotional Eating

Background: Emotional eating has been linked to child temperament and family environment factors, such as household chaos. However, few studies have examined how child and home characteristics independently and together influence children's overeating and undereating in response to negative emotions. Objective: The current study examined associations among child temperament, household chaos, and emotional eating in children 18-24 months of age, and interaction effects were also tested. Methods: The study included an analysis sample of 371 families participating in the larger STRONG Kids2 longitudinal birth cohort study (N = 468). The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire was used to assess child temperament at 18 months, and the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale was used to assess disorganization in the household at 24 months. Child emotional eating at 24 months was assessed using parental reports of the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Results: Negative affectivity and household chaos were independently associated with child emotional overeating. Negative affectivity, effortful control, and household chaos were significantly associated with emotional undereating. No significant interactions were found. Conclusions: Child temperament and household environment independently influence emotional eating in young children, highlighting the need to consider these factors in early prevention. Longitudinal studies are warranted to determine mechanisms that may be involved in these relations.

Development and validation of a new methodological platform to measure behavioral, cognitive, and physiological responses to food interventions in real time

To fully understand the causes and mechanisms involved in overeating and obesity, measures of both cognitive and physiological determinants of eating behavior need to be integrated. Effectively synchronizing behavioral measures such as meal micro-structure (e.g., eating speed), cognitive processing of sensory stimuli, and metabolic parameters, can be complex. However, this step is central to understanding the impact of food interventions on body weight. In this paper, we provide an overview of the existing gaps in eating behavior research and describe the development and validation of a new methodological platform to address some of these issues. As part of a controlled trial, 76 men and women self-served and consumed food from a buffet, using a portion-control plate with visual stimuli for appropriate amounts of main food groups, or a conventional plate, on two different days, in a random order. In both sessions participants completed behavioral and cognitive tests using a novel methodological platform that measured gaze movement (as a proxy for visual attention), eating rate and bite size, memory for portion sizes, subjective appetite and portion-size perceptions. In a sub-sample of women, hormonal secretion in response to the meal was also measured. The novel platform showed a significant improvement in meal micro-structure measures from published data (13 vs. 33% failure rate) and high comparability between an automated gaze mapping protocol vs. manual coding for eye-tracking studies involving an eating test (ICC between methods 0.85; 90% CI 0.74, 0.92). This trial was registered at Clinical Trials.gov with Identifier NCT03610776.

Capturing Eating Behavior from Video Analysis: A Systematic Review

Current methods to detect eating behavior events (i.e., bites, chews, and swallows) lack objective measurements, standard procedures, and automation. The video recordings of eating episodes provide a non-invasive and scalable source for automation. Here, we reviewed the current methods to automatically detect eating behavior events from video recordings. According to PRISMA guidelines, publications from 2010-2021 in PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar were screened through title and abstract, leading to the identification of 277 publications. We screened the full text of 52 publications and included 13 for analysis. We classified the methods in five distinct categories based on their similarities and analyzed their accuracy. Facial landmarks can count bites, chews, and food liking automatically (accuracy: 90%, 60%, 25%). Deep neural networks can detect bites and gesture intake (accuracy: 91%, 86%). The active appearance model can detect chewing (accuracy: 93%), and optical flow can count chews (accuracy: 88%). Video fluoroscopy can track swallows but is currently not suitable beyond clinical settings. The optimal method for automated counts of bites and chews is facial landmarks, although further improvements are required. Future methods should accurately predict bites, chews, and swallows using inexpensive hardware and limited computational capacity. Automatic eating behavior analysis will allow the study of eating behavior and real-time interventions to promote healthy eating behaviors.

Body mass index and variability in meal duration and association with rate of eating

Background

A fast rate of eating is associated with a higher risk for obesity but existing studies are limited by reliance on self-report and the consistency of eating rate has not been examined across all meals in a day. The goal of the current analysis was to examine associations between meal duration, rate of eating, and body mass index (BMI) and to assess the variance of meal duration and eating rate across different meals during the day.

Methods

Using an observational cross-sectional study design, non-smoking participants aged 18–45 years (N = 29) consumed all meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) on a single day in a pseudo free-living environment. Participants were allowed to choose any food and beverages from a University food court and consume their desired amount with no time restrictions. Weighed food records and a log of meal start and end times, to calculate duration, were obtained by a trained research assistant. Spearman's correlations and multiple linear regressions examined associations between BMI and meal duration and rate of eating.

Results

Participants were 65% male and 48% white. A shorter meal duration was associated with a higher BMI at breakfast but not lunch or dinner, after adjusting for age and sex (p = 0.03). Faster rate of eating was associated with higher BMI across all meals (p = 0.04) and higher energy intake for all meals (p < 0.001). Intra-individual rates of eating were not significantly different across breakfast, lunch, and dinner (p = 0.96).

Conclusion

Shorter beakfast and a faster rate of eating across all meals were associated with higher BMI in a pseudo free-living environment. An individual's rate of eating is constant over all meals in a day. These data support weight reduction interventions focusing on the rate of eating at all meals throughout the day and provide evidence for specifically directing attention to breakfast eating behaviors.

Acute effect of Melon Manis Terengganu peel powder on glycemic response, perceived satiety, and food intake: a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Melon Manis Terengganu (MMT) peel has a high dietary fiber content, but there is no data examining its health benefits in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes. The objective of the study was to evaluate whether consumption of MMT peel powder improves glycemic response, satiety, and food intake in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

An open-label, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover design trial was conducted among adults (n = 30, ages 18-59 y) at risk of type 2 diabetes. They consumed Formulation 3 (formulated MMT peel powder) [A] and control (glucose) [B] with study breakfast based on randomly assigned treatment sequences (AB, BA) established by Research Randomizer ( www.randomizer.org ). Capillary blood glucose and perceived satiety were determined at baseline (0 min), 30, 60, 90 and 120 min, followed by a post-intervention food intake measurement.

RESULTS

The repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant time (F = 84.37, p <  0.001, η_p² = 0.744), condition (F = 22.89, p <  0.001, η_p² = 0.441), and time*condition effects (F = 24.40, p <  0.001, η_p² = 0.457) in blood glucose levels. Respondents (n = 30) who consumed Formulation 3 also had a significantly lower blood glucose 2-hour incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of 134.65 ± 44.51 mmol/L*min and maximum concentration (CMax) of 7.20 (7.10, 8.20) mmol/L with relative reduction of 26.8 and 13.3% respectively, when compared with control (p <  0.001). Besides, significantly greater perceived satiety, lower energy and fat intake as well as higher dietary fiber intake were also observed in the intervention group compared with the placebo group (p <  0.05). There were no marked side effects associated with the ingestion of the test products.

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term consumption of formulated MMT peel powder may improve glycemic response, increase perceived satiety and reduce food intake in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes with the potential to be utilized as a functional beverage. Medium-to long-term clinical trial is warranted to determine whether taking this formulated MMT peel powder on a daily basis has an influence on health outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05298111. Registered 28/03/2022.

Time to revisit the passive overconsumption hypothesis? Humans show sensitivity to calories in energy-rich meals

BACKGROUND

A possible driver of obesity is insensitivity (passive overconsumption) to food energy density (ED, kcal/g); however, it is unclear whether this insensitivity applies to all meals.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the influence of ED on energy intake (kcal) across a broad and continuous range of EDs comprised of noncovertly manipulated, real-world meals. We also allowed for the possibility that the association between energy intake and ED is nonlinear.

METHODS

We completed a secondary analysis of 1519 meals which occurred in a controlled environment as part of a study conducted by Hall and colleagues to assess the effects of food ultra-processing on energy intake. To establish the generalizability of the findings, the analyses were repeated in 32,162 meals collected from free-living humans using data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS). Segmented regressions were performed to establish ED "breakpoints" at which the association between consumed meal ED and mean centered meal caloric intake (kcal) changed.

RESULTS

Significant breakpoints were found in both the Hall et al. data set (1.41 kcal/g) and the NDNS data set (1.75 and 2.94 kcal/g). Centered meal caloric intake did not increase linearly with consumed meal ED, and this pattern was captured by a 2-component ("volume" and "calorie content" [biologically derived from the sensing of fat, carbohydrate, and protein]) model of physical meal size (g), in which volume is the dominant signal with lower energy-dense foods and calorie content is the dominant signal with higher energy-dense foods.

CONCLUSIONS

These analyses reveal that, on some level, humans are sensitive to the energy content of meals and adjust meal size to minimize the acute aversive effects of overconsumption. Future research should consider the relative importance of volume and calorie-content signals, and how individual differences impact everyday dietary behavior and energy balance.

More value from less food? Effects of epicurean labeling on moderate eating in the United States and in France

Emerging research has shown that sensory-based interventions (e.g., inviting people to mindfully focus on the multisensory aspects of eating) can be a viable alternative to nutrition-based interventions (e.g., nutrition labeling) to encourage moderate eating. We contribute to this literature in two ways. First, we propose a novel and simple sensory-based intervention to increase the appeal of moderate food portions in commercial settings, epicurean labeling, which consists in emphasizing the aesthetic, multisensory properties of the food when describing it on menus or packages. Second, we show theory-relevant cross-cultural differences in the effectiveness of this intervention between the United States and France, two food cultures at the opposite ends of the hedonic-utilitarian food attitude spectrum. We report the results of a multi-day field experiment at a French cafeteria showing that epicurean labeling, unlike nutrition labeling, reduces intake while increasing the perceived monetary value of the meal thanks to higher savoring. We then show in a matched cross-national online experiment that epicurean labeling is more effective in France than in the United States. We provide additional evidence of this cross-cultural variation in a study of 9154 food products sold in supermarkets in both countries. We find that epicurean labeling is more prevalent, but also more likely to be associated with smaller portions in France than in the United States. While sensory-based interventions are a promising alternative to nutrition-based interventions, it is necessary to develop business-friendly interventions that can be implemented in everyday life, as well as to consider cultural factors that can modulate their effectiveness.