Early supplementation of phospholipids and gangliosides affects brain and cognitive development in neonatal piglets

Dietary intake of a MFGM/EV-rich concentrate promotes accretion of very long odd-chain sphingolipids and increases lipid metabolic turnover at the whole-body level

Lipids from cow milk fat globule membranes (MFGMs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered beneficial for neurodevelopment, cognitive maintenance and human health in general. Nevertheless, it is largely unknown whether intake of infant formulas and medical nutrition products rich in these particles promote accretion of specific lipids and whether this affects metabolic homeostasis. To address this, we carried out a 16-week dietary intervention study where mice were supplemented with a MFGM/EV-rich concentrate, a control diet supplemented with a whey protein concentrate and devoid of milk lipids, or regular chow. Assessment of commonly used markers of metabolic health, including body weight, glucose intolerance and liver microanatomy, demonstrated no differences across the dietary regimes. In contrast, in-depth lipidomic analysis revealed accretion of milk-derived very long odd-chain sphingomyelins and ceramides in blood plasma and multiple tissues of mice fed the MFGM/EV diet. Furthermore, lipidomic flux analysis uncovered that mice fed the MFGM/EV diet have increased lipid metabolic turnover at the whole-body level. These findings help fill a long-lasting knowledge gap between the intake of MFGM/EV-containing foods and the health-promoting effects of their lipid constituents. In addition, the findings suggest that dietary sphingomyelins or ceramide-breakdown products with very long-chains can be used as structural components of cellular membranes, lipoprotein particles and signaling molecules that modulate metabolic homeostasis and health.

A combination of phospholipids and long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids supports neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants: a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial

Phospholipids (PLs) and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) are naturally present in breast milk and play important roles in promoting the growth of the infant. Several studies have investigated the effects of the combination of PLs and LCPUFAs on neurodevelopment. However, data on the effectiveness of infant formula containing both PLs and LCPUFAs on the neurodevelopment of infants is still scarce. This randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical study was designed to evaluate the effect of an infant formula enriched with PLs and LCPUFAs on growth parameters and neurodevelopmental outcomes in term infants up to 365 days of age. Infants were enrolled within 30 days of birth who were then randomly assigned to either a control group (n = 150) or an investigational group (n = 150). Both groups consist of cow's milk-based formula which were generally identical in terms of composition, except that the investigational formula was additionally supplemented with PLs and LCPUFAs. The infants were followed for the first year of life. Breastfed infants were the reference (n = 150). Bayley Scales of Infant Development [3rd edition (Bayley-III)], Carey Toddler Temperament Scales (TTS), MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), Single Object Attention and Free Play Tasks were used to evaluate neurodevelopmental outcomes of infant at 365 days of age. In addition, Ages and Stages Questionnaires (ASQ) were also conducted at 120, 180, and 275 days of age. Compared to breastfeeding, both infant formulas were well-tolerated and provided adequate growth, with no adverse events being reported throughout the study. Infants of the investigational group showed higher mean scores in Bayley-III cognitive performance (104.3 vs. 99.0, p < 0.05), language (106.9 vs. 104.5, p < 0.05), and motor skills (109.2 vs. 103.9, p < 0.05) compared the control group. Similar results were being reported for other developmental scales including TTS and ASQ. Notably, the test scores of infants fed the investigational formula were similar to those who were breastfed. Our results indicate that PL and LCPUFA supplementation may be beneficial for neurodevelopment of infants throughout the first year of life. Further studies are needed to investigation long-term effects PL and LCPUFA on neurodevelopment in early life.

The probiotic Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus HN001 influences the architecture and gene expression of small intestine tissue in a piglet model

This study investigated the effects of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus HN001 supplementation on the architecture and gene expression in small intestinal tissues of piglets used as an animal model for infant humans. Twenty-four 10-d-old entire male piglets (4·3 (sd 0·59) kg body weight) were fed an infant formula (IF) (control) or IF supplemented with 1·3 × 105 (low dose) or 7·9 × 106 (high dose) colony-forming units HN001 per ml of reconstituted formula (n 8 piglets/treatment). After 24 d, piglets were euthanised. Samples were collected to analyse the histology and gene expression (RNAseq and qPCR) in the jejunal and ileal tissues, blood cytokine concentrations, and blood and faecal calprotectin concentrations. HN001 consumption altered (false discovery rate < 0·05) gene expression (RNAseq) in jejunal tissues but not in ileal tissues. The number of ileal goblet cells and crypt surface area increased quadratically (P < 0·05) as dietary HN001 levels increased, but no increase was observed in the jejunal tissues. Similarly, blood plasma concentrations of IL-10 and calprotectin increased linearly (P < 0·05) as dietary HN001 levels increased. In conclusion, supplementation of IF with HN001 affected the architecture and gene expression of small intestine tissue, blood cytokine concentration and frequencies, and blood calprotectin concentrations, indicating that HN001 modulated small intestinal tissue maturation and immunity in the piglet model.

Lipidomic Characterization of Whey Concentrates Rich in Milk Fat Globule Membranes and Extracellular Vesicles

Lipids from milk fat globule membranes (MFGMs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered beneficial for cognitive development and human health. Milk-derived whey concentrates rich in these lipids are therefore used as ingredients in infant formulas to mimic human milk and in medical nutrition products to improve the metabolic fitness of adults and elderly people. In spite of this, there is no consensus resource detailing the multitude of lipid molecules in whey concentrates. To bridge this knowledge gap, we report a comprehensive and quantitative lipidomic resource of different whey concentrates. In-depth lipidomic analysis of acid, sweet, and buttermilk whey concentrates identified 5714 lipid molecules belonging to 23 lipid classes. The data show that the buttermilk whey concentrate has the highest level of fat globule-derived triacylglycerols and that the acid and sweet whey concentrates have the highest proportions of MFGM- and EV-derived membrane lipids. Interestingly, the acid whey concentrate has a higher level of cholesterol whereas sweet whey concentrate has higher levels of lactosylceramides. Altogether, we report a detailed lipid molecular compendium of whey concentrates and lay the groundwork for using in-depth lipidomic technology to profile the nutritional value of milk products and functional foods containing dairy-based concentrates.

A hydrolyzed lipid blend diet promotes myelination in neonatal piglets in a region and concentration-dependent manner

The impact of early life nutrition on myelin development is of interest given that cognitive and behavioral function depends on proper myelination. Evidence shows that myelination can be altered by dietary lipid, but most of these studies have been performed in the context of disease or impairment. Here, we assessed the effects of lipid blends containing various levels of a hydrolyzed fat (HF) system on myelination in healthy piglets. Piglets were sow-reared, fed a control diet, or a diet containing 12%, 25%, or 53% HF consisting of cholesterol, fatty acids, monoglycerides, and phospholipid from lecithin. At postnatal day 28/29, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed to assess changes to brain development, followed by brain collection for microscopic analyses of myelin in targeted regions using CLARITY tissue clearing, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy techniques. Sow-reared piglets exhibited the highest overall brain white matter volume by MRI. However, a 25% HF diet resulted in the greatest total myelin density in the prefrontal cortex based on 3D modeling analysis of myelinated filaments. Nodal gap length and g-ratio were inversely correlated with percentage of HF in the corpus callosum, as well as in the PFC and internal capsule for g-ratio, indicating that a 53% HF diet resulted in the thickest myelin per axon and a 0% HF control diet the thinnest in specific brain regions. These findings indicate that HF promoted myelination in the neonatal piglet in a region- and concentration-dependent manner.

Maternal choline supplementation protects against age-associated cholinergic and GABAergic basal forebrain neuron degeneration in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease

Down syndrome (DS) is a genetic disorder caused by triplication of human chromosome 21. In addition to intellectual disability, DS is defined by a premature aging phenotype and Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathology, including septohippocampal circuit vulnerability and degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs). The Ts65Dn mouse model recapitulates key aspects of DS/AD pathology, namely age-associated atrophy of BFCNs and cognitive decline in septohippocampal-dependent behavioral tasks. We investigated whether maternal choline supplementation (MCS), a well-tolerated treatment modality, protects vulnerable BFCNs from age- and genotype-associated degeneration in trisomic offspring. We also examined the effect of trisomy, and MCS, on GABAergic basal forebrain parvalbumin neurons (BFPNs), an unexplored neuronal population in this DS model. Unbiased stereological analyses of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-immunoreactive BFCNs and parvalbumin-immunoreactive BFPNs were conducted using confocal z-stacks of the medial septal nucleus and the vertical limb of the diagonal band (MSN/VDB) in Ts65Dn mice and disomic (2N) littermates at 3-4 and 10-12 months of age. MCS trisomic offspring displayed significant increases in ChAT-immunoreactive neuron number and density compared to unsupplemented counterparts, as well as increases in the area of the MSN/VDB occupied by ChAT-immunoreactive neuropil. MCS also rescued BFPN number and density in Ts65Dn offspring, a novel rescue of a non-cholinergic cell population. Furthermore, MCS prevented age-associated loss of BFCNs and MSN/VDB regional area in 2N offspring, indicating genotype-independent neuroprotective benefits. These findings demonstrate MCS provides neuroprotection of vulnerable BFCNs and non-cholinergic septohippocampal BFPNs, indicating this modality has translational value as an early life therapy for DS, as well as extending benefits to the aging population at large.

Bioactive Functions of Lipids in the Milk Fat Globule Membrane: A Comprehensive Review

The milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a complex tri-layer membrane that wraps droplets of lipids in milk. In recent years, it has attracted widespread attention due to its excellent bioactive functions and nutritional value. MFGM contains a diverse array of bioactive lipids, including cholesterol, phospholipids, and sphingolipids, which play pivotal roles in mediating the bioactivity of the MFGM. We sequentially summarize the main lipid types in the MFGM in this comprehensive review and outline the characterization methods used to employ them. In this comprehensive review, we sequentially describe the types of major lipids found in the MFGM and outline the characterization methods employed to study them. Additionally, we compare the structural disparities among glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and gangliosides, while introducing the formation of lipid rafts facilitated by cholesterol. The focus of this review revolves around an extensive evaluation of the current research on lipid isolates from the MFGM, as well as products containing MFGM lipids, with respect to their impact on human health. Notably, we emphasize the clinical trials encompassing a large number of participants. The summarized bioactive functions of MFGM lipids encompass the regulation of human growth and development, influence on intestinal health, inhibition of cholesterol absorption, enhancement of exercise capacity, and anticancer effects. By offering a comprehensive overview, the aim of this review is to provide valuable insights into the diverse biologically active functions exhibited by lipids in the MFGM.

Improved Neurodevelopmental Outcomes at 5.5 Years of Age in Children Who Received Bovine Milk Fat Globule Membrane and Lactoferrin in Infant Formula Through 12 Months: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the neurodevelopmental outcomes at 5.5 years of age in children who were previously randomized to cow milk-based infant formula (control) or similar formula (milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin) with added sources of bovine milk fat globule membrane and bovine lactoferrin through 12 months of age.

DESIGN

Children who completed study feeding were invited to participate in follow-up assessments: cognitive development across multiple domains (primary outcome; Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence, 4th Edition), inhibitory control/rule learning (Stroop Task), flexibility/rule learning (Dimensional Change Card Sort), and behavior/emotion (Child Behavior Checklist).

RESULTS

Of 292 eligible participants (control: 148, milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin: 144), 116 enrolled and completed assessments (control: 59, milk fat globule membrane + LF: 57). There were no group demographic differences except family income (milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin significantly higher). Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence, 4th Edition composite scores (mean ± standard error) for Visual Spatial (100.6 ± 1.7 vs 95.3 ± 1.7; P = .027), Processing Speed (107.1 ± 1.4 vs 100.0 ± 1.4; P < .001), and Full-Scale IQ (98.7 ± 1.4 vs 93.5 ± 1.5; P = .012) were significantly higher for milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin versus control, even after controlling for demographic/socioeconomic factors. Stroop Task scores were significantly higher in milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin versus control (P < .001). Higher Dimensional Change Card Sort scores (P = .013) in the border phase (most complex/challenging) were detected, and more children passed the border phase (32% vs 12%; P = .039) for milk fat globule membrane versus control. No group differences in Child Behavior Checklist score were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Children who received infant formula to 12 months of age with added bovine milk fat globule membrane and bovine lactoferrin versus standard formula demonstrated improved cognitive outcomes in multiple domains at 5.5 years of age, including measures of intelligence and executive function.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04442477.

Dynamic Interplay between Social Brain Development and Nutrient Intake in Young Children

Myelination of the brain structures underlying social behavior in humans is a dynamic process that parallels the emergence of social-emotional development and social skills in early life. Of the many genetic and environmental factors regulating the myelination processes, nutrition is considered as a critical and modifiable early-life factor for establishing healthy social brain networks. However, the impact of nutrition on the longitudinal development of social brain myelination remains to be fully understood. This study examined the interplay between childhood nutrient intake and social brain development across the first 5 years of life. Myelin-sensitive neuroimaging and food-intake data were analyzed in 293 children, 0.5 to 5 years of age, and explored for dynamic patterns of nutrient-social brain myelin associations. We found three data-driven age windows with specific nutrient correlation patterns, 63 individual nutrient-myelin correlations, and six nutrient combinations with a statistically significant predictive value for social brain myelination. These results provide novel insights into the impact of specific nutrient intakes on early brain development, in particular social brain regions, and suggest a critical age-sensitive opportunity to impact these brain regions for potential longer-term improvements in socio-emotional development and related executive-function and critical-thinking skills.

Fucosylated Human Milk Oligosaccharides during the First 12 Postnatal Weeks Are Associated with Better Executive Functions in Toddlers

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are one of the most abundant solid components in a mother's milk. Animal studies have confirmed a link between early life exposure to HMOs and better cognitive outcomes in the offspring. Human studies on HMOs and associations with later child cognition are scarce. In this preregistered longitudinal study, we investigated whether human milk 2'-fucosyllactose, 3'-sialyllactose, 6'-sialyllactose, grouped fucosylated HMOs, and grouped sialylated HMOs, assessed during the first twelve postnatal weeks, are associated with better child executive functions at age three years. At infant age two, six, and twelve weeks, a sample of human milk was collected by mothers who were exclusively (n = 45) or partially breastfeeding (n = 18). HMO composition was analysed by use of porous graphitized carbon-ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Executive functions were assessed at age three years with two executive function questionnaires independently filled in by mothers and their partners, and four behavioural tasks. Multiple regression analyses were performed in R. Results indicated that concentrations of 2'-fucosyllactose and grouped fucosylated HMOs were associated with better executive functions, while concentrations of grouped sialylated HMOs were associated with worse executive functions at age three years. Future studies on HMOs that sample frequently during the first months of life and experimental HMO administration studies in exclusively formula-fed infants can further reveal associations with child cognitive development and uncover potential causality and sensitive periods.

Milk fat globule membrane plus milk fat increase docosahexaenoic acid availability in infant formulas

PURPOSE

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) has components with emulsifier properties that could affect the provision of substrates to the brain. We evaluated the effects of MFGM plus milk fat addition to infant formulas on docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) availability and gut development.

METHODS

In Experiment 1, suckling piglets were divided into 3 groups: Group L1 (n = 8): fed with a vegetal fat formula with palm oil; L2 (n = 8): canola oil formula and L3 (n = 8): milk fat + canola oil + 1% Lacprodan (3% MFGM of total protein content). In Experiment 2, Group L4 (n = 7): fed with canola oil + 1% Lacprodan (3% MFGM) and Group L5 (n = 5): milk fat + canola oil + 2% Lacprodan (6% MFGM). All formulas contained 0.2% DHA and 0.2% arachidonic acid.

RESULTS

In Experiment 1, DHA was similar among the groups in both total fatty acids and plasma phospholipids (PL). However, 3% MFGM (L3) increased significantly the proportion of DHA and LC-PUFA n-3 in liver total fatty acids, jejunum, and also in jejunum PL respect to the other formulas. There were no changes in gut histology, cell proliferation, apoptosis, or brain DHA content. In Experiment 2, higher MFGM dose was used. Then, higher DHA was not only found in peripheral tissues of 6% MFGM (L5) piglets but also in plasma PL, while a similar trend was observed in cortex PL (p = 0.123).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, MFGM plus milk fat may increase DHA availability of infant formulas which could contribute to their beneficial health effects.

The impact of breast milk feeding on early brain development in preterm infants in China: An observational study

BACKGROUND

The prevailing consensus from large epidemiological studies is that breastfeeding is associated with improved IQ and cognitive functioning in later childhood and adolescence. Current research is exploring the association between breastfeeding and early brain development in preterm infants.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the differences in brain gray matter between breastmilk-fed and formula-fed preterm infants using structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging.

METHODS

A convenience sample of breastmilk-fed preterm infants(n = 34) and formula-fed infants (n = 22) aged approximately 32 weeks. At near term-equivalent age, MR scanning was performed. Gray matter structural and functional differences between the two groups were assessed using MATLAB software for voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) analysis.

RESULTS

Maternal and neonatal demographic characteristics showed no significant difference between the two groups. Breastmilk-fed infants had greater regional gray matter volume on MRI than formula-fed infants in multiple brain regions, including the bilateral frontal lobe (BA11, BA46), right temporal lobe (BA37), and left caudate nucleus, at a statistical threshold of p<0.01 (AlphaSim corrected) with a cluster size of >40 voxels. Compared with formula-fed infants, breastmilk-fed infants showed increased brain activation on fMRI in the right superior temporal gyrus (BA41).

CONCLUSION

Breastmilk-fed infants had greater regional gray matter development and increased regional gray matter function compared with formula-fed infants at near term-equivalent age, suggesting breastmilk feeding in the early period after birth may have some degree of influence on early brain development in preterm infants.

Dietary supplements in neurological diseases and brain aging

A healthy diet shapes a healthy mind. Diet quality has a strong association with brain health. Diet influences the onset and consequences of neurological diseases, and dietary factors may influence mental health at individual and population level. The link between unhealthy diet, impaired cognitive function and neurodegenerative diseases indicates that adopting a healthy diet would ultimately afford prevention and management of neurological diseases and brain aging. Neurodegenerative diseases are of multifactorial origin and result in progressive loss of neuronal function in the brain, leading to cognitive impairment and motoneuron disorders. The so-called Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) with its healthy ingredients rich in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immune, neuroprotective, antidepressant, antistress and senolytic activity plays an essential role in the prevention and management of neurological diseases and inhibits cognitive decline in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. The MedDiet also modulates the gut-brain axis by promoting a diversity of gut microbiota. In view of the importance of diet in neurological diseases management, this review focuses on the dietary components, natural compounds and medicinal plants that have proven beneficial in neurological diseases and for brain health. Among them, polyphenols, omega-3 fatty acids, B vitamins and several ayurvedic herbs have promising beneficial effects.

Milk polar lipids composition and functionality: a systematic review

Polar lipids including glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids are important nutrients and milk is a major source, particularly for infants. This systematic review describes the human and bovine milk polar lipid composition, structural organization, sources for formulation, and physiological functionality. A total of 2840 records were retrieved through Scopus, 378 were included. Bovine milk is a good source of polar lipids, where yield and composition are highly dependent on the choice of dairy streams and processing. In milk, polar lipids are organized in the milk fat globule membrane as a tri-layer encapsulating triglyceride. The overall polar lipid concentration in human milk is dependent on many factors including lactational stage and maternal diet. Here, reasonable ranges were determined where possible. Similar for bovine milk, where differences in milk lipid concentration proved the largest factor determining variation. The role of milk polar lipids in human health has been demonstrated in several areas and critical review indicated that brain, immune and effects on lipid metabolism are best substantiated areas. Moreover, insights related to the milk fat globule membrane structure-function relation as well as superior activity of milk derived polar lipid compared to plant-derived sources are emerging areas of interest regarding future research and food innovations.

Brain – immune – gut benefits with early life supplementation of milk fat globule membrane

The milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) has been recognized as a milk component for more than 60 years, but its exact benefits remain unknown. Research on human MFGM has revealed that the membrane holds a host of bioactive components with potential benefits for the brain–immune–gut (BiG) axis in early life. Gangliosides and sphingomyelin, components within the MFGM, have been included in infant formulas for many years. Recent advancements in dairy milk processing have allowed the successful separation of MFGM from bovine milk, enabling it to be used for supplementing infant formulas. Evidence indicates the potential benefits of MFGM in early life supplementation, including better cognitive development, reduction of infection risks, and modulation of the gut microbiome. However, larger and more robust randomized trials are needed, in addition to long‐term outcome data beyond the infancy period.

Changes in Human Milk Fat Globule Composition Throughout Lactation: A Review

There has been a growing interest in understanding how the relative levels of human milk fat globule (MFG) components change over the course of lactation, how they differ between populations, and implications of these changes for the health of the infant. In this article, we describe studies published over the last 30 years which have investigated components of the MFG in term milk, focusing on changes over the course of lactation and highlighting infant and maternal factors that may influence these changes. We then consider how the potential health benefits of some of the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) components and derived ingredients relate to compositional and functional aspects and how these change throughout lactation. The results show that the concentrations of phospholipids, gangliosides, cholesterol, fatty acids and proteins vary throughout lactation, and such changes are likely to reflect the changing requirements of the growing infant. There is a lack of consistent trends for changes in phospholipids and gangliosides across lactation which may reflect different methodological approaches. Other factors such as maternal diet and geographical location have been shown to influence human MFGM composition. The majority of research on the health benefits of MFGM have been conducted using MFGM ingredients derived from bovine milk, and using animal models which have clearly demonstrated the role of the MFGM in supporting cognitive and immune health of infants at different stages of growth and development.

Lactational Changes of Phospholipids Content and Composition in Chinese Breast Milk

Phospholipids are pivotal polar lipids in human milk and essential for infants’ growth and development, especially in the brain and cognitive development. Its content and composition are affected by multiple factors and there exist discrepancies in different studies. In this study, we determined five major phospholipids classes (phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylcholine, and sphingomyelin) in 2270 human milk samples collected from 0 to 400 days postpartum in six regions of China. The high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with an evaporative light scattering detector (HPLC-ELSD) was performed to quantify the phospholipids. Total phospholipid median (IQR) content was in a range between 170.38 ± 96.52 mg/L to 195.69 ± 81.80 mg/L during lactation and was higher concentrated in colostrum milk and later stage of lactation (after 200 days postpartum) compared with that in the samples collected between 10 to 45 days postpartum. Variations in five major sub-class phospholipids content were also observed across lactation stages (phosphatidylethanolamine: 52.61 ± 29.05 to 59.95 ± 41.74 mg/L; phosphatidylinositol: 17.65 ± 10.68 to 20.38 ± 8.55 mg/L; phosphatidylserine: 15.98 ± 9.02 to 22.77 ± 11.17 mg/L; phosphatidylcholine: 34.13 ± 25.33 to 48.64 ± 19.73 mg/L; sphingomyelin: 41.35 ± 20.31 to 54.79 ± 35.26 mg/L). Phosphatidylethanolamine (29.18–32.52%), phosphatidylcholine (19.90–25.04%) and sphingomyelin (22.39–29.17%) were the dominant sub-class phospholipids in Chinese breast milk during the whole lactation period. These results updated phospholipids data in Chinese human milk and could provide evidence for better development of secure and effective human milk surrogates for infants without access to breast milk.

Human milk: From complex tailored nutrition to bioactive impact on child cognition and behavior

Human milk is a highly complex liquid food tailor-made to match an infant's needs. Beyond documented positive effects of breastfeeding on infant and maternal health, there is increasing evidence that milk constituents also impact child neurodevelopment. Non-nutrient milk bioactives would contribute to the (long-term) development of child cognition and behavior, a process termed 'Lactocrine Programming'. In this review we discuss the current state of the field on human milk composition and its links with child cognitive and behavioral development. To promote state-of-the-art methodologies and designs that facilitate data pooling and meta-analytic endeavors, we present detailed recommendations and best practices for future studies. Finally, we determine important scientific gaps that need to be filled to advance the field, and discuss innovative directions for future research. Unveiling the mechanisms underlying the links between human milk and child cognition and behavior will deepen our understanding of the broad functions of this complex liquid food, as well as provide necessary information for designing future interventions.

Brain lipidomics and neurodevelopmental outcomes in intrauterine growth restricted piglets fed dairy or vegetable fat diets

Breast milk has neurodevelopmental advantages compared to infant formula, especially in low-birth-weight infants, which may in part relate to the fat source. This study compared neurodevelopmental outcomes in three-day-old normal birth weight (NBW) and intrauterine growth restricted (IUGR) piglets fed a formula diet with either vegetable oil (VEG) or bovine milk fat sources (MILK) for three weeks in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Behavioural tests, lipidomics, MRI and RNA sequencing analyses of plasma and brain tissue were conducted. The absolute levels of 82% and 11% of lipid molecules were different between dietary groups in plasma and hippocampus, respectively. Of the lipid molecules with differential abundance in the hippocampus, the majority were upregulated in MILK versus VEG, and they mainly belonged to the group of glycerophospholipids. Lower absolute brain weights, absolute grey and white matter volumes and behaviour and motor function scores, and higher relative total brain weights were present in IUGR compared to NBW with minor influence of diet. Cognitive function and cerebellar gene expression profiles were similar for dietary and weight groups, and overall only minor interactive effects between diet and birth weight were observed. Overall, we show that the dietary fat source influences the plasma and to a lesser degree the hippocampal lipidome and is unable to improve on IUGR-induced brain structural and functional impairments.

Potential improvements of the cognition of piglets through a synbiotic supplementation from 1 to 28 days via the gut microbiota

The influence of feed supplements on behavior and memory has been recently studied in livestock. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the effects of a synbiotic on: an episodic-like (SOR: Spontaneous Object Recognition), a working (BARR: Fence barrier task), a long-term (TMAZE: Spatial T-maze task) memory test and on gut microbiota composition. Eighteen female piglets were supplemented from 1 to 28 days of age with a synbiotic (SYN), while 17 served as control (CTL). Feces were collected on days 16, 33 and 41 for 16S rRNA gene composition analyses. In the SOR, SYN piglets interacted more quickly with the novel object than CTL piglets. In the BARR, SYN piglets had shorter distances to finish the test in trial 3. In the TMAZE, SYN piglets were quicker to succeed on specific days and tended to try the new rewarded arm earlier during the reversal stage. Difference of microbiota composition between treatments was nonexistent on D16, a tendency on D33 and significant on D41. The synbiotic supplement may confer memory advantages in different cognitive tasks, regardless of the nature of the reward and the memory request. Difference in memory abilities can potentially be explained by differences in microbiota composition.

Effects of Post-natal Dietary Milk Fat Globule Membrane Polar Lipid Supplementation on Motor Skills, Anxiety, and Long-Term Memory in Adulthood

Early life nutrition critically impacts post-natal brain maturation and cognitive development. Post-natal dietary deficits in specific nutrients, such as lipids, minerals or vitamins are associated with brain maturation and cognitive impairments. Specifically, polar lipids (PL), such as sphingolipids and phospholipids, are important cellular membrane building blocks and are critical for brain connectivity due to their role in neurite outgrowth, synaptic formation, and myelination. In this preclinical study, we assessed the effects of a chronic supplementation with a source of PL extracted from an alpha-lactalbumin enriched whey protein containing 10% lipids from early life (post-natal day (PND) 7) to adulthood (PND 72) on adult motor skills, anxiety, and long-term memory. The motor skills were assessed using open field and rotarod test. Anxiety was assessed using elevated plus maze (EPM). Long-term object and spatial memory were assessed using novel object recognition (NOR) and Morris water maze (MWM). Our results suggest that chronic PL supplementation improved measures of spatial long-term memory accuracy and cognitive flexibility in the MWM in adulthood, with no change in general mobility, anxiety and exploratory behavior. Our results indicate memory specific functional benefits of long-term dietary PL during post-natal brain development.

Studies and Application of Sialylated Milk Components on Regulating Neonatal Gut Microbiota and Health

Breast milk is rich in sialic acids (SA), which are commonly combined with milk oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates. As a functional nutrient component, SA-containing milk components have received increasing attention in recent years. Sialylated human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have been demonstrated to promote the growth and metabolism of beneficial gut microbiota in infants, bringing positive outcomes to intestinal health and immune function. They also exhibit antiviral and bacteriostatic activities in the intestinal mucosa of new-borns, thereby inhibiting the adhesion of pathogens to host cells. These properties play a pivotal role in regulating the intestinal microbial ecosystem and preventing the occurrence of neonatal inflammatory diseases. In addition, some recent studies also support the promoting effects of sialylated HMOs on neonatal bone and brain development. In addition to HMOs, sialylated glycoproteins and glycolipids are abundant in milk, and are also critical to neonatal health. This article reviews the current research progress in the regulation of sialylated milk oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates on neonatal gut microbiota and health.

Human milk sphingomyelins and metabolomics: an enigma to be discovered

Sphingomyelins, the most abundant sphingolipids in most mammalian cells, appear to be among the most represented polar lipids in breast milk. Despite the variability of the data reported in the literature, human milk sphingomyelins are qualitatively unique and their quantities are five times higher than in most formula milk. The structural and functional role within the milk fat globule membranes, the involvement in neonatal neurological maturation both in neuro-typical development and in some pathological circumstances, together with the possible contribution in the intestinal development of newborns, are certainly among the main characteristics that have fueled the curiosity of the scientific world. Metabolomics studies, providing a unique metabolic fingerprint, allow an in-depth analysis of the role of these molecules in the extreme variability and uniqueness of breast milk. In the perspective of preventive medicine, at the base of which there is certainly personalized nutrition, it is possible, in the presence of particular conditions, such as neonatal growth retardation or in preterm infants, to consider supplementation of some target nutrients, such as certain sphingomyelins. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to more accurately assess whether and how the type and quantity of sphingomyelins present in breast milk could affect the metabolic health of newborns.HIGHLIGHTSBreast milk is the golden standard for infants' nutritionSphingomyelins are the most represented polar lipids in breast milkThese molecules are involved in both intestinal and neural developments of newbornsMetabolomics is a very useful tool to investigate their precise roleFurther studies are needed to provide eventual nutritional treatment.

Influence of Dietary Polar Lipid Supplementation on Memory and Longitudinal Brain Development

Polar lipids, which are found in human milk, serve essential functions within biological membranes, hence their importance in brain development and cognition. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the longitudinal effects on brain macrostructural and microstructural development and recognition memory of early-life polar lipid supplementation using the translational pig model. Twenty-eight intact (i.e., not castrated) male pigs were provided either a control diet (n = 14) or the control diet supplemented with polar lipids (n = 14) from postnatal day 2 until postnatal week 4. After postnatal week 4, all animals were provided the same nutritionally-adequate diets until postnatal week 24. Pigs underwent magnetic resonance imaging at 8 longitudinal time-points to model brain macrostructural and microstructural developmental trajectories. The novel object recognition task was implemented at postnatal weeks 4 and 8 to evaluate recognition memory. Subtle differences were observed between groups in hippocampal absolute brain volumes and fractional anisotropy, and no differences in myelin water fraction developmental patterns were noted. Behavioral outcomes did not differ in recognition memory, and only minimal differences were observed in exploratory behaviors. Our findings suggest that early-life dietary supplementation of polar lipids has limited effect on brain developmental patterns, object recognition memory, and exploratory behaviors.

Variation in milk fat globule size and composition: A source of bioactives for human health

Milk fat globules (MFGs) are secreted from the mammalian gland and are composed of a triacylglycerol core surrounded by a triple membrane structure, the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). The MFGM contains complex lipids and proteins reported to have nutritional, immunological, neurological and digestive functions. Human and ruminant milk are shown to share a similar MFG structure but with different size, profile and abundance of protein and polar lipids. This review summarizes the reported data on human, bovine, caprine and ovine MFG composition and concentration of bioactive components in different MFG-size fractions. A comprehensive understanding of compositional variations between milk from different species and MFG size fractions may help promote various milk sources as targeted supplements to improve human development and health. MFG size and MFGM composition are species-specific and affected by lactation, diet and breed (or maternal origin). Purification and enrichment methods for some bioactive proteins and lipids present in the MFGM have yet to be established or are not scaled sufficiently to be used to supplement human diets. To overcome this problem, MFG size selection through fractionation or herd selection may provide a convenient way to pre-enrich the MFG fraction with specific protein and lipid components to fulfill human dietary and health requirements.

Young Domestic Pigs (Sus scrofa) Can Perform Pavlovian Eyeblink Conditioning

Introduction: Pigs have been an increasingly popular preclinical model in nutritional neuroscience, as their anatomy, physiology, and nutrition requirements are highly comparable to those of humans. Eyeblink conditioning is one of the most well-validated behavioral paradigms in neuroscience to study underlying mechanisms of learning and memory formation in the cerebellum. Eyeblink conditioning has been performed in many species but has never been done on young pigs. Therefore, our aim here was to develop and validate an eyeblink conditioning paradigm in young pigs. Method: Eighteen intact male pigs were artificially reared from postnatal day 2-30. The eyeblink conditioning setup consisted of a sound-damping box with a hammock that pigs were placed in, which allowed the pig to remain comfortable yet maintain a typical range of head motion. In a delay conditioning paradigm, the conditional stimulus (CS) was a 550 ms blue light-emitting diode (LED), the unconditional stimulus (US) was a 50 ms eye air-puff, the CS-US interval was 500 ms. Starting at postnatal day 14, pigs were habituated for 5 days to the eyeblink conditioning setup, followed by 5 daily sessions of acquisition training (40 paired CS-US trials each day). Results: The group-averaged amplitude of conditioned eyelid responses gradually increased over the course of the 5 days of training, indicating that pigs learned to make the association between the LED light CS and the air-puff US. A similar increase was found for the conditioned response (CR) probability: the group-averaged CR probability on session 1 was about 12% and reached a CR probability of 55% on day 5. The latency to CR peak time lacked a temporal preference in the first session but clearly showed preference from the moment that animals started to show more CRs in session 2 and onwards whereby the eyelid was maximally closed exactly at the moment that the US would be delivered. Conclusion: We concluded that 3-week-old pigs have the capability of performing in a cerebellar classical conditioning task, demonstrating for the first time that eyeblink conditioning in young pigs has the potential to be a valuable behavioral tool to measure neurodevelopment.

Supplementation of milk polar lipids to obese dams improves neurodevelopment and cognitive function in male offspring

Milk contains about 4% fat globules with its surface covered by polar lipids. Despite the abundant consumption of dairy products, the biological effects of dietary milk polar lipids on metabolic health have only been sparsely examined. Maternal obesity results in neurodevelopmental disorders and cognitive impairment in offspring. Considering the importance of maternal nutrition, the effects of polar lipids-enriched milk fat globule membrane (MFGM-PL) supplementation to dams during pregnancy and lactation on neurodevelopment and its long-term programming effects on offspring cognition were examined. Female Sprague-Dawley rats consumed 8-week control diet (CON) or high-fat diet (HFD) to induce obesity before mating. Then, female rats were fed CON or HFD with or without the supplementation of 400 mg/kg body weight MFGM-PL during pregnancy and lactation. The offspring were fed 11-week HFD after weaning. MFGM-PL supplementation to obese dams suppressed body weight gain and hyperinsulinemia in both dams and offspring. Offspring born to obese dams displayed delayed neurological reflexes development, impaired neurogenesis before weaning, and cognitive impairment in adulthood, which were recovered by maternal MFGM-PL supplementation. Insulin resistance and aberrant brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling were induced in the hippocampus of neonatal and adult offspring due to maternal and progeny HFD, but recovered by maternal MFGM-PL administration. This study demonstrates that maternal MFGM-PL supplementation can promote neurodevelopment and exert long-term effects against HFD-induced cognitive impairment in offspring via alleviating hippocampal insulin resistance. Hence, MFGM-PL is a promising ingredient for exerting beneficial programming effects on the brain health of offspring.

Supplementation with milk enriched with complex lipids during pregnancy: A double-blind randomized controlled trial

Background

Gangliosides are a class of sphingolipids that are present in the cell membranes of vertebrates. Gangliosides influence a broad range of cellular processes through effects on signal transduction, being found abundantly in the brain, and having a role in neurodevelopment.

Objective

We aimed to assess the effects of maternal daily consumption of ganglioside-enriched milk vs non-enriched milk and a non-supplemented group of pregnant women on maternal ganglioside levels and pregnancy outcomes.

Design

Double-blind parallel randomized controlled trial.

Methods

1,500 women aged 20–40 years were recruited in Chongqing (China) between 11 and 14 weeks of a singleton pregnancy, and randomized into three groups: Control–received standard powdered milk formulation (≥4 mg gangliosides/day); Complex milk lipid-enhanced (CML-E) group–same formulation enriched with complex milk lipids (≥8 mg gangliosides/day) from milk fat globule membrane; Reference–received no milk. Serum ganglioside levels were measured in a randomly selected subsample of 250 women per group.

Results

CML-E milk was associated with marginally greater total gangliosides levels in maternal serum compared to Control (13.02 vs 12.69 μg/ml; p = 0.034) but not to Reference group. CML-E milk did not affect cord blood ganglioside levels. Among the 1500 women, CML-E milk consumption was associated with a lower rate of gestational diabetes mellitus than control milk [relative risk 0.80 (95% CI 0.64, 0.99)], but which was not different to the Reference group. CML-E milk supplementation had no other effects on maternal or newborn health.

Conclusions

Maternal supplementation with milk fat globule membrane, as a source of gangliosides, was not associated with any adverse health outcomes, and did not increase serum gangliosides compared with the non-supplemented reference group.

Trial registration

Chinese Clinical Trial Register (ChiCTR-IOR-16007700).

Clinical trial registration

ChiCTR-IOR-16007700; www.chictr.org.cn/showprojen.aspx?proj=12972.

Dairy-Derived Emulsifiers in Infant Formula Show Marginal Effects on the Plasma Lipid Profile and Brain Structure in Preterm Piglets Relative to Soy Lecithin

Breastfed infants have higher intestinal lipid absorption and neurodevelopmental outcomes compared to formula-fed infants, which may relate to a different surface layer structure of fat globules in infant formula. This study investigated if dairy-derived emulsifiers increased lipid absorption and neurodevelopment relative to soy lecithin in newborn preterm piglets. Piglets received a formula diet containing soy lecithin (SL) or whey protein concentrate enriched in extracellular vesicles (WPC-A-EV) or phospholipids (WPC-PL) for 19 days. Both WPC-A-EV and WPC-PL emulsions, but not the intact diets, increased in vitro lipolysis compared to SL. The main differences of plasma lipidomics analysis were increased levels of some sphingolipids, and lipid molecules with odd-chain (17:1, 19:1, 19:3) as well as mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acyl chains (16:1, 20:1, 20:3) in the WPC-A-EV and WPC-PL groups and increased 18:2 fatty acyls in the SL group. Indirect monitoring of intestinal triacylglycerol absorption showed no differences between groups. Diffusor tensor imaging measurements of mean diffusivity in the hippocampus were lower for WPC-A-EV and WPC-PL groups compared to SL indicating improved hippocampal maturation. No differences in hippocampal lipid composition or short-term memory were observed between groups. In conclusion, emulsification of fat globules in infant formula with dairy-derived emulsifiers altered the plasma lipid profile and hippocampal tissue diffusivity but had limited effects on other absorptive and learning abilities relative to SL in preterm piglets.

Profiling of phospholipid molecular species in human breast milk of Chinese mothers and comprehensive analysis of phospholipidomic characteristics at different lactation stages

Phospholipids are critical for milk digestion and infant development. But the profile of phospholipid molecular species in human milk and its dynamic changes during the lactation period have never been reported. The present study elucidated precise qualitative and quantitative analysis of 258 phospholipid molecular species in 486 human milk samples. Phosphatidylcholine is the most abundant class, followed by phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine and sphingomyelin as the second abundant class in different lactation period. The plasmalogens declined along the lactation period, and the polyunsaturated-phospholipids decreased after 10-15 days. The decrease of phosphatidylcholines and phosphatidylglycerols, and the increase of lysophosphatidylethanolamines and lysophosphatidylcholines are critical changes from 0 to 5 days to 10-15 days; increase of phosphatidylinositols, phosphatidylserines, lysophosphatidylethanolamines and lysophosphatidylcholines is the key changes from 10-15 days to 40-45 days; the decrease of most phospholipid molecular species is the characteristic change from 40-45 days to 200-240 days; and the phospholipid profile achieved stability after 200 days.

Milk fat globule membrane: the role of its various components in infant health and development

Breastfeeding confers many benefits to the breast-fed infant which are reflected by better short-term and long-term outcomes as compared to formula-fed infants. Many components of breast milk are likely to contribute to these favorable outcomes, and there has recently been focus on the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). This fraction is a heterogenous mixture of proteins (many of them glycosylated), phospholipids, sphingolipids, gangliosides, choline, sialic acid and cholesterol which is lacking in infant formula as milk fat (which is also low in these components) is replaced by vegetable oils. Many of these components have been shown to have biological effects, and there is considerable evidence from preclinical studies and clinical trials that providing bovine MFGM results in improved outcomes, in particular with regard to infections and neurodevelopment. Since bovine MFGM is commercially available, it is possible to add it to infant formula. There are, however, considerable variations in composition among commercial sources of bovine MFGM, and as it is not known which of the individual components provide the various bioactivities, it becomes important to critically review studies to date and to delineate the mechanisms behind the activities observed. In this review, we critically examine the preclinical and clinical studies on MFGM and its components in relation to resistance to infections, cognitive development, establishment of gut microbiota and infant metabolism, and discuss possible mechanisms of action.

Comparative Lipidomic Study of Human Milk from Different Lactation Stages and Milk Formulas

In this report, we present a detailed comparison of the lipid composition of human milk (HM) and formula milk (FM) targeting different lactation stages and infant age range. We studied HM samples collected from 26 Polish mothers from colostrum to 19 months of lactation, along with FM from seven brands available on the Polish market (infant formula, follow-on formula and growing-up formula). Lipid extracts were analysed using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). We found that the lipid composition of FM deviates significantly from the HM lipid profile in terms of qualitative and quantitative differences. FM had contrasting lipid profiles mostly across brands and accordingly to the type of fat added but not specific to the target age range. The individual differences were dominant in HM; however, differences according to the lactation stage were also observed, especially between colostrum and HM collected in other lactation stages. Biologically and nutritionally important lipids, such as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) containing lipid species, sphingomyelines or ether analogues of glycerophosphoethanoloamines were detected in HM collected in all studied lactation stages. The observed differences concerned all the major HM lipid classes and highlight the importance of the detailed compositional studies of both HM and FM.

Milk fat: opportunities, challenges and innovation

Milk fat is a high-value milk component that is processed mainly as butter, cheese, cream and whole milk powder. It is projected that approximately 35 million tonnes of milk fat will be produced globally by 2025. This surplus, enhances the need for diversification of milk fat products and the milk pool in general. Infant milk formula producers, for instance, have incorporated enzyme modified ("humanised") milk fat and fat globule phospholipids to better mimic human milk fat structures. Minor components like mono- and di-glycerides from milk fat are increasingly utilized as emulsifiers, replacing palm esters in premium-priced food products. This review examines the chemistry of milk fat and the technologies employed for its modification, fractionation and enrichment. Emerging processing technologies such as ultrasound, high pressure processing, supercritical fluid extraction and fractionation, can be employed to improve the nutritional and functional attributes of milk fat. The potential of recent developments in biological intervention, through dietary manipulation of milk fatty acid profiles in cattle also offers significant promise. Finally, this review provides evidence to help redress the imbalance in reported associations between milk fat consumption and human health, and elucidates the health benefits associated with consumption of milk fat and dairy products.

In vitro Fermentation of Digested Milk Fat Globule Membrane From Ruminant Milk Modulates Piglet Ileal and Caecal Microbiota

Lipids in milk are secreted as a triacylglycerol core surrounded by a trilayer membrane, the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). This membrane, known to have important roles in infant brain and intestinal development, is composed of proteins, glycoproteins, and complex lipids. We hypothesized that some of the beneficial properties of MFGM are due to its effects on the gastrointestinal microbiota. This study aimed to determine the effect of a commercial phospholipid concentrate (PC) and enriched bovine, caprine, and ovine MFGM fractions on ileal and hindgut microbiota in vitro. Digestion of PC and MFGMs was conducted using an in vitro model based on infant gastric and small intestine conditions. The recovered material was then in vitro fermented with ileal and caecal inocula prepared from five piglets fed a commercial formula for 20 days before ileal and caecal digesta were collected. After each fermentation, samples were collected to determine organic acid production and microbiota composition using 16S rRNA sequencing. All substrates, except PC (5%), were primarily fermented by the ileal microbiota (8–14%) (P < 0.05). PC and caprine MFGM reduced ileal microbiota alpha diversity compared to ileal inoculum. Caprine MFGM increased and PC reduced the ileal ratio of firmicutes:proteobacteria (P < 0.05), respectively, compared to the ileal inoculum. Bovine and ovine MFGMs increased ileal production of acetic, butyric, and caproic acids compared to other substrates and reduced the proportions of ileal proteobacteria (P < 0.0001). There was a limited fermentation of bovine (3%), caprine (2%), and ovine (2%) MFGMs by the caecal microbiota compared to PC (14%). In general, PC and all MFGMs had a reduced effect on caecal microbiota at a phylum level although MFG source-specific effects were observed at the genus level. These indicate that the main effects of the MFGM in the intestinal microbial population appears to occur in the ileum.

Effect of feeding mode on infant growth and cognitive function: study protocol of the Chilean infant Nutrition randomized controlled Trial (ChiNuT)

BACKGROUND

A central aim for pediatric nutrition is to develop infant formula compositionally closer to human milk. Milk fat globule membranes (MFGM) have shown to have functional components that are found in human milk, suggesting that addition of bovine sources of MFGM (bMFGM) to infant formula may promote beneficial outcomes potentially helping to narrow the gap between infants who receive human breast milk or infant formula. The objective of the current study is to determine how the addition of bMFGM in infant formula and consumption in early infancy affects physical growth and brain development when compared to infants fed with a standard formula and a reference group of infants fed with mother's own milk.

METHODS

Single center, double-blind, and parallel randomized controlled trial. Planned participant enrollment includes: infants exclusively receiving breast milk (n = 200; human milk reference group; HM) and infants whose mothers chose to initiate exclusive infant formula feeding before 4 months of age (n = 340). The latter were randomized to receive one of two study formulas until 12 months of age: 1) cow's milk based infant formula that had docosahexaenoic (DHA) (17 mg/100 kcal) and arachidonic acid (ARA) (25 mg/100 kcal); 1.9 g protein/100 kcal; 1.2 mg Fe/100 kcal (Standard formula; SF) or 2) a similar infant formula with an added source of bovine MFGM (whey protein-lipid concentrate (Experimental formula; EF). Primary outcomes will be: 1) Physical growth (Body weight, length, and head circumference) at 730 days of age; and 2) Cognitive development (Auditory Event-Related Potential) at 730 days of age. Data will be analyzed for all participants allocated to each study feeding group.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study will complement the knowledge regarding addition of bMFGM in infant formula including support of healthy growth and improvement of neurodevelopmental outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT02626143, registered on December 10th 2015.

Plasma Metabolome Alterations Associated with Extrauterine Growth Restriction

Very preterm infants (VPI, born at or before 32 weeks of gestation) are at risk of adverse health outcomes, from which they might be partially protected with appropriate postnatal nutrition and growth. Metabolic processes or biochemical markers associated to extrauterine growth restriction (EUGR) have not been identified. We applied untargeted metabolomics to plasma samples of VPI with adequate weight for gestational age at birth and with different growth trajectories (29 well-grown, 22 EUGR) at the time of hospital discharge. A multivariate analysis showed significantly higher levels of amino-acids in well-grown patients. Other metabolites were also identified as statistically significant in the comparison between groups. Relevant differences (with corrections for multiple comparison) were found in levels of glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids and other lipids. Levels of many of the biochemical species decreased progressively as the level of growth restriction increased in severity. In conclusion, an untargeted metabolomic approach uncovered previously unknown differences in the levels of a range of plasma metabolites between well grown and EUGR infants at the time of discharge. Our findings open speculation about pathways involved in growth failure in preterm infants and the long-term relevance of this metabolic differences, as well as helping in the definition of potential biomarkers.

Effects of Three Distinct 2-Week Long Diet Strategies After Transport on Weaned Pigs' Short and Long-Term Welfare Markers, Behaviors, and Microbiota

Alternative feed supplements have shown promising effects in terms of performance, but their effects on welfare have had little evaluation. In the present study, we aimed at evaluating the effect of diet supplementation on welfare indicators. A total of 246 piglets were weaned and transported for 12 h. After transport, they were assigned to one of 3 diets for a 14-day period: A-an antibiotic diet including chlortetracycline and tiamulin, NA-a control diet without any antibiotic or feed supplement, GLN-a diet including 0.20% L-glutamine. After the 14-day period, all piglets were fed the same diet. Tear staining was measured 11 times post-weaning (from d0 to 147). Skin lesions were counted before and after weaning (d-2, 2, and 36). Novel object tests (NOT) were done in groups 4 times post-weaning (d17, 47, 85, 111). Samples for 16S rRNA gene composition were collected prior to transport (d0), following the 14-day period (d14) and at the conclusion of the nursery phase (d34). The NA pigs appeared less interested in novel objects. On d17, they avoided the object less than A pigs (P < 0.05). They spent less time exploring the object on d85 and took longer to interact with the object on d111 than A and GLN pigs (P < 0.05). NA pigs also appeared more sensitive to environment and management. They had larger tear stains than GLN pigs on d84 and 110 (P < 0.05). On d2, NA pigs had more lesions than A and GLN (P < 0.01). In terms of microbiota composition, GLN had higher α-diversity than A and NA (P < 0.001). Differences between dietary treatments were absent at d0, were demonstrated at d14 and disappeared at d34. Pearson correlations between aggression, stress and anxiety indicators and bacterial populations were medium to high from 0.31 to 0.69. The results demonstrate that short-term feeding strategy can have both short- and long-term effects on behavior and welfare, that may partly be explained by changes in gut microbiota composition. Supplementation with GLN appears to confer similar benefits to dietary antibiotics and thus could be a viable alternative.

Intranasal Administration of Insulin and Gangliosides Improves Spatial Memory in Rats with Neonatal Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

We analyzed the effects of intranasal administration of insulin (0.48 U/rat) and gangliosides (6 mg/kg) on spatial memory in rats with the neonatal model of the type 2 diabetes mellitus. The development of diabetes was verified by the glucose tolerance test. Insulin and gangliosides improved training and reversal training in diabetic rats in a modified version of Morris water maze test and reduced the time of finding the hidden platform. High effectiveness of intranasal administration of gangliosides to animals for the normalization of cognitive functions was shown for the first time. The effects of insulin and gangliosides were similar during training, but during reversal training, gangliosides were more effective. At the same time, intranasally administered insulin, unlike gangliosides, partially normalized glucose tolerance in rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Hydrolyzed Fat Formula Increases Brain White Matter in Small for Gestational Age and Appropriate for Gestational Age Neonatal Piglets

Background: Intrauterine growth restriction is a common cause of small for gestational age (SGA) infants worldwide. SGA infants are deficient in digestive enzymes required for fat digestion and absorption compared to appropriate for gestational age (AGA) infants, putting them at risk for impaired neurocognitive development. Objective: The objective was to determine if a hydrolyzed fat (HF) infant formula containing soy free fatty acids, 2-monoacylglycerolpalmitate, cholesterol, and soy lecithin could increase brain tissue incorporation of essential fatty acids or white matter to enhance brain development in SGA and AGA neonatal piglet models. Methods: Sex-matched, littermate pairs of SGA (0.5-0.9 kg) and AGA (1.2-1.8 kg) 2 days old piglets (N = 60) were randomly assigned to control (CON) or HF formula diets in a 2 × 2 factorial design. On day 14, 24 piglets were used for hippocampal RNA-sequencing; the rest began a spatial learning task. On days 26-29, brain structure was assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Cerebellum and hippocampus were analyzed for fatty acid content. Results: SGA piglets grew more slowly than AGA piglets, with no effect of diet on daily weight gain or weight at MRI. HF diet did not affect brain weight. HF diet increased relative volumes of 7 brain regions and white matter (WM) volume in both SGA and AGA piglets. However, HF did not ameliorate SGA total WM integrity deficits. RNA sequencing revealed SGA piglets had increased gene expression of synapse and cell signaling pathways and decreased expression of ribosome pathways in the hippocampus compared to AGA. HF decreased expression of immune response related genes in the hippocampus of AGA and SGA piglets, but did not correct gene expression patterns in SGA piglets. Piglets learned the T-maze task at the same rate, but SGA HF, SGA CON, and AGA HF piglets had more accurate performance than AGA CON piglets on reversal day 2. HF increased arachidonic acid (ARA) percentage in the cerebellum and total ARA in the hippocampus. Conclusions: HF enhanced brain development in the neonatal piglet measured by brain volume and WM volume in specific brain regions; however, more studies are needed to assess long-term outcomes.

Dietary Polar Lipids and Cognitive Development: A Narrative Review

Polar lipids are amphiphilic lipids with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. Polar lipids mainly include phospholipids and sphingolipids. They are structural components of neural tissues, with the peak rate of accretion overlapping with neurodevelopmental milestones. The critical role of polar lipids in cognitive development is thought to be mediated through the regulation of signal transduction, myelination, and synaptic plasticity. Animal products (egg, meat, and dairy) are the major dietary sources of polar lipids for children and adults, whereas human milk and infant formula provide polar lipids to infants. Due to the differences observed in both concentration and proportion of polar lipids in human milk, the estimated daily intake in infants encompasses a wide range. In addition, health authorities define neither intake recommendations nor guidelines for polar lipid intake. However, adequate intake is defined for 2 nutrients that are elements of these polar lipids, namely choline and DHA. To date, limited studies exist on the brain bioavailability of dietary polar lipids via either placental transfer or the blood-brain barrier. Nevertheless, due to their role in pre- and postnatal development of the brain, there is a growing interest for the use of gangliosides, which are sphingolipids, as a dietary supplement for pregnant/lactating mothers or infants. In line with this, supplementing gangliosides and phospholipids in wild-type animals and healthy infants does suggest some positive effects on cognitive performance. Whether there is indeed added benefit of supplementing polar lipids in pregnant/lactating mothers or infants requires more clinical research. In this article, we report findings of a review of the state-of-the-art evidence on polar lipid supplementation and cognitive development. Dietary sources, recommended intake, and brain bioavailability of polar lipids are also discussed.

Preparation and effects on neuronal nutrition of plasmenylethonoamine and plasmanylcholine from the mussel Mytilus edulis

Plasmenylethonoamine (pPE) and plasmanylcholine (aPC) are important phospholipid subclasses. Herein we explored optimum conditions for enzymatic purification and preparation of pPE and aPC from the mussel Mytilus edulis and bovine brain. Among them, pPE in Mytilus edulis PE was mainly p18:0-20:5 and p18:0-22:6, and its purity was 92.7%; aPC in PC was primarily a16:0-22:6 and a16:0-20:5, and aPC accounted for 90.2% of PC. We thereafter evaluated neurotrophic effects of Mytilus edulis pPE, aPC, and bovine brain pPE in a NGF-induced PC12 cell model. Morphologically, pPE and aPC could both promote differentiation, manifested in a significant increase in neurite length and number, due to increased expression of synaptophysin and growth protein GAP-43 in a dose-independent and structure-selective manner. Importantly, the effect on neuronal nutrition of pPE was better than aPC, and marine pPE was better than terrestrial pPE, which might be ascribed to vinyl-ether bond and differences in fatty acid composition.Abbreviations: AA: arachidonic acid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; EIC: extracted ion chromatogram; EPA: eicosapentanoic acid; GAP: growth-associated protein; HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography; LC-MS/MS: liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; LPC: lyso-PC; LPE: lyso-PE; MS: mass spectrometry; NGF: nerve growth factor; PC: phosphatidylcholine; aPC: plasmanylcholine; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; pPE: plasmenylethonoamine; PG: phosphoglycerols; PLs: phospholipids; PS: phosphoserines; TIC: total ion chromatogram.

Controlled Cortical Impact Leads to Cognitive and Motor Function Deficits that Correspond to Cellular Pathology in a Piglet Traumatic Brain Injury Model

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability in the United States, with children who sustain a TBI having a greater risk of developing long-lasting cognitive, behavioral, and motor function deficits. This has led to increased interest in utilizing large animal models to study pathophysiologic and functional changes after injury in hopes of identifying novel therapeutic targets. In the present study, a controlled cortical impact (CCI) piglet TBI model was utilized to evaluate cognitive, motor, and histopathologic outcomes. CCI injury (4 m/sec velocity, 9 mm depression, 400 msec dwell time) was induced at the parietal cortex. Compared with normal pigs (n = 5), TBI pigs (n = 5) exhibited appreciable cognitive deficiencies, including significantly impaired spatial memory in spatial T-maze testing and a significant decrease in exploratory behaviors followed by marked hyperactivity in open field testing. Additionally, gait analysis revealed significant increases in cycle time and stance percent, significant decreases in hind reach, and a shift in the total pressure index from the front to the hind limb on the affected side, suggesting TBI impairs gait and balance. Pigs were sacrificed 28 days post-TBI and histological analysis revealed that TBI lead to a significant decrease in neurons and a significant increase in microglia activation and astrogliosis/astrocytosis at the perilesional area, a significant loss in neurons at the dorsal hippocampus, and significantly increased neuroblast proliferation at the subventricular zone. These data demonstrate a strong relationship between TBI-induced cellular changes and functional outcomes in our piglet TBI model that lay the framework for future studies that assess the ability of therapeutic interventions to contribute to functional improvements.

Effects of milk fat globule membrane and its various components on neurologic development in a postnatal growth restriction rat model

BACKGROUND

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a component of breast milk that consists of glycosylated membrane-bound proteins, polar lipids and carbohydrates originating from the mammary gland plasma membrane. A commercially available bovine MFGM added to infant formula has been shown to improve cognitive development in infants at 12 months of age.

OBJECTIVE

Considering that MFGM is a complex mixture, our aim was to determine which component(s) may be leading to these cognitive outcomes.

METHODS

Growth-restricted rat pups were supplemented with one of five treatments: (a) bovine MFGM, (b) bovine phospholipid concentrate (PL), (c) sialic acid (SIA) at 200 mg/kg body weight (bw) SIA100, (d) SIA at 2 mg/kg bw and (e) nonfat milk as control. Pups were randomized, cross-fostered into litters of 17 pups per dam and supplemented from postnatal day (PD) 2 to PD 21. The following behavioral tests were performed at adulthood: T-Maze Spontaneous Alternation, Novel Object Recognition and Morris Water Maze. Hippocampus was isolated at PD14 and PD21. Expression of four genes were measured including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), dopamine receptor 1, (Drd1), glutamate receptor (GluR-1) and ST8 alpha-N-acetyl-neuraminide alpha-2,8-sialytransferase 4 (St8Sia4). Following behavioral testing, brains were collected for nonbiased stereology.

RESULTS

Increased expression of genes due to supplementation was most pronounced at the PD14 time point. The MFGM group exhibited higher T-Maze scores compared to the SIA group (P=.01), whereas the SIA100 group visited the novel object more frequently than the MFGM group in the Novel Object test (P=.02). No differences due to supplementation were found in the Morris Water Maze or nonbiased stereology, CONCLUSIONS: In this trial, MFGM, compared to its individual components, had the largest impact on neurodevelopment in rat pups through up-regulation of genes and improved T-Maze scores compared to the SIA group.