Anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody suppresses breast cancer progression and bone osteolysis in murine models

Enhanced amphiregulin exposure promotes modulation of the high grade serous ovarian cancer tumor immune microenvironment

High grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) is a lethal gynecologic malignancy in which chemoresistant recurrence rates remain high. Furthermore, HGSOC patients have demonstrated overall low response rates to clinically available immunotherapies. Amphiregulin (AREG), a low affinity epidermal growth factor receptor ligand is known to be significantly upregulated in HGSOC patient tumors following neoadjuvant chemotherapy exposure. While much is known about AREG's role in oncogenesis and classical immunity, it is function in tumor immunology has been comparatively understudied. Therefore, the objective of this present study was to elucidate how increased AREG exposure impacts the ovarian tumor immune microenvironment (OTIME). Using NanoString IO 360 and protein analysis, it was revealed that treatment with recombinant AREG led to prominent upregulation of genes associated with ovarian pathogenesis and immune evasion (CXCL8, CXCL1, CXCL2) along with increased STAT3 activation in HGSOC cells. In vitro co-culture assays consisting of HGSOC cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with recombinant AREG (rAREG) led to significantly enhanced tumor cell viability. Moreover, PBMCs stimulated with rAREG exhibited significantly lower levels of IFNy and IL-2. In vivo rAREG treatment promoted significant reductions in circulating levels of IL-2 and IL-5. Intratumoral analysis of rAREG treated mice revealed a significant reduction in CD8+ T cells coupled with an upregulation of PD-L1. Finally, combinatorial treatment with an AREG neutralizing antibody and carboplatin led to a synergistic reduction of cell viability in HGSOC cell lines OVCAR8 and PEA2. Overall, this study demonstrates AREG's ability to modulate cytotoxic responses within the OTIME and highlights its role as a novel HGSOC immune target.

The role of interleukin-20 in liver disease: Functions, mechanisms and clinical applications

Liver disease is a severe public health concern worldwide. There is a close relationship between the liver and cytokines, and liver inflammation from a variety of causes leads to the release and activation of cytokines. The functions of cytokines are complex and variable, and are closely related to their cellular origin, target molecules and mode of action. Interleukin (IL)-20 has been studied as a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is expressed and regulated in some diseases. Furthermore, accumulating evidences has shown that IL-20 is highly expressed in clinical samples from patients with liver disease, promoting the production of pro-inflammatory molecules involved in liver disease progression, and antagonists of IL-20 can effectively inhibit liver injury and produce protective effects. This review highlights the potential of targeting IL-20 in liver diseases, elucidates the potential mechanisms of IL-20 inducing liver injury, and suggests multiple viable strategies to mitigate the pro-inflammatory response to IL-20. Genomic CRISPR/Cas9-based screens may be a feasible way to further explore the signaling pathways and regulation of IL-20 in liver diseases. Nanovector systems targeting IL-20 offer new possibilities for the treatment and prevention of liver diseases.

The Role of Cytokines in Cutaneous T Cell Lymphoma: A Focus on the State of the Art and Possible Therapeutic Targets

Cutaneous T cell lymphomas (CTCLs), encompassing mycosis fungoides (MF) and Sézary syndrome (SS), present a complex landscape influenced by cytokines and cellular responses. In this work, the intricate relationship between these inflammatory proteins and disease pathogenesis is examined, focusing on what is known at the clinical and therapeutic levels regarding the most well-known inflammatory mediators. An in-depth look is given to their possible alterations caused by novel immunomodulatory drugs and how they may alter disease progression. From this narrative review of the actual scientific landscape, Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) emerges as a central player, demonstrating a dual role in both promoting and inhibiting cancer immunity, but the work navigates through all the major interleukins known in inflammatory environments. Immunotherapeutic perspectives are elucidated, highlighting the crucial role of the cutaneous microenvironment in shaping dysfunctional cell trafficking, antitumor immunity, and angiogenesis in MF, showcasing advancements in understanding and targeting the immune phenotype in CTCL. In summary, this manuscript aims to comprehensively explore the multifaceted aspects of CTCL, from the immunopathogenesis and cytokine dynamics centred around TNF-α and IFN-γ to evolving therapeutic modalities. Including all the major known and studied cytokines in this analysis broadens our understanding of the intricate interplay influencing CTCL, paving the way for improved management of this complex lymphoma.

A robust immune-related gene pairs signature for predicting the overall survival of esophageal cancer

BACKGROUND

Identifying reliable biomarkers could effectively predict esophagus carcinoma (EC) patients with poor prognosis. In this work, we constructed an immune-related gene pairs (IRGP) signature to evaluate the prognosis of EC.

RESULTS

The IRGP signature was trained by the TCGA cohort and validated by three GEO datasets, respectively. Cox regression model together with LASSO was applied to construct the overall survival (OS) associated IRGP. 21 IRGPs consisting of 38 immune-related genes were included in our signature, according to which patients were stratified into high- and low-risk groups. The results of Kaplan-Meier survival analyses indicated that high-risk EC patients had worse OS than low-risk group in the training set, meta-validation set and all independent validation datasets. After adjustment in multivariate Cox analyses, our signature continued to be an independent prognostic factor of EC and the signature-based nomogram could effectively predict the prognosis of EC sufferers. Besides, Gene Ontology analysis revealed this signature is related to immunity. 'CIBERSORT' analysis revealed the infiltration levels of plasma cells and activated CD4 memory T cells in two risk groups were significantly different. Ultimately, we validated the expression levels of six selected genes from IRGP index in KYSE-150 and KYSE-450.

CONCLUSIONS

This IRGP signature could be applied to select EC patients with high mortality risk, thereby improving prospects for the treatment of EC.

Dual Role of Interleukin-20 in Different Stages of Osteoclast Differentiation and Its Osteoimmune Regulation during Alveolar Bone Remodeling

Osteoimmunology mediators are critical to balance osteoblastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis to maintain bone homeostasis. A lot of the osteoimmunology mediators are regulated by interleukin-20 (IL-20). However, little is known about the role of IL-20 in bone remodeling. Here, we showed that IL-20 expression was correlated with osteoclast (OC) activity in remodeled alveolar bone during orthodontic tooth movement (OTM). Ovariectomize (OVX) in rats promoted OC activity and enhanced IL-20 expression, while blocking OC inhibited IL-20 expression in osteoclasts. In vitro, IL-20 treatment promoted survival, inhibited apoptosis of the preosteoclast at the early stages of osteoclast differentiation, and boosted the formation of osteoclasts and their bone resorption function at the late stages. More importantly, anti-IL-20 antibody treatment blocked IL-20-induced osteoclastogenesis and the subsequent bone resorption function. Mechanistically, we showed that IL-20 synergistically acts with RANKL to activate the NF-κB signaling pathway to promote the expression of c-Fos and NFATc1 to promote osteoclastogenesis. Moreover, we found that local injection of IL-20 or anti-IL-20 antibody enhanced osteoclast activity and accelerated OTM in rats, while blocking IL-20 reversed this phenomenon. This study revealed a previously unknown role of IL-20 in regulating alveolar bone remodeling and implies the application of IL-20 to accelerated OTM.

Overexpression of interleukin-20 correlates with favourable prognosis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of lymphoma worldwide, accounting for about 40% of cases. The role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of lymphomas has been rarely addressed, although cytokines have a close immunological relationship with lymphocytes. We observed overexpression of interleukin (IL)-20 in reactive germinal centres (GCs) leading us to hypothesise that IL-20 may play a role in lymphomagenesis. In this study, we surveyed for IL-20 expression in various types of lymphoma and found that IL-20 was expressed most frequently in follicular lymphoma (94%), but also in Burkitt lymphoma (81%), mantle cell lymphoma (57%), nodal marginal zone lymphoma (56%), Hodgkin lymphomas (50%), small lymphocytic lymphoma (50%) and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL, 48%). IL-20 was not expressed in extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT lymphoma), lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, and plasmacytoma. T-cell lymphomas were largely negative for IL-20 expression, except for anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL, 61%), which frequently expressed IL-20, especially in cutaneous ALCL, and showed an inverse association with ALK expression (p=0.024). We further tested IL-20 expression in another large cohort of DLBCL and found IL-20 expression more frequently in germinal centre B-cell (GCB) than in non-GCB subtype [16/26 (62%) versus 24/64 (38%), p=0.038]. In this cohort, IL-20 was associated with a lower rate of extranodal involvement (p=0.009), bone marrow involvement (p=0.040), and better overall survival (p=0.020). Mechanistically, IL-20 overexpression promoted G1 cell cycle arrest and subsequent apoptosis of DLBCL cells and vice versa in vitro. We conclude that IL-20 may be involved in lymphomagenesis and may be useful as a prognostic marker in patients with DLBCL. In addition, IL-20 plays an inhibitory role in DLBCL growth, probably through cell cycle regulation.

Using publicly available datasets to identify population-based transcriptomic landscape contributing to the aggressiveness of breast cancer in young women

Introduction: Although the risk of breast cancer increases with advancing age, some regions have larger number of young breast cancer patients (≤45 years-old), such as the Middle East, Eastern Asia, and North Africa, with more aggressive and poorly differentiated tumors. We aimed to conduct an in-silico analysis in an attempt to understand the aggressive nature of early-onset breast cancer, and to identify potential drivers of early-onset breast cancer using gene expression profiling datasets in a population-dependent manner. Methods: Functional genomics experiments data were acquired from cBioPortal database for cancer genomics, followed by the stratification of patients based on the age at representation of breast cancer and race. Differential gene expression analysis and gene amplification status analysis were carried out, followed by hub gene, transcription factor, and signalling pathway identification. Results: PAM50 subtype analysis revealed that young patients (≤45 years-old) had four-fold more basal tumors and worst progression-free survival (median of 101 months), compared with the 45-65 years group (median of 168 months). Fourteen genes were amplified in more than 14% of patients with an early-onset breast cancer. Interestingly, FREM2, LINC00332, and LINC00366 were exclusively amplified in younger patients. Gene expression data from three different populations (Asian, White, and African) revealed a unique transcriptomic profile of young patients, which was also reflected on the PAM50 subtype analysis. Our data indicates a higher tendency of young African patients to develop basal tumors, while young Asian patients are more prone to developing Luminal A tumors. Most genes that were found to be upregulated in younger patients are involved in important signaling pathways that promote cancer progression and metastasis, such as MAPK pathway, Reelin pathway and the PI3K/Akt pathway. Conclusion: This study provides strong evidence that the molecular profile of tumors derived from young breast cancer patients of different populations is unique and may explain the aggressiveness of these tumors, stressing the need to conduct population- based multi-omic analyses to identify the potential drivers for tumorigenesis and molecular profiles of young breast cancer patients.

Cytokines as Potential Therapeutic Targets and their Role in the Diagnosis and Prediction of Cancers

The death rate from cancer is declining as a result of earlier identification and more advanced treatments. Nevertheless, a number of unfavourable adverse effects, including prolonged, long-lasting inflammation and reduced immune function, usually coexist with anti-cancer therapies and lead to a general decline in quality of life. Improvements in standardized comprehensive therapy and early identification of a variety of aggressive tumors remain the main objectives of cancer research. Tumor markers in those with cancer are tumor- associated proteins that are clinically significant. Even while several tumor markers are routinely used, they don't always provide reliable diagnostic information. Serum cytokines are promising markers of tumor stage, prognosis, and responsiveness to therapy. In fact, several cytokines are currently proposed as potential biomarkers in a variety of cancers. It has actually been proposed that the study of circulatory cytokines together with biomarkers that are particular to cancer can enhance and accelerate cancer diagnosis and prediction, particularly via blood samples that require minimal to the absence of invasion. The purpose of this review was to critically examine relevant primary research literature in order to elucidate the role and importance of a few identified serum cytokines as prospective therapeutic targets in oncological diseases.

Cathepsin K: A Versatile Potential Biomarker and Therapeutic Target for Various Cancers

Cancer, a common malignant disease, is one of the predominant causes of diseases that lead to death. Additionally, cancer is often detected in advanced stages and cannot be radically cured. Consequently, there is an urgent need for reliable and easily detectable markers to identify and monitor cancer onset and progression as early as possible. Our aim was to systematically review the relevant roles of cathepsin K (CTSK) in various possible cancers in existing studies. CTSK, a well-known key enzyme in the bone resorption process and most studied for its roles in the effective degradation of the bone extracellular matrix, is expressed in various organs. Nowadays, CTSK has been involved in various cancers such as prostate cancer, breast cancer, bone cancer, renal carcinoma, lung cancer and other cancers. In addition, CTSK can promote tumor cells proliferation, invasion and migration, and its mechanism may be related to RANK/RANKL, TGF-β, mTOR and the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Clinically, some progress has been made with the use of cathepsin K inhibitors in the treatment of certain cancers. This paper reviewed our current understanding of the possible roles of CTSK in various cancers and discussed its potential as a biomarker and/or novel molecular target for various cancers.

Interleukin-10 family members: Biology and role in the bone and joint diseases

Interleukin (IL)-10 family cytokines include IL-10, IL-19, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, IL-26, IL-28A, IL-28B, and IL-29. These cytokines play crucial regulatory roles in various biological reactions and diseases. In recent years, several studies have shown that the IL-10 family plays a vital role in bone and joint diseases, including bone metabolic diseases, fractures, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and bone tumors. Herein, the recent progress on the regulatory role of IL-10 family of cytokines in the occurrence and development of bone and joint diseases has been summarized. This review will provide novel directions for immunotherapy of bone and joint diseases.

Immune Modulation of Metastatic Niche Formation in the Bone

Bone metastasis is commonly seen in patients with breast cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. Tumor-intrinsic factors and the tumor microenvironment cooperate to affect the formation of bone metastatic niche. Within the bone microenvironment, immune cells have been regarded as a major contributor to metastatic progression. In this review, we describe the dynamic roles of immune cells in regulating metastatic homing, seeding, dormancy, and outgrowth in the bone. We also summarize the diverse functions of immune molecules including chemokines, cytokines, and exosomes in remodeling the bone metastatic niche. Furthermore, we discuss the therapeutic and prognostic potential of these cellular and molecular players in bone metastasis.

IL-20 is involved in obesity by modulation of adipogenesis and macrophage dysregulation

IL-20 is a proinflammatory cytokine of the IL-10 family and involved in several diseases. However, the regulatory role of IL-20 in obesity is not well understood. We explored the function of IL-20 in the pathogenesis of obesity-induced insulin resistance by ELISA, Western blotting and flow cytometry. The therapeutic potential of IL-20 monoclonal antibody 7E for ameliorating diet-induced obesity was analysed in murine models. Higher serum IL-20 levels were detected in obese patients. It was upregulated in leptin-deficient (ob/ob), leptin-resistant (db/db) and high-fat diet (HFD)-induced murine obesity models. In vitro, IL-20 regulated the adipocyte differentiation and the polarization of bone marrow-derived macrophages into proinflammatory M1 type. It also caused inflammation and macrophage retention in adipose tissues by upregulating TNF-α, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), netrin 1 and unc5b (netrin receptor) expression in macrophages and netrin 1, leptin and MCP-1 in adipocytes. IL-20 promoted insulin resistance by inhibiting glucose uptake in mature adipocytes through the SOCS-3 pathway. In HFD-induced obesity in mice, 7E treatment reduced body weight and improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity; it also reduced local inflammation and the number of M1-like macrophages in adipose tissues. We have identified a critical role of IL-20 in obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance, and we conclude that IL-20 may be a novel target for treating obesity and insulin resistance in patients with metabolic disorders.

Interleukins in cancer: from biology to therapy

Interleukins and associated cytokines serve as the means of communication for innate and adaptive immune cells as well as non-immune cells and tissues. Thus, interleukins have a critical role in cancer development, progression and control. Interleukins can nurture an environment enabling and favouring cancer growth while simultaneously being essential for a productive tumour-directed immune response. These properties of interleukins can be exploited to improve immunotherapies to promote effectiveness as well as to limit side effects. This Review aims to unravel some of these complex interactions.

A systematic CRISPR screen reveals an IL-20/IL20RA-mediated immune crosstalk to prevent the ovarian cancer metastasis

Transcoelomic spread of cancer cells across the peritoneal cavity occurs in most initially diagnosed ovarian cancer (OC) patients and accounts for most cancer-related death. However, how OC cells interact with peritoneal stromal cells to evade the immune surveillance remains largely unexplored. Here, through an in vivo genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 screen, we identified IL20RA, which decreased dramatically in OC patients during peritoneal metastasis, as a key factor preventing the transcoelomic metastasis of OC. Reconstitution of IL20RA in highly metastatic OC cells greatly suppresses the transcoelomic metastasis. OC cells, when disseminate into the peritoneal cavity, greatly induce peritoneum mesothelial cells to express IL-20 and IL-24, which in turn activate the IL20RA downstream signaling in OC cells to produce mature IL-18, eventually resulting in the polarization of macrophages into the M1-like subtype to clear the cancer cells. Thus, we show an IL-20/IL20RA-mediated crosstalk between OC and mesothelial cells that supports a metastasis-repressing immune microenvironment.

Targeting interleukin-20 alleviates paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy

The role of immune mediators, including proinflammatory cytokines in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN), remains unclear. Here, we studied the contribution of interleukin-20 (IL-20) to the development of paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy. Increased serum levels of IL-20 in cancer patients with chemotherapy were accompanied by increased CIPN risk. In mouse models, proinflammatory IL-20 levels in serum and dorsal root ganglia fluctuated with paclitaxel treatment. Blocking IL-20 with the neutralizing antibody or genetic deletion of its receptors prevented CIPN, alleviated peripheral nerve damage, and dampened inflammatory responses, including macrophage infiltration and cytokine release. Mechanistically, paclitaxel upregulated IL-20 through dysregulated Ca homeostasis, which augmented chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity. Importantly, IL-20 suppression did not alter paclitaxel efficacy on cancer treatment both in vitro and in vivo. Together, targeting IL-20 ameliorates paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy by suppressing neuroinflammation and restoring Ca homeostasis. Therefore, the anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody is a promising therapeutic for the prevention and treatment of paclitaxel-induced neuropathy.

Interleukins as Mediators of the Tumor Cell-Bone Cell Crosstalk during the Initiation of Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis

Patients with advanced breast cancer are at high risk of developing bone metastasis. Despite treatment advances for primary breast cancer, metastatic bone disease remains incurable with a low relative survival. Hence, new therapeutic approaches are required to improve survival and treatment outcome for these patients. Bone is among the most frequent sites of metastasis in breast cancer. Once in the bone, disseminated tumor cells can acquire a dormant state and remain quiescent until they resume growth, resulting in overt metastasis. At this stage the disease is characterized by excessive, osteoclast-mediated osteolysis. Cells of the bone microenvironment including osteoclasts, osteoblasts and endothelial cells contribute to the initiation and progression of breast cancer bone metastasis. Direct cell-to-cell contact as well as soluble factors regulate the crosstalk between disseminated breast cancer cells and bone cells. In this complex signaling network interleukins (ILs) have been identified as key regulators since both, cancer cells and bone cells secrete ILs and express corresponding receptors. ILs regulate differentiation and function of bone cells, with several ILs being reported to act pro-osteoclastogenic. Consistently, the expression level of ILs (e.g., in serum) has been associated with poor prognosis in breast cancer. In this review we discuss the role of the most extensively investigated ILs during the establishment of breast cancer bone metastasis and highlight their potential as therapeutic targets in preventing metastatic outgrowth in bone.

Anti-IL-20 Antibody Protects against Ischemia/Reperfusion-Impaired Myocardial Function through Modulation of Oxidative Injuries, Inflammation and Cardiac Remodeling

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is the most critical event in the disease spectrum of coronary artery disease. To rescue cardiomyocytes in AMI, it is important to restore blood supply as soon as possible to reduce ischemia-induced injury. However, worse damage can occur during the reperfusion phase, called the reperfusion injury. Under ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, elevated oxidative stress plays a critical role in regulation of apoptosis, inflammation and remodeling of myocardium. Our previous study has demonstrated that interleukin (IL)-20 is increased during hypoxia/reoxygenation stimulation and promotes apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. This study was, therefore, designed to investigate whether IL-20 antibody could reduce I/R-induced myocardial dysfunction. Results from this study revealed that IL-20 antibody treatment significantly suppressed I/R-induced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, oxidative stress, apoptosis, proinflammatory responses, cardiac fibrosis, and expression of cardiac remodeling markers in Sprague-Dawley rats. Plasma B-type natriuretic peptide level was also reduced by IL-20 antibody injection. IL-20 antibody treatment appeared to restore cardiac function under the I/R injury in terms of greater values of ejection fraction and fractional shortening compared to the control group. Two commonly used indicators of cardiac injury, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase-MB, were also lower in the IL-20 antibody injection group. Taken together, our results suggested that IL-20 antibody holds the potential to reduce the I/R-elicited cardiac dysfunction by preventing cardiac remodeling.

IL20RA signaling enhances stemness and promotes the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment in breast cancer

Rationale: Tumor microenvironment interacts with tumor cells to regulate their stemness properties through various cytokines and cytokine receptors. Previous studies revealed the possible role of interleukin 20 receptor subunit alpha (IL20RA) signaling in the progression of several types of tumors. However, its regulatory effects on the stemness and the microenvironment of breast cancer need to be studied.

Methods: Immunohistochemical staining and western blot analysis were used to evaluate the association between IL20RA and SOX2 in breast tumors and noncancerous tissues. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and TCGA dataset analysis were performed to determine the function of IL20RA signaling in breast cancer progression. Gain- and loss-of-function methods were performed to examine the effects of IL20RA on the stemness of breast cancer cells. The stemness features were analyzed by detecting the expression of core stemness genes, side population (SP), sphere formation ability, and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity. Flow cytometric analysis was applied to detect the changes of tumor-infiltration lymphocytes in tumor tissues in mice. Based on the relevant molecular mechanisms elucidated in this study, a novel IL20RA-targeted liposomal nanoparticle encapsulating the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) inhibitor stattic (NP-Stattic-IL20RA) was synthesized. These NPs were combined with anti-programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) antibody and chemotherapy to inhibit the development of breast tumors in mice.

Results: IL20RA is highly expressed in human breast cancers and is positively associated with the SOX2 expression. IL20RA increases the SP and ALDH^br proportions of breast cancer cells, enhances the sphere formation ability, and promotes the expression of core stemness genes, such as Sox2 and Oct4, as well as increases chemoresistance of breast cancer cells. IL20RA promotes the tumor-initiating ability and lung metastasis of breast cancer cells in vivo. In addition, IL20RA activates the Janus kinase 1 (JAK1)-STAT3-SOX2 signaling pathway, leading to increased expression of PD-L1 and reduced recruitment of anti-cancer lymphocytes, including CD8⁺ T cells and natural killer cells. Meanwhile, IL20RA signaling enhances the proportion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Combined with anti-PD-L1 antibody and NPs-Stattic-IL20RA, the chemotherapeutic efficacy was increased in breast cancer mouse models in vivo.

Conclusion: Collectively, our results reveal that the IL20RA pathway is a novel signaling pathway involved in promoting the stemness features of breast cancer along with the formation of a tumor-favorable immune microenvironment. Targeting the IL20RA^hi population with STAT3 signaling inhibition combined with anti-PD-L1 antibody can increase the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents for breast cancer. This study thus introduces a promising novel strategy for breast cancer therapy.

IL-20 antagonist suppresses PD-L1 expression and prolongs survival in pancreatic cancer models

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and cancer-associated cachexia (CAC) are multifactorial and characterized by dysregulated inflammatory networks. Whether the proinflammatory cytokine IL-20 is involved in the complex networks of PDAC and CAC remains unclear. Here, we report that elevated IL-20 levels in tumor tissue correlate with poor overall survival in 72 patients with PDAC. In vivo, we establish a transgenic mouse model (KPC) and an orthotopic PDAC model and examine the therapeutic efficacy of an anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody (7E). Targeting IL-20 not only prolongs survival and attenuates PD-L1 expression in both murine models but also inhibits tumor growth and mitigates M2-like polarization in the orthotopic PDAC model. Combination treatment with 7E and an anti-PD-1 antibody shows better efficacy in inhibiting tumor growth than either treatment alone in the orthotopic PDAC model. Finally, 7E mitigates cachexic symptoms in CAC models. Together, we conclude IL-20 is a critical mediator in PDAC progression.

The pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-20 promotes tumor growth in several cancer types. Here, the authors show that high levels of IL-20 are associated with poor survival in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and that IL-20 blockade reduces tumor growth and alleviates cachexia symptoms in mouse models of PDAC.

Anti-IL-20 antibody improved motor function and reduced glial scar formation after traumatic spinal cord injury in rats

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes devastating neurological consequences, which can result in partial or total paralysis. Irreversible neurological deficits and glial scar formation are characteristic of SCI. Inflammatory responses are a major component of secondary injury and play a central role in regulating the pathogenesis of SCI. IL-20 is a proinflammatory cytokine involved in renal fibrosis and liver cirrhosis through its role in upregulating TGF-β1 production. However, the role of IL-20 in SCI remains unclear. We hypothesize that IL-20 is upregulated after SCI and is involved in regulating the neuroinflammatory response.

METHODS

The expression of IL-20 and its receptors was examined in SCI rats. The regulatory roles of IL-20 in astrocytes and neuron cells were examined. The therapeutic effects of anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody (mAb) 7E in SCI rats were evaluated.

RESULTS

Immunofluorescence staining showed that IL-20 and its receptors were expressed in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia in the spinal cord after SCI in rats. In vitro, IL-20 enhanced astrocyte reactivation and cell migration in human astrocyte (HA) cells by upregulating glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), TGF-β1, TNF-α, MCP-1, and IL-6 expression. IL-20 inhibited cell proliferation and nerve growth factor (NGF)-derived neurite outgrowth in PC-12 cells through Sema3A/NRP-1 upregulation. In vivo, treating SCI rats with anti-IL-20 mAb 7E remarkably inhibited the inflammatory responses. 7E treatment not only improved motor and sensory functions but also improved spinal cord tissue preservation and reduced glial scar formation in SCI rats.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-20 might regulate astrocyte reactivation and axonal regeneration and result in the secondary injury in SCI. These findings demonstrated that IL-20 may be a promising target for SCI treatment.

Interleukin-20 differentially regulates bone mesenchymal stem cell activities in RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis through the OPG/RANKL/RANK axis and the NF-κB, MAPK and AKT signalling pathways

The immune and skeletal systems share common mechanisms, and the crosstalk between the two has been termed osteoimmunology. Osteoimmunology mainly focuses on diseases between the immune and bone systems including bone loss diseases, and imbalances in osteoimmune regulation affect skeletal homeostasis between osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The immune mediator interleukin-20 (IL-20), a member of the IL-10 family, enhances inflammation, chemotaxis and angiogenesis in diseases related to bone loss. However, it is unclear how IL-20 regulates the balance between osteoclastogenesis and osteoblastogenesis; therefore, we explored the mechanisms by which IL-20 affects bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in osteoclastogenesis in primary cells during differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis and signalling. We initially found that IL-20 differentially regulated preosteoclast proliferation and apoptosis; BMSC-conditioned medium (CM) significantly enhanced osteoclast formation and bone resorption, which was dose-dependently regulated by IL-20; IL-20 inhibited OPG expression and promoted M-CSF, RANKL and RANKL/OPG expression; and IL-20 differentially regulated the expression of osteoclast-specific gene and transcription factors through the OPG/RANKL/RANK axis and the NF-kB, MAPK and AKT pathways. Therefore, IL-20 differentially regulates BMSCs in osteoclastogenesis and exerts its function by activating the OPG/RANKL/RANK axis and the NF-κB, MAPK and AKT pathways, which make targeting IL-20 a promising direction for targeted regulation in diseases related to bone loss.

What Is the Role of Interleukins in Breast Cancer Bone Metastases? A Systematic Review of Preclinical and Clinical Evidence

Breast cancer cells produce stimulators of bone resorption known as interleukins (ILs). However, data on the functional roles of ILs in the homing of metastatic breast cancer to bone are still fragmented. A systematic search was carried out in three databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection) to identify preclinical reports, and in three clinical registers (ClinicalTrials.gov, World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, European Union (EU) Clinical Trials Register) to identify clinical trials, from 2008 to 2019. Sixty-seven preclinical studies and 11 clinical trials were recognized as eligible. Although preclinical studies identified specific key ILs which promote breast cancer bone metastases, which have pro-metastatic effects (e.g., IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, IL-11), and whose inhibition also shows potential preclinical therapeutic effects, the clinical trials focused principally on ILs (IL-2 and IL-12), which have an anti-metastatic effect and a potential to generate a localized and systemic antitumor response. However, these clinical trials are yet to post any results or conclusions. This inconsistency indicates that further studies are necessary to further develop the understanding of cellular and molecular relations, as well as signaling pathways, both up- and downstream of ILs, which could represent a novel strategy to treat tumors that are resistant to standard care therapies for patients affected by breast cancer bone disease.

Identification of Alternatively-Activated Pathways between Primary Breast Cancer and Liver Metastatic Cancer Using Microarray Data

Alternatively-activated pathways have been observed in biological experiments in cancer studies, but the concept had not been fully explored in computational cancer system biology. Therefore, an alternatively-activated pathway identification method was proposed and applied to primary breast cancer and breast cancer liver metastasis research using microarray data. Interestingly, the results show that cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and calcium signaling were significantly enriched under both conditions. TGF beta signaling was found to be the hub in network topology analysis. In total, three types of alternatively-activated pathways were recognized. In the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway, four active alteration patterns in gene pairs were noticed. Thirteen cytokine-cytokine receptor pairs with inverse activity changes of both genes were verified by the literature. The second type was that some sub-pathways were active under only one condition. For the third type, nodes were significantly active in both conditions, but with different active genes. In the calcium signaling and TGF beta signaling pathways, node E2F5 and E2F4 were significantly active in primary breast cancer and metastasis, respectively. Overall, our study demonstrated the first time using microarray data to identify alternatively-activated pathways in breast cancer liver metastasis. The results showed that the proposed method was valid and effective, which could be helpful for future research for understanding the mechanism of breast cancer metastasis.

Induction of osteoclast-like cell formation by leptin-induced soluble intercellular adhesion molecule secreted from cancer cells

Background:

Leptin is considered a tumorigenic adipokine, suggested to promote tumorigenesis and progression in many cancers. On the other hand, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) shows altered expression in a variety of benign and malignant diseases. Histologically, ICAM-1 expression is reported as proportional to cancer stage and considered as a potential diagnosis biomarker. The altered expressions of ICAM-1 and its soluble form in malignant diseases have gained interests in recent years.

Material and methods:

The expression of ICAM-1 and its regulatory signaling were examined by Western blot or flow cytometry. The effect of soluble ICAM-1 on osteoclast formation was investigated by tartrate-resistance acid phosphatase staining of RAW cells and tumor-induced osteolysis in vivo.

Results:

In our study, we found that leptin enhanced soluble ICAM-1 production but not surface ICAM-1 expression in lung and breast cancer cells, and this effect was regulated through leptin receptor (ObR), while silencing ObR abrogated leptin-induced soluble ICAM-1 expression. In addition, we revealed that leptin administration provoked the JAK1/2, STAT3, FAK, ERK, and GSK3αβ signaling cascade, leading to the elevation of ICAM-1 expression. Moreover, soluble ICAM-1 secreted by leptin-stimulated cancer cells synergize with the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) in inducing osteoclast formation. Soluble ICAM also enhanced tumor-induced osteolysis in vivo.

Conclusion:

These findings suggest that soluble ICAM-1 produced under leptin treatment enhances osteoclast formation and is involved in tumor-induced osteolysis.

Leptin plays an important role in physiology in health and diseases. Leptin affects immune responses that may induce inflammation and carcinogenesis. Leptin is also considered as a tumorigenic adipokine suggested to promote tumorigenesis and progression in many cancers. On the other hand, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) shows altered expression in a variety of benign and malignant diseases. Histologically, ICAM-1 expression is reported to be proportional to cancer stage and considered as a potential diagnosis biomarker. It has been reported that soluble ICAM-1 allows tumor cells to escape from immune recognition and stimulates angiogenesis and tumor growth. The altered expressions of ICAM-1 and its soluble form in malignant diseases have gained interests in recent years. In our study, we found that leptin enhanced soluble ICAM-1 production but not surface ICAM-1 expression in lung and breast cancer cells, and this effect was regulated through leptin receptor (ObR), while silencing ObR abrogated leptin-induced soluble ICAM-1 expression. In addition, we revealed that leptin administration provoked the JAK1/2, STAT3, FAK, ERK, and GSK3αβ signaling cascade, leading to the elevation of ICAM-1 expression. Moreover, soluble ICAM-1 secreted by leptin-stimulated cancer cells synergize with receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand in inducing osteoclast formation. Soluble ICAM also enhanced tumor-induced osteolysis in vivo. These findings suggest that soluble ICAM-1 produced under leptin treatment is possibly involved in lung and breast cancer bone metastasis.

Cathepsins: Potent regulators in carcinogenesis

Cathepsins (CTS) are mainly lysosomal acid hydrolases extensively involved in the prognosis of different diseases, and having a distinct role in tumor progression by regulating cell proliferation, autophagy, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. As all these processes conjunctively lead to cancer progression, their site-specific regulation might be beneficial for cancer treatment. CTS regulate activation of the proteolytic cascade and protein turnover, while extracellular CTS is involved in promoting extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis, thereby stimulating invasion and metastasis. Despite cancer regulation, the involvement of CTS in cellular adaptation toward chemotherapy and radiotherapy augments their therapeutic potential. However, lysosomal permeabilization mediated cytosolic translocation of CTS induces programmed cell death. This complex behavior of CTS generates the need to discuss the different aspects of CTS associated with cancer regulation. In this review, we mainly focused on the significance of each cathepsin in cancer signaling and their targeting which would provide noteworthy information in the context of cancer biology and therapeutics.

Interleukin-10 Family Cytokines Immunobiology and Structure

The Interleukin (IL)-10 cytokine family includes IL-10, IL-19, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, and IL-26, which are considered as Class 2α-helical cytokines. IL-10 is the most important cytokine in suppressing pro-inflammatory responses in all kinds of autoimmune diseases and limiting excessive immune responses. Due to protein structure homology and shared usage of receptor complexes as well as downstream signaling pathway, other IL-10 family cytokines also show indispensable functions in immune regulation, tissue homeostasis, and host defense. In this review, we focus on immune functions and structures of different cytokines in this family and try to better understand how their molecular mechanisms connect to their biological functions. The molecular details regarding their actions also provide useful information in developing candidate immune therapy reagents for a variety of diseases.

The C-Terminal Intact Forms of Periostin (iPTN) Are Surrogate Markers for Osteolytic Lesions in Experimental Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis

Periostin is an extracellular matrix protein that actively contributes to tumor progression and metastasis. Here, we hypothesized that it could be a marker of bone metastasis formation. To address this question, we used two polyclonal antibodies directed against the whole molecule or its C-terminal domain to explore the expression of intact and truncated forms of periostin in the serum and tissues (lung, heart, bone) of wild-type and periostin-deficient mice. In normal bones, periostin was expressed in the periosteum and specific periostin proteolytic fragments were found in bones, but not in soft tissues. In animals bearing osteolytic lesions caused by 4T1 cells, C-terminal intact periostin (iPTN) expression disappeared at the invasive front of skeletal tumors where bone-resorbing osteoclasts were present. In vitro, we found that periostin was a substrate for osteoclast-derived cathepsin K, generating proteolytic fragments that were not recognized by anti-periostin antibodies directed against iPTN. In vivo, using an in-house sandwich immunoassay aimed at detecting iPTN only, we observed a noticeable reduction of serum periostin levels (- 26%; P < 0.002) in animals bearing osteolytic lesions caused by 4T1 cells. On the contrary, this decrease was not observed in women with breast cancer and bone metastases when periostin was measured with a human assay detecting total periostin. Collectively, these data showed that mouse periostin was degraded at the bone metastatic sites, potentially by cathepsin K, and that the specific measurement of iPTN in serum should assist in detecting bone metastasis formation in breast cancer.

Breast Cancer Metastasis: Are Cytokines Important Players During Its Development and Progression?

In breast cancer, an uncontrolled cell proliferation leads to tumor formation and development of a multifactorial disease. Metastasis is a complex process that involves tumor spread to distant parts of the body from its original site. Metastatic dissemination represents the main physiopathology of cancer. Inter- and intracellular communication in all systems in vertebrates is mediated by cytokines, which are highly inducible, secretory proteins, produced not only by immune system cells, but also by endocrine and nervous system cells. It has become clear in recent years that cytokines, as well as their receptors are produced in the organisms under physiological and pathological conditions; recently, they have been closely related to breast cancer metastasis. The exact initiation process of breast cancer metastasis is unknown, although several hypotheses have emerged. In this study, we thoroughly reviewed the role of several cytokines in breast cancer metastasis. Data reviewed suggest that cytokines and growth factors are key players in the breast cancer metastasis induction. This knowledge must be considered with the aim to development of new therapeutic approaches to counter breast cancer metastasis.

Anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma progression

Interleukin (IL)-20 is a member of the IL-10 family of cytokines, which has been reported to participate in autoimmune inflammatory diseases. However, the potential role of IL-20 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression has not yet been investigated. In the present study, it was observed that IL-20 mRNA and protein levels were markedly increased in the HCC tissues examined via reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical staining. In addition, IL-20 expression was significantly associated with tumor size, metastasis, TNM stage and poor prognosis in patients with HCC. Mouse recombinant IL-20 (mIL-20) enhanced liver cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro, while the anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody (mAb) attenuated the effect of mIL-20, inhibiting cancer cell migration and invasion in vitro and suppressing cell growth in vitro and in vivo. This was detected by Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation, Transwell assays and a xenograft tumor nude mouse model. Western blotting revealed that IL-20 promoted HCC progression through inducing transforming growth factor-β and matrix metalloproteinase 9 expression and enhancing the phosphorylation of Jun N-terminal kinase and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3. The results of the present study indicated that IL-20 promotes HCC development. In addition, anti-IL-20 mAb may attenuate the effect of IL-20 and suppress liver tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo, indicating that anti-IL-20 mAbs may potentially serve as effective therapeutic agents for HCC.

The role of IL-20 in chronic kidney disease and diabetic nephropathy: Pathogenic and therapeutic implications

Chronic kidney disease and its complications are a major public health problem worldwide. Diabetic nephropathy has become the main contributing cause of terminal renal failure. There are now evidences that different inflammatory molecules, including proinflammatory cytokines, play a critical role in the development of microvascular diabetic complications, including nephropathy. IL-20 is emerging as a potent angiogenic, chemotactic, and proinflammatory cytokine related to several chronic inflammatory disorders likes psoriasis, atherosclerosis, and renal failure. This review discusses the role of IL-20 as a pathogenic factor in renal injury, focusing on chronic kidney disease and diabetic nephropathy, and describes potential treatment strategies based on modulation of IL-20's function.

A transcriptional complex composed of ER(α), GATA3, FOXA1 and ELL3 regulates IL-20 expression in breast cancer cells

Interleukin-20 (IL-20) is a member of the IL-10 family. IL-20 expression is regulated by a transcription elongation factor, Ell3, in estrogen receptor-positive (ER(+)) breast cancer cells. In this study, we demonstrated that ER(α), GATA3 and FOXA1 form a transcriptional complex with Ell3 to regulate IL-20 expression in ER(+) breast cancer cells. We also determined that GATA3 and FOXA1 share a binding site with ER(α) in the interleukin-20 promoter. Furthermore, we found that FOXA1 represses IL-20 expression, whereas GATA3 and ER(α) activate it. In addition, we demonstrated that Ell3 associates with ER(α) to increase its binding affinity to the IL-20 promoter, which may prevent FOXA1 binding to the same region of this promoter. Our results expand upon the current understanding of the regulatory mechanism of IL-20 in cancer.

IL-20 bone diseases involvement and therapeutic target potential

BACKGROUND

Millions of people around the world suffer from bone disorders, likes osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and cancer-induced osteolysis. In general, the bone remodeling balance is determined by osteoclasts and osteoblasts, respectively responsible for bone resorption and bone formation. Excessive inflammation disturbs the activities of these two kinds of cells, typically resulting in the bone loss.

MAIN BODY

IL-20 is emerging as a potent angiogenic, chemotactic, and proinflammatory cytokine related to several chronic inflammatory disorders likes psoriasis, atherosclerosis, cancer, liver fibrosis, and RA. IL-20 has an important role in the regulation of osteoclastogenesis and osteoblastogenesis and is upregulated in several bone-related diseases. The anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody treatment has a therapeutic potential in several experimental disease models including ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis, cancer-induced osteolysis, and bone fracture.

CONCLUSION

This review article provides an overview describing the IL-20's biological functions in the common bone disorders and thus providing a novel therapeutic strategy in the future.

Anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody inhibited tumor growth in hepatocellular carcinoma

Interleukin (IL)-20 is a proinflammatory cytokine involved in rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and osteoporosis. However, the role of IL-20 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is unclear. We explored the function of IL-20 in HCC. Tumor tissue samples were analyzed the expression of IL-20 and cyclin D1 by using immunohistochemistry staining and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. To examine the role of anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody (7E) in tumor growth, BALB/c mice was injected with ML-1 cells and treated with 7E. HCC tumor tissue expressed higher levels of IL-20 than did non-tumor tissue. High IL-20 expression in HCC was correlated with poor overall survival (relative risk:>3). IL-20 and cyclin D1 expression were also highly correlated in HCC patient specimens and 3 human HCC cell lines. IL-20 also increased cell proliferation and migration, and it regulated matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-13, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, cyclin D1, and p21^WAF1 expression in ML-1 cells. 7E attenuated tumor growth in mice inoculated with ML-1 cells. The expression of cyclin D1, TNF-α, MMP-9, and vascular endothelial growth factor was significantly inhibited after 7E treatment. The findings of this study suggest that IL-20 plays a role in the tumor progression of HCC.

Interleukin-20 targets podocytes and is upregulated in experimental murine diabetic nephropathy

Interleukin (IL)-20, a proinflammatory cytokine of the IL-10 family, is involved in acute and chronic renal failure. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of IL-20 during diabetic nephropathy development. We found that IL-20 and its receptor IL-20R1 were upregulated in the kidneys of mice and rats with STZ-induced diabetes. In vitro, IL-20 induced MMP-9, MCP-1, TGF-β1 and VEGF expression in podocytes. IL-20 was upregulated by hydrogen peroxide, high-dose glucose and TGF-β1. In addition, IL-20 induced apoptosis in podocytes by activating caspase-8. In STZ-induced early diabetic nephropathy, IL-20R1-deficient mice had lower blood glucose and serum BUN levels and a smaller glomerular area than did wild-type controls. Anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody (7E) treatment reduced blood glucose and the glomerular area and improved renal functions in mice in the early stage of STZ-induced diabetic nephropathy. ELISA showed that the serum IL-20 level was higher in patients with diabetes mellitus than in healthy controls. The findings of this study suggest that IL-20 induces cell apoptosis of podocytes and plays a role in the pathogenesis of early diabetic nephropathy.

Mechanism of immune evasion in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant tumor among women, with high morbidity and mortality. Its onset, development, metastasis, and prognosis vary among individuals due to the interactions between tumors and host immunity. Many diverse mechanisms have been associated with BC, with immune evasion being the most widely studied to date. Tumor cells can escape from the body’s immune response, which targets abnormal components and foreign bodies, using different approaches including modification of surface antigens and modulation of the surrounding environment. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms and factors that impact the immunoediting process and analyze their functions in detail.

Regulation of IL-20 Expression by Estradiol through KMT2B-Mediated Epigenetic Modification

Cytokines are low molecular weight regulatory proteins, or glycoproteins, with both tumor-promoting and inhibitory effects on breast cancer growth. Different cytokines play important roles in breast cancer initiation and progression. Here, we show that of the 39 interleukin (IL) genes, IL-20 is the only gene over-expressed in MCF-7 cells treated with estradiol (E2) and that induction of IL-20 expression by estrogen was epigenetically regulated. Methylation of histone H3K4 in the IL-20 promoter was shown to occur via the specific recruitment of KMT2B by estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), but not by other members of the mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) family of histone methyltransferases. Depletion of KMT2B, or IL-20, disrupts estrogen signaling, attenuates cell proliferation, reduces colony formation, and results in cell cycle arrest. Furthermore, we demonstrated that KMT2B-mediated epigenetic modification also affected the expression of several ERα target genes. IL-20 and KMT2B expression were also associated with ERα-positive breast cancer tissues. We have revealed an important role for KMT2B in the epigenetic transcriptional regulation of cytokine IL-20, and other ERα-responsive genes, in breast cancer cells. Inhibition of IL-20 and KMT2B may have therapeutic benefits in ERα-positive breast cancer.

The Role of the IL-20 Subfamily in Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a common disease that leads to loss of peripheral vision and, if left untreated, ultimately to blindness. While the exact cause(s) of glaucoma is still unknown, two leading risk factors are age and elevated intraocular pressure. Several studies suggest a possible link between glaucoma and inflammation in humans and animal models. In particular, our lab recently identified a T104M mutation in IL-20 receptor-B (IL-20RB) in primary open angle glaucoma patients from a large pedigree. Several of the interleukin- (IL-) 20 family of cytokines and receptors are expressed in ocular tissues including the trabecular meshwork, optic nerve head, and retinal ganglion cells. The DBA/2J mouse develops high intraocular pressures with age and has characteristic optic nerve defects that make it a useful glaucoma model. IL-24 expression is significantly upregulated in the retina of these mice, while IL-20RA expression in the optic nerve is downregulated following pressure-induced damage. The identification of a mutation in the IL-20RB gene in a glaucoma pedigree and changes in expression levels of IL-20 family members in the DBA/2J mouse suggest that disruption of normal IL-20 signaling in the eye may contribute to degenerative processes associated with glaucoma.

Clinical Implications of Hepatocyte Growth Factor, Interleukin-20, and Interleukin-22 in Serum and Bronchoalveolar Fluid of Patients with Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is involved in tumorigenesis, interleukin-20 (IL-20) is an inhibitor of angiogenesis, and interleukin-22 (IL-22) stimulates tumor growth. The aim of this study was to determine the level of HGF, IL-20, and IL-22 in both serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients before onset of chemotherapy, the nature of the interrelationships between these markers, and their prognostic significance regarding post-chemotherapy survival time. We studied 46 NSCLC patients and 15 healthy subjects as a control group. We found significantly higher serum levels of HGF and IL-22 in the NSCLC patients than those in controls [pg/ml: HGF - 1911 (693-6510) vs. 1333 (838-3667), p = 0.0004; IL-22 - 10.66 (1.44-70.34) vs. 4.69 (0.35-12.29), p = 0.0007]. In contrast, concentrations of HGF and IL-22 in BALF were lower in NSCLC patients than those in controls [pg/ml: HGF - 72 (6-561) vs. 488 (14-2003), p = 0.0002; IL-22 - 2.28 (0.70-6.52) vs. 3.72 (2.76-5.64), p = 0.002]. In the NSCLC patients, there was a negative correlation between the serum level of IL-20 and time to tumor progression (r = -0.405, p = 0.04) and between the serum level of HGF and survival time (r = -0.41, p = 0.005). In addition, a higher serum level of HGF and a higher BALF level of IL-22 in patients were linked with a shorter overall survival. We conclude that HGF, IL-20, and IL-22 in the serum and BALF of NSCLC patients before chemotherapy may be a prognostic of cancer progression.

Anti-IL-20 Monoclonal Antibody Suppresses Prostate Cancer Growth and Bone Osteolysis in Murine Models

Interleukin (IL)-20 is a proinflammatory cytokine in the IL–10 family. IL–20 is associated with tumor promotion in the pathogenesis of oral, bladder, and breast cancer. However, little is known about the role of IL–20 in prostate cancer. We hypothesize that IL–20 promotes the growth of prostate cancer cells. Immunohistochemical staining showed that IL–20 and its receptors were expressed in human PC–3 and LNCaP prostate cancer cell lines and in prostate tumor tissue from 40 patients. In vitro, IL–20 upregulated N-cadherin, STAT3, vimentin, fibronectin, RANKL, cathepsin G, and cathepsin K, and increased the migration and colony formation of prostate cancer cells via activated p38, ERK1/2, AKT, and NF-κB signals in PC–3 cells. We investigated the effects of anti-IL–20 monoclonal antibody 7E on prostate tumor growth in vivo using SCID mouse subcutaneous and intratibial xenograft tumor models. In vivo, 7E reduced tumor growth, suppressed tumor-mediated osteolysis, and protected bone mineral density after intratibial injection of prostate cancer cells. We conclude that IL–20 is involved in the cell migration, colony formation, and tumor-induced osteolysis of prostate cancer. Therefore, IL–20 might be a novel target for treating prostate cancer.

Cohesin modulates transcription of estrogen-responsive genes

The cohesin complex has essential roles in cell division, DNA damage repair and gene transcription. The transcriptional function of cohesin is thought to derive from its ability to connect distant regulatory elements with gene promoters. Genome-wide binding of cohesin in breast cancer cells frequently coincides with estrogen receptor alpha (ER), leading to the hypothesis that cohesin facilitates estrogen-dependent gene transcription. We found that cohesin modulates the expression of only a subset of genes in the ER transcription program, either activating or repressing transcription depending on the gene target. Estrogen-responsive genes most significantly influenced by cohesin were enriched in pathways associated with breast cancer progression such as PI3K and ErbB1. In MCF7 breast cancer cells, cohesin depletion enhanced transcription of TFF1 and TFF2, and was associated with increased ER binding and increased interaction between TFF1 and its distal enhancer situated within TMPRSS3. In contrast, cohesin depletion reduced c-MYC mRNA and was accompanied by reduced interaction between a distal enhancer of c-MYC and its promoters. Our data indicates that cohesin is not a universal facilitator of ER-induced transcription and can even restrict enhancer-promoter communication. We propose that cohesin modulates transcription of estrogen-dependent genes to achieve appropriate directionality and amplitude of expression.

The role of cytokines in breast cancer development and progression

Cytokines are highly inducible, secretory proteins that mediate intercellular communication in the immune system. They are grouped into several protein families that are referred to as tumor necrosis factors, interleukins, interferons, and colony-stimulating factors. In recent years, it has become clear that some of these proteins as well as their receptors are produced in the organisms under physiological and pathological conditions. The exact initiation process of breast cancer is unknown, although several hypotheses have emerged. Inflammation has been proposed as an important player in tumor initiation, promotion, angiogenesis, and metastasis, all phenomena in which cytokines are prominent players. The data here suggest that cytokines play an important role in the regulation of both induction and protection in breast cancer. This knowledge could be fundamental for the proposal of new therapeutic approaches to particularly breast cancer and other cancer-related disorders.

The IL-20 subfamily of cytokines--from host defence to tissue homeostasis

The interleukin-20 (IL-20) subfamily of cytokines comprises IL-19, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24 and IL-26. These cytokines are all members of the larger IL-10 family, but have been grouped together to form the IL-20 subfamily based on their usage of common receptor subunits and similarities in their target-cell profiles and biological functions. Members of the IL-20 subfamily facilitate the communication between leukocytes and epithelial cells, thereby enhancing innate defence mechanisms and tissue repair processes at epithelial surfaces. In this Review, we describe the cellular sources and targets of the IL-20 subfamily cytokines, and we detail how their expression is regulated. Much of our understanding of the unique biology of this group of cytokines is still based on IL-22, which is the most studied member of the IL-20 subfamily. Nevertheless, we attempt a broader discussion of the emerging functions of IL-20 subfamily cytokines in host defence, inflammatory diseases, cancer and metabolism.

The role of the IL-22/IL-22R1 axis in cancer

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is an IL-10 family cytokine produced by T cells and innate lymphoid cells. The IL-22 signaling pathway orchestrates mucosal immune defense and tissue regeneration through pleiotropic effects including pro-survival signaling, cell migration, dysplasia and angiogenesis. While these functions can prevent initial establishment of tumors, they can also be hijacked by aggressive cancers to enhance tumor growth and metastasis. Thus, the role of the IL-22/IL-22R1 axis in cancer is complex and context-specific. Evidence of IL-22 involvement manifests as dysregulation of IL-22 expression and signaling in patients with many common cancers including those of the gut, skin, lung and liver. Unlike other cancer-associated cytokines, IL-22 has restricted tissue specificity as its unique receptor IL-22R1 is exclusively expressed on epithelial and tissue cells, but not immune cells. This makes it an attractive target for therapy as there is potential achieve anti-tumor immunity with fewer side effects. This review summarizes current findings on functions of IL-22 in association with general mechanisms for tumorigenesis as well as specific contributions to particular cancers, and ponders how best to approach further research in the field.

The Therapeutic Potential of Anti-Interleukin-20 Monoclonal Antibody

Interleukin (IL)-20, a member of the IL-10 family of cytokines, was discovered in 2001. IL-20 acts on multiple cell types by activating on a heterodimer receptor complex of either IL-20R1–IL-20R2 or IL-22R1–IL-20R2. Recent evidence indicates that IL-20's interaction with its receptors might have proinflammatory effects on chronic inflammatory diseases, particularly rheumatoid arthritis (RA), osteoporosis, and breast cancer. Updated information about IL-20, such as its identification, expression, receptors, signaling, and biological activities, is illustrated in this review based on our research and the data available in the literature. IL-20 is a pleiotropic cytokine, which promotes inflammation, angiogenesis, and chemotaxis. IL-20 also regulates osteoclast differentiation by altering the receptor activator of NF-κB (RANK) and RANK ligand (RANKL) axis. Inflammation, angiogenesis, and osteoclastogenesis are critical for the pathogenesis of RA, osteoporosis, and breast cancer-induced osteolysis. Based on the in vitro and in vivo data and clinical samples, we demonstrated that IL-20 plays pivotal roles in these three diseases. In experimental models, anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibody ameliorates arthritis severity, protects against ovariectomized-induced bone loss, and inhibits breast tumor-induced osteolysis. This review presents the clinical implications of IL-20, which will lead to a better understanding of the biological functions of IL-20 in these diseases and provide new therapeutic options in the future.