Importance of the membrane-proximal extracellular domains for activation of the signal transducer glycoprotein 130

Pharmacological modulation of gp130 signalling enhances Achilles tendon repair by regulating tenocyte migration and collagen synthesis via SHP2-mediated crosstalk of the ERK/AKT pathway

Tendon injuries typically display limited reparative capacity, often resulting in suboptimal outcomes and an elevated risk of recurrence or rupture. While cytokines of the IL-6 family are primarily recognised for their inflammatory properties, they also have multifaceted roles in tissue regeneration and repair. Despite this, studies examining the association between IL-6 family cytokines and tendon repair remained scarce. gp130, a type of glycoprotein, functions as a co-receptor for all cytokines in the IL-6 family. Its role is to assist in the transmission of signals following the binding of ligands to receptors. RCGD423 is a gp130 modulator. Phosphorylation of residue Y759 of gp130 recruits SHP2 and SOCS3 and inhibits activation of the STAT3 pathway. In our study, RCGD423 stimulated the formation of homologous dimers of gp130 and the phosphorylation of Y759 residues without the involvement of IL-6 and IL-6R. Subsequently, the phosphorylated residues recruited SHP2, activating the downstream ERK and AKT pathways. These mechanisms ultimately promoted the migration ability of tenocytes and matrix synthesis, especially collagen I. Moreover, RCGD423 also demonstrated significant improvements in collagen content, alignment of collagen fibres, and biological and biomechanical function in a rat Achilles tendon injury model. In summary, we demonstrated a promising gp130 modulator (RCGD423) that could potentially enhance tendon injury repair by redirecting downstream signalling of IL-6, suggesting its potential therapeutic application for tendon injuries.

Structural insights into IL-11-mediated signalling and human IL6ST variant-associated immunodeficiency

IL-11 and IL-6 activate signalling via assembly of the cell surface receptor gp130; however, it is unclear how signals are transmitted across the membrane to instruct cellular responses. Here we solve the cryoEM structure of the IL-11 receptor recognition complex to discover how differences in gp130-binding interfaces may drive signalling outcomes. We explore how mutations in the IL6ST gene encoding for gp130, which cause severe immune deficiencies in humans, impair signalling without blocking cytokine binding. We use cryoEM to solve structures of both IL-11 and IL-6 complexes with a mutant form of gp130 associated with human disease. Together with molecular dynamics simulations, we show that the disease-associated variant led to an increase in flexibility including motion within the cytokine-binding core and increased distance between extracellular domains. However, these distances are minimized as the transmembrane helix exits the membrane, suggesting a stringency in geometry for signalling and dimmer switch mode of action.

The Human GP130 Cytokine Receptor and Its Expression-an Atlas and Functional Taxonomy of Genetic Variants

Genetic variants in IL6ST encoding the shared cytokine receptor for the IL-6 cytokine family GP130 have been associated with a diverse number of clinical phenotypes and disorders. We provide a molecular classification for 59 reported rare IL6ST pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants and additional polymorphisms. Based on loss- or gain-of-function, cytokine selectivity, mono- and biallelic associations, and variable cellular mosaicism, we grade six classes of IL6ST variants and explore the potential for additional variants. We classify variants according to the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics criteria. Loss-of-function variants with (i) biallelic complete loss of GP130 function that presents with extended Stüve-Wiedemann Syndrome; (ii) autosomal recessive hyper-IgE syndrome (HIES) caused by biallelic; and (iii) autosomal dominant HIES caused by monoallelic IL6ST variants both causing selective IL-6 and IL-11 cytokine loss-of-function defects; (iv) a biallelic cytokine-specific variant that exclusively impairs IL-11 signaling, associated with craniosynostosis and tooth abnormalities; (v) somatic monoallelic mosaic constitutively active gain-of-function variants in hepatocytes that present with inflammatory hepatocellular adenoma; and (vi) mosaic constitutively active gain-of-function variants in hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells that are associated with an immune dysregulation syndrome. In addition to Mendelian IL6ST coding variants, there are common non-coding cis-acting variants that modify gene expression, which are associated with an increased risk of complex immune-mediated disorders and trans-acting variants that affect GP130 protein function. Our taxonomy highlights IL6ST as a gene with particularly strong functional and phenotypic diversity due to the combinatorial biology of the IL-6 cytokine family and predicts additional genotype-phenotype associations.

Structures of the interleukin 11 signalling complex reveal gp130 dynamics and the inhibitory mechanism of a cytokine variant

Interleukin (IL-)11, an IL-6 family cytokine, has pivotal roles in autoimmune diseases, fibrotic complications, and solid cancers. Despite intense therapeutic targeting efforts, structural understanding of IL-11 signalling and mechanistic insights into current inhibitors are lacking. Here we present cryo-EM and crystal structures of the human IL-11 signalling complex, including the complex containing the complete extracellular domains of the shared IL-6 family β-receptor, gp130. We show that complex formation requires conformational reorganisation of IL-11 and that the membrane-proximal domains of gp130 are dynamic. We demonstrate that the cytokine mutant, IL-11 Mutein, competitively inhibits signalling in human cell lines. Structural shifts in IL-11 Mutein underlie inhibition by altering cytokine binding interactions at all three receptor-engaging sites and abrogating the final gp130 binding step. Our results reveal the structural basis of IL-11 signalling, define the molecular mechanisms of an inhibitor, and advance understanding of gp130-containing receptor complexes, with potential applications in therapeutic development.

Mutational screens highlight glycosylation as a modulator of colony-stimulating factor 3 receptor (CSF3R) activity

The colony-stimulating factor 3 receptor (CSF3R) controls the growth of neutrophils, the most abundant type of white blood cell. In healthy neutrophils, signaling is dependent on CSF3R binding to its ligand, CSF3. A single amino acid mutation in CSF3R, T618I, instead allows for constitutive, ligand-independent cell growth and leads to a rare type of cancer called chronic neutrophilic leukemia. However, the disease mechanism is not well understood. Here, we investigated why this threonine to isoleucine substitution is the predominant mutation in chronic neutrophilic leukemia and how it leads to uncontrolled neutrophil growth. Using protein domain mapping, we demonstrated that the single CSF3R domain containing residue 618 is sufficient for ligand-independent activity. We then applied an unbiased mutational screening strategy focused on this domain and found that activating mutations are enriched at sites normally occupied by asparagine, threonine, and serine residues-the three amino acids which are commonly glycosylated. We confirmed glycosylation at multiple CSF3R residues by mass spectrometry, including the presence of GalNAc and Gal-GalNAc glycans at WT threonine 618. Using the same approach applied to other cell surface receptors, we identified an activating mutation, S489F, in the interleukin-31 receptor alpha chain. Combined, these results suggest a role for glycosylated hotspot residues in regulating receptor signaling, mutation of which can lead to ligand-independent, uncontrolled activity and human disease.

Structural insights into the assembly of gp130 family cytokine signaling complexes

The interleukin-6 (IL-6) family cytokines signal through gp130 receptor homodimerization or heterodimerization with a second signaling receptor and play crucial roles in various cellular processes. We determined cryo-electron microscopy structures of five signaling complexes of this family, containing full receptor ectodomains bound to their respective ligands ciliary neurotrophic factor, cardiotrophin-like cytokine factor 1 (CLCF1), leukemia inhibitory factor, IL-27, and IL-6. Our structures collectively reveal similarities and differences in the assembly of these complexes. The acute bends at both signaling receptors in all complexes bring the membrane-proximal domains to a ~30 angstrom range but with distinct distances and orientations. We also reveal how CLCF1 engages its secretion chaperone cytokine receptor-like factor 1. Our data provide valuable insights for therapeutically targeting gp130-mediated signaling.

Targeting the gp130_D5 domain through pharmacophore modelling and structure-based virtual screening using natural plant products: A detailed molecular dynamics study for development of novel anti-cancer therapeutics

An overexpression and upregulation has been observed in the activity of LIF in various cancers which leads to the worsening prognosis of numerous patients. Domain D5 of gp130 forms a crucial part of the downstream signalling pathway necessary for the activity of this cytokine. Due to the absence of any known inhibitors or previous studies conducted on this domain, this domain presents itself as a novel potential therapeutic target for the development of anti-cancer drugs. Here, an attempt has been made to discover one such potential lead drug candidate via the application of various computer-aided drug designing techniques. A natural plant products library was used along with known inhibitors of the STAT3 signalling pathway through which LIF exerts its activity. The ligand displaying the highest interaction with the target, a good docking score, and an optimal bioavailability was chosen. This ligand- ZINC02131250 forms a very strong complex with the target domain thatremains stable throughout the simulation period. Binding of the ligand to the target also results in an overall decrease in the domain's flexibility, free energy, and motion. Thus, this ligand can be taken for further testing using bioassays and then be used as a viable novel treatment for many cancer types.

G-CSF, the guardian of granulopoiesis

A considerable amount of continuous proliferation and differentiation is required to produce daily a billion new neutrophils in an adult human. Of the few cytokines and factors known to control neutrophil production, G-CSF is the guardian of granulopoiesis. G-CSF/CSF3R signaling involves the recruitment of non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases and their dependent signaling pathways of serine/threonine kinases, tyrosine phosphatases, and lipid second messengers. These pathways converge to activate the families of STAT and C/EBP transcription factors. CSF3R mutations are associated with human disorders of neutrophil production, including severe congenital neutropenia, neutrophilia, and myeloid malignancies. More than three decades after their identification, cloning, and characterization of G-CSF and G-CSF receptor, fundamental questions remain about their physiology.

Selective loss of function variants in IL6ST cause Hyper-IgE syndrome with distinct impairments of T-cell phenotype and function

Hyper-IgE syndromes comprise a group of inborn errors of immunity. STAT3-deficient hyper-IgE syndrome is characterized by elevated serum IgE levels, recurrent infections and eczema, and characteristic skeletal anomalies. A loss-of-function biallelic mutation in IL6ST encoding the GP130 receptor subunit (p.N404Y) has very recently been identified in a singleton patient (herein referred to as P^N404Y) as a novel etiology of hyper-IgE syndrome. Here, we studied a patient with hyper-IgE syndrome caused by a novel homozygous mutation in IL6ST (p.P498L; patient herein referred to as P^P498L) leading to abrogated GP130 signaling after stimulation with IL-6 and IL-27 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells as well as IL-6 and IL-11 in fibroblasts. Extending the initial identification of selective GP130 deficiency, we aimed to dissect the effects of aberrant cytokine signaling on T-helper cell differentiation in both patients. Our results reveal the importance of IL-6 signaling for the development of CCR6-expressing memory CD4⁺ T cells (including T-helper 17-enriched subsets) and non-conventional CD8⁺T cells which were reduced in both patients. Downstream functional analysis of the GP130 mutants (p.N404Y and p.P498L) have shown differences in response to IL-27, with the p.P498L mutation having a more severe effect that is reflected by reduced T-helper 1 cells in this patient (P^P498L) only. Collectively, our data suggest that characteristic features of GP130-deficient hyper-IgE syndrome phenotype are IL-6 and IL-11 dominated, and indicate selective roles of aberrant IL-6 and IL-27 signaling on the differentiation of T-cell subsets.

Study of Fibronectin Type III-Like Domains Role in Activation of gp130 Receptor

Chimeric gp130 receptors were produced to study the role of three fibronectin type III-like domains in activation of gp130 receptor machinery. The ligand-induced dimerization of gp130 was sufficient to trigger STAT3 signaling pathway. These findings can be used as the basis in designing novel therapeutic gp130 inhibitors.

gp130 activation is regulated by D2–D3 interdomain connectivity

Activation of the IL-6 (interleukin 6) receptor subunit gp130 (glycoprotein 130) has been linked to the formation of complexes with IL-6 and the IL-6 receptor, as well as to gp130 dimerization. However, it has been shown that gp130 is present as a pre-formed dimer, indicating that its activation is not solely dependent on dimerization. Therefore the detailed mechanism of gp130 activation still remains to be deciphered. Recently, deletion mutations of gp130 have been found in inflammatory hepatocellular adenoma. The mutations clustered around one IL-6-binding epitope of gp130 and resulted in a ligand-independent constitutively active gp130. We therefore hypothesized that conformational changes of this particular IL-6-binding epitope precedes gp130 activation. Using a rational structure-based approach we identified for the first time amino acids critical for gp130 activation. We can show that gp130 D2–D3 interdomain connectivity by hydrophobic residues stabilizes inactive gp130 conformation. Conformational destabilization of the EF loop present in domain D2 and disruption of D2–D3 hydrophobic interactions resulted in ligand-independent gp130 activation. Furthermore we show that the N-terminal amino acid residues of domain D1 participate in the activation of the gp130 deletion mutants. Taken together we present novel insights into the molecular basis of the activation of a cytokine receptor signalling subunit.

Constitutively active mutant gp130 receptor protein from inflammatory hepatocellular adenoma is inhibited by an anti-gp130 antibody that specifically neutralizes interleukin 11 signaling

Ligand-independent constitutively active gp130 mutants were described to be responsible for the development of inflammatory hepatocellular adenomas (IHCAs). These variants had gain-of-function somatic mutations within the extracellular domain 2 (D2) of the gp130 receptor chain. Cytokine-dependent Ba/F3 cells were transduced with the constitutively active variant of gp130 featuring a deletion in the domain 2 from Tyr-186 to Tyr-190 (gp130ΔYY). These cells showed constitutive phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) and cytokine-independent proliferation. Deletion of the Ig-like domain 1 (D1) of gp130, but not anti-gp130 mAbs directed against D1, abolished constitutive activation of gp130ΔYY, highlighting that this domain is involved in ligand-independent activation of gp130ΔYY. Moreover, soluble variants of gp130 were not able to inhibit the constitutive activation of gp130ΔYY. However, the inhibition of constitutive activation of gp130ΔYY was achieved by the anti-gp130 mAb B-P4, which specifically inhibits gp130 signaling by IL-11 but not by other IL-6 type cytokines. IL-11 but not IL-6 levels were found previously to be up-regulated in IHCAs, suggesting that mutations in gp130 are leading to IL-11-like signaling. The mAb B-P4 might be a valuable tool to inhibit the constitutive activation of naturally occurring gp130 mutants in IHCAs and rare cases of gp130-associated hepatocellular carcinoma.

Molecular interactions within the IL-6/IL-12 cytokine/receptor superfamily

Production of cytokines by immune cells in response to stimuli and the binding of cytokines to specific receptors on target cells is a central feature of the immune response. The IL-12 cytokine family is particularly influential in determining the fate of T cells and is characterized by the sharing of cytokine and receptor subunits. A thorough understanding of the molecular interactions within this family will be a key to the development of therapeutic inhibitors or enhancers of IL-12 family function. While the current structural and molecular data for IL-12 family members is limited, there is ample information on the structurally related IL-6 cytokine family. This review will summarize the current structural and mutagenesis data within the IL-12 family and will attempt to utilize similarities between the IL-6 and IL-12 families to understand molecular interactions between IL-12 family subunits and with receptor components.

Dynamics and non-canonical aspects of JAK/STAT signalling

The Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway directly links ligand-binding to a membrane-bound receptor with the activation of a transcription factor. This signalling module enables the cell to rapidly initiate a transcriptional response to external stimulation. The main components of this evolutionary conserved module are cytokines that specifically bind to cytokine receptors leading to the activation of receptor-associated Janus tyrosine kinases (JAKs). The receptor-bound JAKs activate STAT transcription factors through phosphorylation of a single tyrosine residue. Activated STAT dimers translocate into the nucleus to induce target gene expression. In this article we will review current opinions on the molecular mechanism and on intracellular dynamics of JAK/STAT signalling with a special focus on the cytokine receptor glycoprotein 130 (gp130) and STAT3. In particular we will concentrate on non-canonical aspects of Jak/STAT signalling including preassembled receptor complexes, preformed STAT dimers, STAT trafficking and non-canonical functions of STATs.

Functional properties of extracellular domains of transducer receptor gp130

Cytokine receptor molecules have been shown to have extracellular domains of complex structure and a multi-step activation system. Glycoprotein gp130 is a typical transducer of cytokine signal; it functions by forming multicomponent receptor complexes and transferring signals of tens of cytokines from the IL-6 family. Structural organization and basic functioning principles of gp130 are well known, as well as related signal pathways, which function during normal differentiation and are involved in pathogenesis of many tumors. The role of gp130 in IL-6-dependent tumors is best studied. In this review, based on extensive accumulated data, we examine the functional significance of certain parts of gp130 extracellular domains. Potentials of a recently developed method for estimation of receptor activation at the level of epitope structure are discussed.

Structural snapshots of full-length Jak1, a transmembrane gp130/IL-6/IL-6Rα cytokine receptor complex, and the receptor-Jak1 holocomplex

The shared cytokine receptor gp130 signals as a homodimer or heterodimer through activation of Janus kinases (Jaks) associated with the receptor intracellular domains. Here, we reconstitute, in parts and whole, the full-length gp130 homodimer in complex with the cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6), its alpha receptor (IL-6Rα) and Jak1, for electron microscopy imaging. We find that the full-length gp130 homodimer complex has intimate interactions between the trans- and juxtamembrane segments of the two receptors, appearing to form a continuous connection between the extra- and intracellular regions. 2D averages and 3D reconstructions of full-length Jak1 reveal a three lobed structure comprising FERM-SH2, pseudokinase, and kinase modules possessing extensive intersegmental flexibility that likely facilitates allosteric activation. Single-particle imaging of the gp130/IL-6/IL-6Rα/Jak1 holocomplex shows Jak1 associated with the membrane proximal intracellular regions of gp130, abutting the would-be inner leaflet of the cell membrane. Jak1 association with gp130 is enhanced by the presence of a membrane environment.

The pro- and anti-inflammatory properties of the cytokine interleukin-6

Interleukin-6 is a cytokine not only involved in inflammation and infection responses but also in the regulation of metabolic, regenerative, and neural processes. In classic signaling, interleukin-6 stimulates target cells via a membrane bound interleukin-6 receptor, which upon ligand binding associates with the signaling receptor protein gp130. Gp130 dimerizes, leading to the activation of Janus kinases and subsequent phosphorylation of tyrosine residues within the cytoplasmic portion of gp130. This leads to the engagement of phosphatase Src homology domains containing tyrosin phosphatase-2 (SHP-2) and activation of the ras/raf/Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase (MAPK) pathway. In addition, signal transducer and activator of transcription factors are recruited, which are phosphorylated, and consequently dimerize whereupon they translocate into the nucleus and activate target genes. Interestingly, only few cells express membrane bound interleukin-6 receptor whereas all cells display gp130 on the cell surface. While cells, which only express gp130, are not responsive to interleukin-6 alone, they can respond to a complex of interleukin-6 bound to a naturally occurring soluble form of the interleukin-6 receptor. Therefore, the generation of soluble form of the interleukin-6 receptor dramatically enlarges the spectrum of interleukin-6 target cells. This process has been named trans-signaling. Here, we review the involvement of both signaling modes in the biology of interleukin-6. It turns out that regenerative or anti-inflammatory activities of interleukin-6 are mediated by classic signaling whereas pro-inflammatory responses of interleukin-6 are rather mediated by trans-signaling. This is important since therapeutic blockade of interleukin-6 by the neutralizing anti-interleukin-6 receptor monoclonal antibody tocilizumab has recently been approved for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 11th European Symposium on Calcium.

Forced homo- and heterodimerization of all gp130-type receptor complexes leads to constitutive ligand-independent signaling and cytokine-independent growth

We present a novel strategy to enforce cytokine-independent, constitutive signaling of heterodimeric gp130 receptor complexes. Replacing the extracellular domain of gp130-type receptors by IL-15/IL-15R is sufficient to heterodimerize gp130-like receptors and as a consequence leading to sustained cytokine-independent receptor activation.

Naturally ligand independent constitutively active gp130 variants were described to be responsible for inflammatory hepatocellular adenomas. Recently, we genetically engineered a ligand-independent constitutively active gp130 variant based on homodimerization of Jun leucine zippers. Because also heterodimeric complexes within the gp130 family may have tumorigenic potential, we seek to generate ligand-independent constitutively active heterodimers for all known gp130-receptor complexes based on IL-15/IL-15Rα-sushi fusion proteins. Ligand-independent heterodimerization of gp130 with WSX-1, LIFR, and OSMR and of OSMR with GPL led to constitutive, ligand-independent STAT1 and/or STAT3 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Moreover, these receptor combinations induced transcription of the STAT3 target genes c-myc and Pim-1 and factor-independent growth of stably transduced Ba/F3-gp130 cells. Here, we establish the IL-15/IL-15Rα-sushi system as a new system to mimic constitutive and ligand-independent activation of homo- and heterodimeric receptor complexes, which might be applicable to other heterodimeric receptor families. A mutated IL-15 protein, which was still able to bind the IL-15Rα-sushi domain, but not to β- and γ-receptor chains, in combination with the 2A peptide technology may be used to translate our in vitro data into the in vivo situation to assess the tumorigenic potential of gp130-heterodimeric receptor complexes.

Crystal structure of the entire ectodomain of gp130: insights into the molecular assembly of the tall cytokine receptor complexes

gp130 is the shared signal-transducing receptor subunit for the large and important family of interleukin 6-like cytokines. Previous x-ray structures of ligand-receptor complexes of this family lack the three membrane-proximal domains that are essential for signal transduction. Here we report the crystal structure of the entire extracellular portion of human gp130 (domains 1-6, D1-D6) at 3.6 A resolution, in an unliganded form, as well as a higher resolution structure of the membrane-proximal fibronectin type III domains (D4-D6) at 1.9 A. This represents the first atomic resolution structure of the complete ectodomain of any "tall" cytokine receptor. These structures show that other than a reorientation of the D1 domain, there is little structural change in gp130 upon ligand binding. They also reveal that the interface between the D4 and D5 domains forms an acute bend in the gp130 structure. Key residues at this interface are highly conserved across the entire tall receptor family, suggesting that this acute bend may be a common feature of these receptors. Importantly, this geometry positions the C termini of the membrane-proximal fibronectin type III domains of the tall cytokine receptors in close proximity within the transmembrane complex, favorable for receptor-associated Janus kinases to trans-phosphorylate and activate each other.

Novel IL31RA gene mutation and ancestral OSMR mutant allele in familial primary cutaneous amyloidosis

Primary cutaneous amyloidosis (PCA) is an itchy skin disorder associated with amyloid deposits in the superficial dermis. The disease is relatively common in Southeast Asia and South America. Autosomal dominant PCA has been mapped earlier to 5p13.1-q11.2 and two pathogenic missense mutations in the OSMR gene, which encodes the interleukin-6 family cytokine receptor oncostatin M receptor beta (OSMRbeta), were reported. Here, we investigated 29 Taiwanese pedigrees with PCA and found that 10 had heterozygous missense mutations in OSMR: p.D647V (one family), p.P694L (six families), and p.K697T (three families). The mutation p.P694L was associated with the same haplotype in five of six families and also detected in two sporadic cases of PCA. Of the other 19 pedigrees that lacked OSMR pathology, 8 mapped to the same locus on chromosome 5, which also contains the genes for 3 other interleukin-6 family cytokine receptors, including interleukin-31 receptor A (IL31RA), which can form a heterodimeric receptor with OSMRbeta through interleukin-31 signaling. In one family, we identified a point mutation in the IL31RA gene, c.1562C>T that results in a missense mutation, p.S521F, which is also sited within a fibronectin type III-like repeat domain as observed in the OSMR mutations. PCA is a genetically heterogeneous disorder but our study shows that it can be caused by mutations in two biologically associated cytokine receptor genes located on chromosome 5. The identification of OSMR and IL31RA gene pathology provides an explanation of the high prevalence of PCA in Taiwan as well as new insight into disease pathophysiology.

N-linked glycosylation is essential for the stability but not the signaling function of the interleukin-6 signal transducer glycoprotein 130

N-Linked glycosylation is an important determinant of protein structure and function. The interleukin-6 signal transducer glycoprotein 130 (gp130) is a common co-receptor for cytokines of the interleukin (IL)-6 family and is N-glycosylated at 9 of 11 potential sites. Whereas N-glycosylation of the extracellular domains D1-D3 of gp130 has been shown to be dispensable for binding of the gp130 ligand IL-6 and its cognate receptor in vitro, the role of the N-linked glycans on domains D4 and D6 is still unclear. We have mutated the asparagines of all nine functional N-glycosylation sites of gp130 to glutamine and systematically analyzed the consequences of deleted N-glycosylation (dNG) in both cellular gp130 and in a soluble gp130-IgG1-Fc fusion protein (sgp130Fc). Our results show that sgp130Fc-dNG is inherently unstable and degrades rapidly under conditions that do not harm wild-type sgp130Fc. Consistently, the bulk of cellular gp130-dNG is not transported to the plasma membrane but is degraded in the proteasome. However, the small quantities of gp130-dNG, which do reach the cell surface, are still able to activate the key gp130 signaling target signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) upon binding of the agonistic complex of IL-6 and soluble IL-6 receptor. In conclusion, N-linked glycosylation is required for the stability but not the signal-transducing function of gp130.

New insight into mechanisms of pruritus from molecular studies on familial primary localized cutaneous amyloidosis

Macular and lichen amyloidosis are common variants of primary localized cutaneous amyloidosis (PLCA) in which clinical features of pruritus and skin scratching are associated with histological findings of deposits of amyloid staining on keratinous debris in the papillary dermis. Most cases are sporadic, but an autosomal dominant family history may be present in up to 10% of cases, consistent with a genetic predisposition in some individuals. Familial PLCA has been mapped to a locus on 5p13.1-q11.2 and in 2008 pathogenic heterozygous missense mutations were identified in the OSMR gene, which encodes oncostatin M receptor beta (OSMRbeta), an interleukin (IL)-6 family cytokine receptor. OSMRbeta is expressed in various cell types, including keratinocytes, cutaneous nerves and nociceptive neurones in dorsal root ganglia; its ligands are oncostatin M and IL-31. All pathogenic mutations are clustered in the fibronectin-III repeat domains of the extracellular part of OSMRbeta, sites that are critical for receptor dimerization (with either gp130 or IL-31RA), and lead to defective signalling through Janus kinase-signal transducers and activators of transcription, extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 and phosphoinositide 3 kinase/Akt pathways. Elucidating the molecular pathology of familial PLCA provides new insight into mechanisms of pruritus in human skin, findings that may have relevance to developing novel treatments for skin itching. This review provides a clinicopathological and molecular update on familial PLCA.

Structural organization of a full-length gp130/LIF-R cytokine receptor transmembrane complex

gp130 is a shared receptor for at least nine cytokines and can signal either as a homodimer or as a heterodimer with Leukemia Inhibitory Factor Receptor (LIF-R). Here, we biophysically and structurally characterize the full-length, transmembrane form of a quaternary cytokine receptor complex consisting of gp130, LIF-R, the cytokine Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor (CNTF), and its alpha receptor (CNTF-Ralpha). Thermodynamic analysis indicates that, unlike the cooperative assembly of the symmetric gp130/Interleukin-6/IL-6Ralpha hexameric complex, CNTF/CNTF-Ralpha heterodimerizes gp130 and LIF-R via noncooperative energetics to form an asymmetric 1:1:1:1 complex. Single particle electron microscopic analysis of the full-length gp130/LIF-R/CNTF-Ralpha/CNTF quaternary complex elucidates an asymmetric structural arrangement, in which the receptor extracellular and transmembrane segments join as a continuous, rigid unit, poised to sensitively transduce ligand engagement to the membrane-proximal intracellular signaling regions. These studies also enumerate the organizing principles for assembly of the "tall" class of gp130 family cytokine receptor complexes including LIF, IL-27, IL-12, and others.

Oncostatin M receptor-beta mutations underlie familial primary localized cutaneous amyloidosis

Familial primary localized cutaneous amyloidosis (FPLCA) is an autosomal-dominant disorder associated with chronic skin itching and deposition of epidermal keratin filament-associated amyloid material in the dermis. FPLCA has been mapped to 5p13.1-q11.2, and by candidate gene analysis, we identified missense mutations in the OSMR gene, encoding oncostatin M-specific receptor beta (OSMRbeta), in three families. OSMRbeta is a component of the oncostatin M (OSM) type II receptor and the interleukin (IL)-31 receptor, and cultured FPLCA keratinocytes showed reduced activation of Jak/STAT, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt pathways after OSM or IL-31 cytokine stimulation. The pathogenic amino acid substitutions are located within the extracellular fibronectin type III-like (FNIII) domains, regions critical for receptor dimerization and function. OSM and IL-31 signaling have been implicated in keratinocyte cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and inflammation, but our OSMR data in individuals with FPLCA represent the first human germline mutations in this cytokine receptor complex and provide new insight into mechanisms of skin itching.

The dynamics of signal triggering in a gp130-receptor complex

gp130 is a shared signal-transducing membrane-associated receptor for several hematopoietic cytokines. The 30 Å resolution cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the Interleukin 11(IL-11)-IL-11 Receptor-gp130 extracellular complex reveals the architecture and dynamics of this gp130-containing signaling complex. Normal-mode analysis reveals a repertoire of conformational changes that could function in signal triggering. This suggests a concerted mechanism of signaling involving all the components of the complex. This could provide a general mechanism of signal transfer for cytokines utilizing the JAK-STAT signaling cascade.

gp130 dimerization in the absence of ligand: Preformed cytokine receptor complexes

It is established that cytokine receptors signal after ligand binding as homo- or hetero-dimers in heteromeric complexes, but it is unclear, when dimerization occurs. To investigate gp130 dimerization, we performed co-precipitation experiments with the endogenous cytokine receptors gp130 and leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIF-R) and with gp130 variants carrying two different C-terminal peptide tags. Furthermore, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) was employed to detect dimerization of two fluorescent-tagged gp130 variants. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used for FRET detection in live cells. gp130 and LIF-R could be coprecipitated in the absence of ligand. The interaction, however, was intensified by the addition of LIF. Similar results were obtained with the gp130 variants and confirmed by FRET analysis in live cells. The present study clearly demonstrates the existence of preformed but inactive gp130/LIF-R hetero- and gp130/gp130 homo-dimers. The addition of ligand enhanced the respective dimer formation and was required for signal transduction.

Forced dimerization of gp130 leads to constitutive STAT3 activation, cytokine-independent growth, and blockade of differentiation of embryonic stem cells

The mode of activation of glycoprotein 130 kDa (gp130) and the transmission of the activation status through the plasma membrane are incompletely understood. In particular, the molecular function of the three juxtamembrane fibronectin III-like domains of gp130 in signal transmission remains unclear. To ask whether forced dimerization of gp130 is sufficient for receptor activation, we replaced the entire extracellular portion of gp130 with the c-jun leucine zipper region in the chimeric receptor protein L-gp130. On expression in cells, L-gp130 stimulates ligand-independent signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 phosphorylation. gp130 activation could be abrogated by the addition of a competing peptide comprising the leucine zipper region of c-fos. When stably expressed in the interleukin-3-dependent Ba/F3 murine pre-B-cells, these cells showed constitutive STAT3 activation and cytokine-independent growth over several months. Because gp130 stimulation completely suppressed differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells in vitro, we also stably expressed L-gp130 in these cells, which completely blocked their differentiation in the absence of cytokine stimulation and was consistent with high constitutive expression levels of the stem cell factor OCT-4. Thus, L-gp130 can be used in vitro and in vivo to mimic constitutive and ligand-independent activation of gp130 and STAT3, the latter of which is frequently observed in neoplastic diseases.

Dimerization of the cytokine receptors gp130 and LIFR analysed in single cells

The cytokine receptor gp130 is the shared signalling subunit of the IL-6-type cytokines. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) signals through gp130 homodimers whereas leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) exerts its action through a heterodimer of gp130 and the LIF receptor (LIFR). Related haematopoietic receptors such as the erythropoietin receptor have been described as preformed dimers in the plasma membrane. Here we investigated gp130 homodimerization and heterodimerization with the LIFR by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC). We detected a FRET signal between YFP- and CFP-tagged gp130 at the plasma membrane of unstimulated cells that does not increase upon IL-6 stimulation. However, FRET between YFP-tagged gp130 and CFP-tagged LIFR considerably increased upon LIF stimulation. Using a BiFC approach that detects stable interactions we show that fluorescence complementation of gp130 constructs tagged with matching 'halves' of fluorescent proteins increases upon IL-6 stimulation. Taken together, these findings suggest that transient gp130 homodimers on the plasma membrane are stabilized by IL-6 whereas heterodimerization of gp130 with the LIFR is mainly triggered by the ligand. This view is supported by the observation that the simultaneous action of two IL-6 binding domains on two gp130 molecules is required to efficiently recruit a fluorescent IL-6 (YFP-IL-6) to the plasma membrane.

Signaling conformations of the tall cytokine receptor gp130 when in complex with IL-6 and IL-6 receptor

gp130 is a shared cytokine signaling receptor and the founding member of the 'tall' class of cytokine receptors. A crystal structure of the ligand-binding domains of gp130 in complex with human interleukin-6 (IL-6) and its a-receptor (IL-6Ralpha) revealed a hexameric architecture in which the gp130 membrane-distal regions were approximately 100 A apart, in contrast to the close apposition seen between short cytokine receptor complexes. Here we used single-particle EM to visualize the entire extracellular hexameric IL-6-IL-6Ralpha-gp130 complex, containing all six gp130 domains. The structure reveals that gp130 is bent such that the membrane-proximal domains of gp130 are close together at the cell surface, enabling activation of intracellular signaling. Variation in the receptor bend angles suggests a possible conformational transition from open to closed states upon ligand binding; this transition is probably representative of the other tall cytokine receptors.

Shared cytokine signaling receptors: structural insights from the gp130 system

The vast majority of cytokine signaling is mediated by "shared" receptors that form central signaling components of higher-order complexes incorporating ligand-specific receptors. These include the common gamma chain (gamma(c)), common beta chain (beta(c)), and gp130, as well as others. These receptors have the dual tasks of cross-reactive cytokine recognition, and formation of precisely oriented multimeric signaling assemblies. Currently, detailed structural information on a shared receptor complex exists only for gp130, which is a highly pleiotropic shared cytokine signaling receptor essential for mammalian cell growth and homeostasis. To date, more than 10 different four-helix bundle ligands have been identified that incorporate gp130, or one of its close relatives such as LIF receptor, into functional oligomeric signaling complexes. In this review we summarize our current knowledge of shared receptor recognition and activation, with a focus on gp130. We discuss recent structural and functional information to analyze overall architectural assemblies of gp130 cytokine complexes and probe the basis for the extreme cross-reactivity of gp130 for its multiple cytokine ligands.

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and its receptor in normal hematopoietic cell development and myeloid disease

Hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation, is orchestrated by cytokines and growth factors that stimulate the expansion of different progenitor cell subsets and regulate their survival and differentiation into mature blood cells. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) is the major hematopoietic growth factor involved in the control of neutrophil development. G-CSF is now applied on a routine basis in the clinic for treatment of congenital and acquired neutropenias. G-CSF activates a receptor of the hematopoietin receptor superfamily, the G-CSF receptor (G-CSF-R), which subsequently triggers multiple signaling mechanisms. Here we review how these mechanisms contribute to the specific responses of hematopoietic cells to G-CSF and how perturbations in the function of the G-CSF-R are implicated in various types of myeloid disease.

Convergent mechanisms for recognition of divergent cytokines by the shared signaling receptor gp130

Gp130 is a shared cell-surface signaling receptor for at least ten different hematopoietic cytokines, but the basis of its degenerate recognition properties is unknown. We have determined the crystal structure of human leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) bound to the cytokine binding region (CHR) of gp130 at 2.5 A resolution. Strikingly, we find that the shared binding site on gp130 has an entirely rigid core, while the LIF binding interface diverges sharply in structure and chemistry from that of other gp130 ligands. Dissection of the LIF-gp130 interface, along with comparative studies of other gp130 cytokines, reveal that gp130 has evolved a "thermodynamic plasticity" that is relatively insensitive to ligand structure, to enable crossreactivity. These observations reveal a novel and alternative mechanism for degenerate recognition from that of structural plasticity.

The cytokine receptor gp130: faithfully promiscuous

Diverse cytokines can signal through receptor complexes containing the gp130 subunit. These cytokines, which include interleukin (IL)-6, IL-11, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), oncostatin M (OSM), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1), and CLC (cardiotrophin-like cytokine), are implicated in inflammatory and immune responses, heart development, and fertility. The gp130 receptor-ligand complexes are contrasted with the complex formed by erythropoietin (Epo) and its receptor, EpoR. Also discussed are insights provided by the structural analysis of IL-6, its alpha receptor (IL6Ralpha), and the signal transducer gp130 for understanding receptor-ligand assembly, for predicting the structures of ligand-receptor complexes of the other IL-6-type cytokines, and for rational drug design.

Principles of interleukin (IL)-6-type cytokine signalling and its regulation

The IL (interleukin)-6-type cytokines IL-6, IL-11, LIF (leukaemia inhibitory factor), OSM (oncostatin M), ciliary neurotrophic factor, cardiotrophin-1 and cardiotrophin-like cytokine are an important family of mediators involved in the regulation of the acute-phase response to injury and infection. Besides their functions in inflammation and the immune response, these cytokines play also a crucial role in haematopoiesis, liver and neuronal regeneration, embryonal development and fertility. Dysregulation of IL-6-type cytokine signalling contributes to the onset and maintenance of several diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis and various types of cancer (e.g. multiple myeloma and prostate cancer). IL-6-type cytokines exert their action via the signal transducers gp (glycoprotein) 130, LIF receptor and OSM receptor leading to the activation of the JAK/STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription) and MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) cascades. This review focuses on recent progress in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of IL-6-type cytokine signal transduction. Emphasis is put on the termination and modulation of the JAK/STAT signalling pathway mediated by tyrosine phosphatases, the SOCS (suppressor of cytokine signalling) feedback inhibitors and PIAS (protein inhibitor of activated STAT) proteins. Also the cross-talk between the JAK/STAT pathway with other signalling cascades is discussed.

Principles of interleukin (IL)-6-type cytokine signalling and its regulation

The IL (interleukin)-6-type cytokines IL-6, IL-11, LIF (leukaemia inhibitory factor), OSM (oncostatin M), ciliary neurotrophic factor, cardiotrophin-1 and cardiotrophin-like cytokine are an important family of mediators involved in the regulation of the acute-phase response to injury and infection. Besides their functions in inflammation and the immune response, these cytokines play also a crucial role in haematopoiesis, liver and neuronal regeneration, embryonal development and fertility. Dysregulation of IL-6-type cytokine signalling contributes to the onset and maintenance of several diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis and various types of cancer (e.g. multiple myeloma and prostate cancer). IL-6-type cytokines exert their action via the signal transducers gp (glycoprotein) 130, LIF receptor and OSM receptor leading to the activation of the JAK/STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription) and MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) cascades. This review focuses on recent progress in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of IL-6-type cytokine signal transduction. Emphasis is put on the termination and modulation of the JAK/STAT signalling pathway mediated by tyrosine phosphatases, the SOCS (suppressor of cytokine signalling) feedback inhibitors and PIAS (protein inhibitor of activated STAT) proteins. Also the cross-talk between the JAK/STAT pathway with other signalling cascades is discussed.

Hexameric structure and assembly of the interleukin-6/IL-6 alpha-receptor/gp130 complex

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is an immunoregulatory cytokine that activates a cell-surface signaling assembly composed of IL-6, the IL-6 alpha-receptor (IL-6Ralpha), and the shared signaling receptor gp130. The 3.65 angstrom-resolution structure of the extracellular signaling complex reveals a hexameric, interlocking assembly mediated by a total of 10 symmetry-related, thermodynamically coupled interfaces. Assembly of the hexameric complex occurs sequentially: IL-6 is first engaged by IL-6Ralpha and then presented to gp130in the proper geometry to facilitate a cooperative transition into the high-affinity, signaling-competent hexamer. The quaternary structures of other IL-6/IL-12 family signaling complexes are likely constructed by means of a similar topological blueprint.

Analysis of the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor functional domains by chimeric receptors and cytokines

In contrast to other hematopoietic cytokine receptors, the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) possesses two cytokine binding modules (CBMs). Previous studies suggested that the NH(2)-terminal CBM and the Ig-like domain of the LIFR are most important for LIF binding and activity. Using the recently engineered designer cytokine IC7, which induces an active heterodimer of the LIFR and gp130 after binding to the IL-6R, and several receptor chimeras of the LIFR and the interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) carrying the CBM of the IL-6R in place of the COOH-terminal LIFR CBM, we could assign individual receptor subdomains to individual binding sites of the ligand. The NH(2)-terminal CBM and the Ig-like domain of the LIFR bind to ligand site III, whereas the COOH-terminal CBM contacts site I. Furthermore, we show that LIFR mutants carrying the IL-6R CBM instead of the COOH-terminal CBM can replace the IL-6R by acting as an alpha-receptor for IL-6. However, in situations where a signaling competent receptor is bound at IL-6 site I, ligand binding to site III is an absolute requirement for participation of the receptor in a signaling heterodimer with gp130; i.e., a functional receptor complex of IL-6 type cytokines cannot be assembled solely via site I and II as in the growth hormone receptor complex.

Genetic variations in the interleukin-12/interleukin-23 receptor (beta1) chain, and implications for IL-12 and IL-23 receptor structure and function

Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) plays an essential role in human host defense against intracellular bacteria. Type-1 cytokines, particularly gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), interleukin-12 (IL-12), and IL-23, the major cytokines that regulate IFN-gamma production, are essential in CMI. This is illustrated by patients with unusual severe infections caused by poorly pathogenic mycobacteria and Salmonella species, in whom genetic deficiencies have been identified in several key genes in the type-1 cytokine pathway, including IL12RB1, the gene encoding the beta1 chain of the IL-12 and IL-23 receptors. Several mutations in IL12RB1 with deleterious effects on human IL-12R function have been identified, including nonsense and missense mutations. In addition, a number of coding IL12RB1 polymorphisms have been reported. In order to gain more insight into the effect that IL12RB1 mutations and genetic variations can have on IL-12Rbeta1 function, three approaches have been followed. First, we determined the degree of conservation at the variant amino acid positions in IL-12Rbeta1 between different species, using known deleterious mutations, known variations in IL-12Rbeta1, as well as novel coding variations that we have identified at position S74R and R156H. Second, we analyzed the potential impact of these amino acid variations on the three-dimensional structure of the IL-12Rbeta1 protein. Third, we analyzed the putative functions of different IL-12Rbeta1 domains, partly based on their homology with gp130, and analyzed the possible effects of the above amino acid variations on the function of these domains. Based on these analyses, we propose an integrated model of IL-12Rbeta1 structure and function. This significantly enhances our molecular understanding of the human IL-12 and IL-23 systems.

Molecular mechanisms of cytokine receptor activation

Cytokine receptors are transmembrane proteins that transmit a signal into the cell upon ligand binding. Commonly, these molecules have one hydrophobic segment of about 20-26 amino acids that is believed to span the membrane as a helix and this divides these receptors into extra- and intracellular components. By utilizing two different epitopes, the cytokines bridge two receptor chains, resulting in a close proximity of the intracellular component and thereby initiating the intracellular signalling cascade. The dimerization event is believed to be the mechanism by which the signal is transmitted across a membrane. In the light of new results obtained for the erythropoietin receptor, James A. Wells questioned whether any dimer would be sufficient. This review will expand upon the above question by discussing the more complex signal-transducing receptor subunits of the Interleukin-6 type family of cytokines. Based on the recently solved quaternary structure of the Insulin receptor, possible analogies will be confronted.