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Franks ML, An JH, Leavenworth JW. The Role of Natural Killer Cells in Oncolytic Virotherapy: Friends or Foes? Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:721. [PMID: 39066359 PMCID: PMC11281503 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12070721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT) has emerged as a promising cancer immunotherapy, and is capable of potentiating other immunotherapies due to its capacity to increase tumor immunogenicity and to boost host antitumor immunity. Natural killer (NK) cells are a critical cellular component for mediating the antitumor response, but hold a mixed reputation for their role in mediating the therapeutic efficacy of OVT. This review will discuss the pros and cons of how NK cells impact OVT, and how to harness this knowledge for the development of effective strategies that could modulate NK cells to improve OVT-based therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L. Franks
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA; (M.L.F.)
- Graduate Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Ju-Hyun An
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA; (M.L.F.)
| | - Jianmei W. Leavenworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA; (M.L.F.)
- The O’Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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2
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Lim Y, Park J, Lim JE, Park M, Koh SK, Lee M, Kim SK, Lee SH, Song KH, Park DG, Kim HY, Jeong BC, Cho D. Evaluating a combination treatment of NK cells and reovirus against bladder cancer cells using an in vitro assay to simulate intravesical therapy. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7390. [PMID: 38548803 PMCID: PMC10979019 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56297-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Intravesical treatment using either reovirus or natural killer (NK) cells serves as an efficient strategy for the treatment of bladder cancer cells (BCCs); however, corresponding monotherapies have often shown modest cytotoxicity. The potential of a locoregional combination using high-dose reovirus and NK cell therapy in an intravesical approach has not yet been studied. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of reoviruses and expanded NK cells (eNK) as potential strategies for the treatment of bladder cancer. The anti-tumor effects of mono-treatment with reovirus type 3 Dearing strain (RC402 and RP116) and in combination with interleukin (IL)-18/-21-pretreated eNK cells were investigated on BCC lines (5637, HT-1376, and 253J-BV) using intravesical therapy to simulate in vitro model. RP116 and IL-18/-21-pretreated eNK cells exhibited effective cytotoxicity against grade 1 carcinoma (5637 cells) when used alone, but not against HT-1376 (grade 2 carcinoma) and 253J-BV cells (derived from a metastatic site). Notably, combining RP116 with IL-18/-21-pretreated eNK cells displayed effective cytotoxicity against both HT-1376 and 253J-BV cells. Our findings underscore the potential of a combination therapy using reoviruses and NK cells as a promising strategy for treating bladder cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuree Lim
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, Korea
| | - Jeehun Park
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Joung Eun Lim
- Department of Urology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Minji Park
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seung Kwon Koh
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Mijeong Lee
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang-Ki Kim
- Department of Companion & Laboratory Animal Science, Kongju National University, Yesan, Korea
| | - Seung-Hwan Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Dong Guk Park
- ViroCure Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, South Korea
| | - Hyun-Young Kim
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Genetics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 81, Irwon-Ro, Gangnam-Gu, Seoul, 06351, Republic of Korea
| | - Byong Chang Jeong
- Department of Urology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Duck Cho
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, Korea.
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea.
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Genetics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 81, Irwon-Ro, Gangnam-Gu, Seoul, 06351, Republic of Korea.
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3
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Dhar D, Mehanovic S, Moss W, Miller CL. Sequences at gene segment termini inclusive of untranslated regions and partial open reading frames play a critical role in mammalian orthoreovirus S gene packaging. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012037. [PMID: 38394338 PMCID: PMC10917250 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) is a prototypic member of the Spinareoviridae family and has ten double-stranded RNA segments. One copy of each segment must be faithfully packaged into the mature virion, and prior literature suggests that nucleotides (nts) at the terminal ends of each gene likely facilitate their packaging. However, little is known about the precise packaging sequences required or how the packaging process is coordinated. Using a novel approach, we have determined that 200 nts at each terminus, inclusive of untranslated regions (UTR) and parts of the open reading frame (ORF), are sufficient for packaging S gene segments (S1-S4) individually and together into replicating virus. Further, we mapped the minimal sequences required for packaging the S1 gene segment into a replicating virus to 25 5' nts and 50 3' nts. The S1 UTRs, while not sufficient, were necessary for efficient packaging, as mutations of the 5' or 3' UTRs led to a complete loss of virus recovery. Using a second novel assay, we determined that 50 5' nts and 50 3' nts of S1 are sufficient to package a non-viral gene segment into MRV. The 5' and 3' termini of the S1 gene are predicted to form a panhandle structure and specific mutations within the stem of the predicted panhandle region led to a significant decrease in viral recovery. Additionally, mutation of six nts that are conserved across the three major serotypes of MRV that are predicted to form an unpaired loop in the S1 3' UTR, led to a complete loss of viral recovery. Overall, our data provide strong experimental proof that MRV packaging signals lie at the terminal ends of the S gene segments and offer support that the sequence requirements for efficient packaging of the S1 segment include a predicted panhandle structure and specific sequences within an unpaired loop in the 3' UTR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debarpan Dhar
- Interdepartmental Microbiology Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Samir Mehanovic
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Walter Moss
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Cathy L. Miller
- Interdepartmental Microbiology Graduate Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
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Nawrocki ST, Olea J, Villa Celi C, Dadrastoussi H, Wu K, Tsao-Wei D, Colombo A, Coffey M, Fernandez Hernandez E, Chen X, Nuovo GJ, Carew JS, Mohrbacher AF, Fields P, Kuhn P, Siddiqi I, Merchant A, Kelly KR. Comprehensive Single-Cell Immune Profiling Defines the Patient Multiple Myeloma Microenvironment Following Oncolytic Virus Therapy in a Phase Ib Trial. Clin Cancer Res 2023; 29:5087-5103. [PMID: 37812476 PMCID: PMC10722139 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-23-0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Our preclinical studies showed that the oncolytic reovirus formulation pelareorep (PELA) has significant immunomodulatory anti-myeloma activity. We conducted an investigator-initiated clinical trial to evaluate PELA in combination with dexamethasone (Dex) and bortezomib (BZ) and define the tumor immune microenvironment (TiME) in patients with multiple myeloma treated with this regimen. PATIENTS AND METHODS Patients with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma (n = 14) were enrolled in a phase Ib clinical trial (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02514382) of three escalating PELA doses administered on Days 1, 2, 8, 9, 15, and 16. Patients received 40 mg Dex and 1.5 mg/m2 BZ on Days 1, 8, and 15. Cycles were repeated every 28 days. Pre- and posttreatment bone marrow specimens (IHC, n = 9; imaging mass cytometry, n = 6) and peripheral blood samples were collected for analysis (flow cytometry, n = 5; T-cell receptor clonality, n = 7; cytokine assay, n = 7). RESULTS PELA/BZ/Dex was well-tolerated in all patients. Treatment-emergent toxicities were transient, and no dose-limiting toxicities occurred. Six (55%) of 11 response-evaluable patients showed decreased paraprotein. Treatment increased T and natural killer cell activation, inflammatory cytokine release, and programmed death-ligand 1 expression in bone marrow. Compared with nonresponders, responders had higher reovirus protein levels, increased cytotoxic T-cell infiltration posttreatment, cytotoxic T cells in significantly closer proximity to multiple myeloma cells, and larger populations of a novel immune-primed multiple myeloma phenotype (CD138+ IDO1+HLA-ABCHigh), indicating immunomodulation. CONCLUSIONS PELA/BZ/Dex is well-tolerated and associated with anti-multiple myeloma activity in a subset of responding patients, characterized by immune reprogramming and TiME changes, warranting further investigation of PELA as an immunomodulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffan T. Nawrocki
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Julian Olea
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Claudia Villa Celi
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Homa Dadrastoussi
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Kaijin Wu
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Denice Tsao-Wei
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Anthony Colombo
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Matt Coffey
- Oncolytics Biotech, Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Xuelian Chen
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Gerard J. Nuovo
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center Columbus, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Jennifer S. Carew
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Ann F. Mohrbacher
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Paul Fields
- Formerly, Adaptive Biotechnologies, Seattle, Washington; currently, Tempus Labs, Seattle, Washington
| | - Peter Kuhn
- USC Michelson Center for Convergent Biosciences and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
| | - Imran Siddiqi
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Akil Merchant
- Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Kevin R. Kelly
- Division of Hematology, Health Sciences Campus, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
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5
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Calvillo-Rodríguez KM, Lorenzo-Anota HY, Rodríguez-Padilla C, Martínez-Torres AC, Scott-Algara D. Immunotherapies inducing immunogenic cell death in cancer: insight of the innate immune system. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1294434. [PMID: 38077402 PMCID: PMC10701401 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1294434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapies include monoclonal antibodies, cytokines, oncolytic viruses, cellular therapies, and other biological and synthetic immunomodulators. These are traditionally studied for their effect on the immune system's role in eliminating cancer cells. However, some of these therapies have the unique ability to directly induce cytotoxicity in cancer cells by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD). Unlike general immune stimulation, ICD triggers specific therapy-induced cell death pathways, based on the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) from dying tumour cells. These activate innate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and subsequent adaptive immune responses, offering the promise of sustained anticancer drug efficacy and durable antitumour immune memory. Exploring how onco-immunotherapies can trigger ICD, enhances our understanding of their mechanisms and potential for combination strategies. This review explores the complexities of these immunotherapeutic approaches that induce ICD, highlighting their implications for the innate immune system, addressing challenges in cancer treatment, and emphasising the pivotal role of ICD in contemporary cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenny Misael Calvillo-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
| | - Helen Yarimet Lorenzo-Anota
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
- The Institute for Obesity Research, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, NL, Mexico
| | - Cristina Rodríguez-Padilla
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
| | - Ana Carolina Martínez-Torres
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
| | - Daniel Scott-Algara
- Département d'Immunologie, Unité de Biologie Cellulaire des Lymphocytes, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
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Khaleafi R, Zeleznjak J, Cordela S, Drucker S, Rovis TL, Jonjic S, Bar-On Y. Reovirus infection of tumor cells reduces the expression of NKG2D ligands, leading to impaired NK-cell cytotoxicity and functionality. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1231782. [PMID: 37753084 PMCID: PMC10518469 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1231782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, reoviruses have been of major interest in immunotherapy because of their oncolytic properties. Preclinical and clinical trials, in which reovirus was used for the treatment of melanoma and glioblastoma, have paved the way for future clinical use of reovirus. However, little is known about how reovirus infection affects the tumor microenvironment and immune response towards infected tumor cells. Studies have shown that reovirus can directly stimulate natural killer (NK) cells, but how reovirus affects cellular ligands on tumor cells, which are ultimately key to tumor recognition and elimination by NK cells, has not been investigated. We tested how reovirus infection affects the binding of the NK Group-2 member D (NKG2D) receptor, which is a dominant mediator of NK cell anti-tumor activity. Using models of human-derived melanoma and glioblastoma tumors, we demonstrated that NKG2D ligands are downregulated in tumor cells post-reovirus-infection due to the impaired translation of these ligands in reovirus-infected cells. Moreover, we showed that downregulation of NKG2D ligands significantly impaired the binding of NKG2D to infected tumor cells. We further demonstrated that reduced recognition of NKG2D ligands significantly alters NK cell anti-tumor cytotoxicity in human primary NK cells and in the NK cell line NK-92. Thus, this study provides novel insights into reovirus-host interactions and could lead to the development of novel reovirus-based therapeutics that enhance the anti-tumor immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghad Khaleafi
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Jelena Zeleznjak
- Department of Histology and Embryology/Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Sapir Cordela
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Shani Drucker
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Tihana Lenac Rovis
- Department of Histology and Embryology/Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Department of Histology and Embryology/Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Yotam Bar-On
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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Duan S, Wang S, Qiao L, Yu X, Wang N, Chen L, Zhang X, Zhao X, Liu H, Wang T, Wu Y, Li N, Liu F. Oncolytic Virus-Driven Biotherapies from Bench to Bedside. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2206948. [PMID: 36879416 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202206948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
With advances in cancer biology and an ever-deepening understanding of molecular virology, oncolytic virus (OV)-driven therapies have developed rapidly and become a promising alternative to traditional cancer therapies. In recent years, satisfactory results for oncolytic virus therapy (OVT) are achieved at both the cellular and organismal levels, and efforts are being increasingly directed toward clinical trials. Unfortunately, OVT remains ineffective in these trials, especially when performed using only a single OV reagent. In contrast, integrated approaches, such as using immunotherapy, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy, alongside OVT have demonstrated considerable efficacy. The challenges of OVT in clinical efficacy include the restricted scope of intratumoral injections and poor targeting of intravenous administration. Further optimization of OVT delivery is needed before OVs become a viable therapy for tumor treatment. In this review, the development process and antitumor mechanisms of OVs are introduced. The advances in OVT delivery routes to provide perspectives and directions for the improvement of OVT delivery are highlighted. This review also discusses the advantages and limitations of OVT monotherapy and combination therapy through the lens of recent clinical trials and aims to chart a course toward safer and more effective OVT strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Duan
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Shuhang Wang
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Lei Qiao
- Colorectal and Henia Minimally Invasive Surgery Unit, Department of General Surgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, China
| | - Xinbo Yu
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Nan Wang
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Liting Chen
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Xinyuan Zhang
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Xu Zhao
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Hongyu Liu
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Tianye Wang
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Department of General Practice, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Ning Li
- Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Funan Liu
- Department of Surgical Oncology and General Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, China Medical University, Ministry of Education, Phase I Clinical Trials Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
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8
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Dhar D, Mehanovic S, Moss W, Miller CL. Sequences at gene segment termini inclusive of untranslated regions and partial open reading frames play a critical role in mammalian orthoreovirus S gene packaging. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.25.542362. [PMID: 37292944 PMCID: PMC10245979 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.25.542362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) is a prototypic member of the Spinareoviridae family and has ten double-stranded RNA segments. One copy of each segment must be faithfully packaged into the mature virion, and prior literature suggests that nucleotides (nts) at the terminal ends of each gene likely facilitate their packaging. However, little is known about the precise packaging sequences required or how the packaging process is coordinated. Using a novel approach, we have determined that 200 nts at each terminus, inclusive of untranslated regions (UTR) and parts of the open reading frame (ORF), are sufficient for packaging each S gene segment (S1-S4) individually and together into replicating virus. Further, we mapped the minimal sequences required for packaging the S1 gene segment to 25 5' nts and 50 3' nts. The S1 UTRs alone are not sufficient, but are necessary for packaging, as mutations of the 5' or 3' UTRs led to a complete loss of virus recovery. Using a second novel assay, we determined that 50 5'nts and 50 3' nts of S1 are sufficient to package a non-viral gene segment into MRV. The 5' and 3' termini of the S1 gene are predicted to form a panhandle structure and specific mutations within the predicted stem of the panhandle region led to a significant decrease in viral recovery. Additionally, mutation of six nts that are conserved in the three major serotypes of MRV and are predicted to form an unpaired loop in the S1 3'UTR, led to a complete loss of viral recovery. Overall, our data provide strong experimental proof that MRV packaging signals lie at the terminal ends of the S gene segments and offer support that the sequence requirements for efficient packaging of the S1 segment include a predicted panhandle structure and specific sequences within an unpaired loop in the 3' UTR.
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9
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Ajam-Hosseini M, Akhoondi F, Doroudian M. Nano Based-Oncolytic viruses for Cancer therapy. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2023; 185:103980. [PMID: 37001838 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2023.103980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OV) are an attractive prospect due to their dual attack mechanism of direct cell lysis and potentiation of an antitumor immune response. Various oncolytic viral vectors are used in oncotherapy clinical trials, and one of their main problems is elimination by the reticuloendothelial system during systemic delivery. Nanoparticles (NPs) have received much attention in clinical trials due to their unique appearance characteristics, but they have created challenges due to the non-specificity of drug delivery to the target tissue and its elimination in blood circulation. In this regard, to increase the efficiency of nanoparticles in drug delivery, various chemical modifications can be applied to the surface of nanoparticles. To improve the performance of these two treatment options, the complex strategy of OVs encapsulated with nanoparticles can be used, which has brought successful clinical results in the treatment of various cancers. Here we will review each of the treatment methods and their functional mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mobarakeh Ajam-Hosseini
- Department of Cell and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, the Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Fatemeh Akhoondi
- Department of Molecular Biology of The Cell, Faculty of Bioscience, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Mohammad Doroudian
- Department of Cell and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, the Islamic Republic of Iran.
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10
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Ghasemi M, Abbasi L, Ghanbari Naeini L, Kokabian P, Nameh Goshay Fard N, Givtaj N. Dendritic cells and natural killer cells: The road to a successful oncolytic virotherapy. Front Immunol 2023; 13:950079. [PMID: 36703982 PMCID: PMC9871831 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.950079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Every type of cancer tissue is theoretically more vulnerable to viral infection. This natural proclivity has been harnessed as a new anti-cancer therapy by employing oncolytic viruses (OVs) to selectively infect and destroy cancer cells while providing little or no harm with no toxicity to the host. Whereas the primary oncolytic capabilities of OVs initially sparked the greatest concern, the predominant focus of research is on the association between OVs and the host immune system. Numerous OVs are potent causal agents of class I MHC pathway-related chemicals, enabling early tumor/viral immune recognition and cytokine-mediated response. The modified OVs have been studied for their ability to bind to dendritic cells (DCs) by expressing growth factors, chemokines, cytokines, and defensins inside the viral genome. OVs, like reovirus, can directly infect DCs, causing them to release chemokines and cytokines that attract and excite natural killer (NK) cells. In addition, OVs can directly alter cancer cells' sensitivity to NK by altering the expression levels of NK cell activators and inhibitors on cancerous cells. Therefore, NK cells and DCs in modulating the therapeutic response should be considered when developing and improving future OV-based therapeutics, whether modified to express transgenes or used in combination with other drugs/immunotherapies. Concerning the close relationship between NK cells and DCs in the potential of OVs to kill tumor cells, we explore how DCs and NK cells in tumor microenvironment affect oncolytic virotherapy and summarize additional information about the interaction mentioned above in detail in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matin Ghasemi
- Faculty of Medicine, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran
| | - Laleh Abbasi
- Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
| | | | - Pajman Kokabian
- School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Najmeh Nameh Goshay Fard
- Thalassemia & Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Health Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Nozar Givtaj
- Rajaei Cardiovascular, Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,*Correspondence: Nozar Givtaj,
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11
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Omole RK, Oluwatola O, Akere MT, Eniafe J, Agboluaje EO, Daramola OB, Ayantunji YJ, Omotade TI, Torimiro N, Ayilara MS, Adeyemi OI, Salinsile OS. Comprehensive assessment on the applications of oncolytic viruses for cancer immunotherapy. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1082797. [PMID: 36569326 PMCID: PMC9772532 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1082797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The worldwide burden of cancers is increasing at a very high rate, including the aggressive and resistant forms of cancers. Certain levels of breakthrough have been achieved with the conventional treatment methods being used to treat different forms of cancers, but with some limitations. These limitations include hazardous side effects, destruction of non-tumor healthy cells that are rapidly dividing and developing, tumor resistance to anti-cancer drugs, damage to tissues and organs, and so on. However, oncolytic viruses have emerged as a worthwhile immunotherapeutic option for the treatment of different types of cancers. In this treatment approach, oncolytic viruses are being modeled to target cancer cells with optimum cytotoxicity and spare normal cells with optimal safety, without the oncolytic viruses themselves being killed by the host immune defense system. Oncolytic viral infection of the cancer cells are also being genetically manipulated (either by removal or addition of certain genes into the oncolytic virus genome) to make the tumor more visible and available for attack by the host immune cells. Hence, different variants of these viruses are being developed to optimize their antitumor effects. In this review, we examined how grave the burden of cancer is on a global level, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, major conventional therapeutic approaches to the treatment of cancer and their individual drawbacks. We discussed the mechanisms of action employed by these oncolytic viruses and different viruses that have found their relevance in the fight against various forms of cancers. Some pre-clinical and clinical trials that involve oncolytic viruses in cancer management were reported. This review also examined the toxicity and safety concerns surrounding the adoption of oncolytic viro-immunotherapy for the treatment of cancers and the likely future directions for researchers and general audience who wants updated information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kolade Omole
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria,Microbiology Unit, Department of Applied Sciences, Osun State College of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria,*Correspondence: Richard Kolade Omole,
| | - Oluwaseyi Oluwatola
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States,Department of Immunology, Moffit Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Millicent Tambari Akere
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Joseph Eniafe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | | | | | - Yemisi Juliet Ayantunji
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria,Advanced Space Technology Applications Laboratory, Cooperative Information Network, National Space Research and Development Agency, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
| | | | - Nkem Torimiro
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
| | - Modupe Stella Ayilara
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
| | - Oluwole Isaac Adeyemi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
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12
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Delic M, Boeswald V, Goepfert K, Pabst P, Moehler M. In vitro Characterization of Enhanced Human Immune Responses by GM-CSF Encoding HSV-1-Induced Melanoma Cells. Onco Targets Ther 2022; 15:1291-1307. [PMID: 36310770 PMCID: PMC9606445 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s350136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE We studied the innate and adaptive immune response against melanoma cells after JS-1 (wild-type herpes simplex virus 1, wt HSV-1) or Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) infection and evaluated the antitumoral efficacy in human melanoma cells. We analyzed the putative synergistic biological and immunological effects of JS-1 or T-VEC combined with cytostatic drugs in human tumor and immune cells. T-VEC is a genetically modified strain of HSV-1. Genetic modifications (insertion of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) gene) were made to attenuate the virus and increase selectivity for cancer cells. In addition to the direct oncolytic effect, we investigated the immune stimulatory effects of T-VEC by comparing it with JS-1. JS-1 is identical T-VEC except for the inserted GM-CSF gene. MATERIALS AND METHODS We analyzed the effects of T-VEC and JS-1 with cytostatic drugs in human tumor-immune cell coculture experiments. After coculture, the surface markers CD80, CD83 and CD86 were measured by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and the cytokines, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and GM-CSF, by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Furthermore, we analyzed the potential of the viruses to induce T cell activation, measured on the basis of CD4, CD8 and CD69. Analysis of these markers and cytokines allows for conclusions to be drawn concerning the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and the immunostimulatory effects of the treatment. RESULTS We documented increased activation of human cytotoxic T lymphocytes after infection by both HSV-1 strains and treatment with cytostatic drugs without significant differences between T-VEC and JS-1. CONCLUSION We demonstrated an immune response as a result of infection with both viruses, but T-VEC was in vitro not stronger than JS-1. The immunostimulatory effects of the viruses could be partially increased by chemotherapy, providing a rationale for future preclinical studies designed to explore T-VEC in combined regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Delic
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Mainz, Germany,Correspondence: Maike Delic, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Langenbeckstrasse 1, Mainz, 55131, Germany, Tel +49 6131 179803, Fax +49 6131 179657, Email
| | - Veronika Boeswald
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Mainz, Germany
| | - Katrin Goepfert
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Mainz, Germany
| | - Petra Pabst
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Mainz, Germany
| | - Markus Moehler
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Mainz, Germany
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13
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Augustine T, John P, Friedman T, Jiffry J, Guzik H, Mannan R, Gupta R, Delano C, Mariadason JM, Zang X, Maitra R, Goel S. Potentiating effect of reovirus on immune checkpoint inhibition in microsatellite stable colorectal cancer. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1018767. [PMID: 36387154 PMCID: PMC9642964 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1018767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of colorectal cancers (CRCs) are microsatellite stable (MSS) and resistant to immunotherapy. The current study explores the possibility of using oncolytic reovirus to sensitize MSS CRC to immune checkpoint inhibition. While reovirus reduced metabolic activity among KRAS Mut cells, microarray/computational analysis revealed microsatellite status-oriented activation of immune-response pathways. Reovirus plus anti-PD-1 treatment increased cell death among MSS cells ex vivo. Reduced tumorigenicity and proliferative index, and increased apoptosis were evident among CT26 [MSS, KRAS Mut], but not in MC38 [microsatellite unstable/MSI, KRAS Wt] syngeneic mouse models under combinatorial treatment. PD-L1-PD-1 signaling axis were differentially altered among CT26/MC38 models. Combinatorial treatment activated the innate immune system, pattern recognition receptors, and antigen presentation markers. Furthermore, we observed the reduction of immunosuppressive macrophages and expansion of effector T cell subsets, as well as reduction in T cell exhaustion. The current investigation sheds light on the immunological mechanisms of the reovirus-anti-PD-1 combination to reduce the growth of MSS CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Titto Augustine
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Peter John
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Tyler Friedman
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Jeeshan Jiffry
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Hillary Guzik
- Analytical Imaging Facility, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Rifat Mannan
- Department of Pathology, City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Riya Gupta
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Computer Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Catherine Delano
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - John M. Mariadason
- Gastrointestinal Cancers Program and Oncogenic Transcription Laboratory, Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, La Trobe University School of Cancer Medicine, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Xingxing Zang
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Urology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Radhashree Maitra
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Sanjay Goel
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, United States
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14
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Helmin-Basa A, Gackowska L, Balcerowska S, Ornawka M, Naruszewicz N, Wiese-Szadkowska M. The application of the natural killer cells, macrophages and dendritic cells in treating various types of cancer. PHYSICAL SCIENCES REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1515/psr-2019-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Innate immune cells such as natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) are involved in the surveillance and clearance of tumor. Intensive research has exposed the mechanisms of recognition and elimination of tumor cells by these immune cells as well as how cancers evade immune response. Hence, harnessing the immune cells has proven to be an effective therapy in treating a variety of cancers. Strategies aimed to harness and augment effector function of these cells for cancer therapy have been the subject of intense researches over the decades. Different immunotherapeutic possibilities are currently being investigated for anti-tumor activity. Pharmacological agents known to influence immune cell migration and function include therapeutic antibodies, modified antibody molecules, toll-like receptor agonists, nucleic acids, chemokine inhibitors, fusion proteins, immunomodulatory drugs, vaccines, adoptive cell transfer and oncolytic virus–based therapy. In this review, we will focus on the preclinical and clinical applications of NK cell, macrophage and DC immunotherapy in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Helmin-Basa
- Department of Immunology , Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun , 85-094 Bydgoszcz , Poland
| | - Lidia Gackowska
- Department of Immunology , Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun , 85-094 Bydgoszcz , Poland
| | - Sara Balcerowska
- Department of Immunology , Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun , 85-094 Bydgoszcz , Poland
| | - Marcelina Ornawka
- Department of Immunology , Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun , 85-094 Bydgoszcz , Poland
| | - Natalia Naruszewicz
- Department of Immunology , Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun , 85-094 Bydgoszcz , Poland
| | - Małgorzata Wiese-Szadkowska
- Department of Immunology , Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun , 85-094 Bydgoszcz , Poland
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15
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Giotta Lucifero A, Luzzi S. Emerging immune-based technologies for high-grade gliomas. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2022; 22:957-980. [PMID: 35924820 DOI: 10.1080/14737140.2022.2110072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The selection of a tailored and successful strategy for high-grade gliomas (HGGs) treatment is still a concern. The abundance of aberrant mutations within the heterogenic genetic landscape of glioblastoma strongly influences cell expansion, proliferation, and therapeutic resistance. Identification of immune evasion pathways opens the way to novel immune-based strategies. This review intends to explore the emerging immunotherapies for HGGs. The immunosuppressive mechanisms related to the tumor microenvironment and future perspectives to overcome glioma immunity barriers are also debated. AREAS COVERED An extensive literature review was performed on the PubMed/Medline and ClinicalTrials.gov databases. Only highly relevant articles in English and published in the last 20 years were selected. Data about immunotherapies coming from preclinical and clinical trials were summarized. EXPERT OPINION The overall level of evidence about the efficacy and safety of immunotherapies for HGGs is noteworthy. Monoclonal antibodies have been approved as second-line treatment, while peptide vaccines, viral gene strategies, and adoptive technologies proved to boost a vivid antitumor immunization. Malignant brain tumor-treating fields are ever-changing in the upcoming years. Constant refinements and development of new routes of drug administration will permit to design of novel immune-based treatment algorithms thus improving the overall survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Giotta Lucifero
- Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Sabino Luzzi
- Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.,Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Surgical Sciences, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
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16
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Therapeutic Efficacy of Oncolytic Viruses in Fighting Cancer: Recent Advances and Perspective. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:3142306. [PMID: 35910836 PMCID: PMC9337963 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3142306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy is at the cutting edge of modern cancer treatment. Innovative medicines have been developed with varying degrees of success that target all aspects of tumor biology: tumors, niches, and the immune system. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are a novel and potentially immunotherapeutic approach for cancer treatment. OVs reproduce exclusively in cancer cells, causing the tumor mass to lyse. OVs can also activate the immune system in addition to their primary activity. Tumors create an immunosuppressive environment by suppressing the immune system’s ability to respond to tumor cells. By injecting OVs into the tumor, the immune system is stimulated, allowing it to generate a robust and long-lasting response against the tumor. The essential biological properties of oncolytic viruses, as well as the underlying mechanisms that enable their usage as prospective anticancer medicines, are outlined in this review. We also discuss the increased efficacy of virotherapy when combined with other cancer medications.
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17
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Mealiea D, McCart JA. Cutting both ways: the innate immune response to oncolytic virotherapy. Cancer Gene Ther 2022; 29:629-646. [PMID: 34453122 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-021-00351-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs), above and beyond infecting and lysing malignant cells, interact with the immune system in complex ways that have important therapeutic significance. While investigation into these interactions is still in its early stages, important insights have been made over the past two decades that will help improve the clinical efficacy of OV-based management strategies in cancer care moving forward. The inherent immunosuppression that defines the tumor microenvironment can be modified by OV infection, and the subsequent recruitment and activation of innate immune cells, in particular, is central to this. Indeed, neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells, as well as other populations such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells, are key to the immune escape that allows tumors to survive, but their natural response to infection can be exploited by virotherapy. While stimulation of innate immune cells by OVs can initiate antitumor responses, related antiviral activity can limit virus spread and direct cytopathogenic effects. In this review, we highlight how each innate immune cell population influences this balance of antitumor and antiviral forces during virotherapy, some of the important molecular pathways that have been identified, and specific therapeutic targets that have emerged through this work. We discuss the importance of OV-based combination therapies in optimizing antiviral and antitumor innate immune responses stimulated by virotherapy toward tumor eradication, and how these processes vary depending on the tumor and OV in question. Rather than concentrating on a particular OV species in the review, we present the range of effects that have been documented across OV types to emphasize the context-specific nature of these interactions and how this is important in the design of future OV-based treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Mealiea
- Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. .,Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - J Andrea McCart
- Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
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18
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Naumenko VA, Stepanenko AA, Lipatova AV, Vishnevskiy DA, Chekhonin VP. Infection of non-cancer cells: A barrier or support for oncolytic virotherapy? MOLECULAR THERAPY - ONCOLYTICS 2022; 24:663-682. [PMID: 35284629 PMCID: PMC8898763 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2022.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses are designed to specifically target cancer cells, sparing normal cells. Although numerous studies demonstrate the ability of oncolytic viruses to infect a wide range of non-tumor cells, the significance of this phenomenon for cancer virotherapy is poorly understood. To fill the gap, we summarize the data on infection of non-cancer targets by oncolytic viruses with a special focus on tumor microenvironment and secondary lymphoid tissues. The review aims to address two major questions: how do attenuated viruses manage to infect normal cells, and whether it is of importance for oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor A. Naumenko
- V. Serbsky National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Narcology, Moscow 119034, Russia
- Corresponding author Victor A. Naumenko, PhD, V. Serbsky National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Narcology, Moscow 119034, Russia.
| | - Aleksei A. Stepanenko
- V. Serbsky National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Narcology, Moscow 119034, Russia
- Department of Medical Nanobiotechnology, N.I Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Anastasiia V. Lipatova
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Daniil A. Vishnevskiy
- V. Serbsky National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Narcology, Moscow 119034, Russia
| | - Vladimir P. Chekhonin
- V. Serbsky National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Narcology, Moscow 119034, Russia
- Department of Medical Nanobiotechnology, N.I Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow 117997, Russia
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19
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van de Merbel AF, van der Horst G, van der Mark MH, Bots STF, van den Wollenberg DJM, de Ridder CMA, Stuurman D, Aalders T, Erkens-Schulz S, van Montfoort N, Karthaus WR, Mehra N, Smits M, Schalken JA, van Weerden WM, Hoeben RC, van der Pluijm G. Reovirus mutant jin-3 exhibits lytic and immune-stimulatory effects in preclinical human prostate cancer models. Cancer Gene Ther 2022; 29:793-802. [PMID: 34135475 PMCID: PMC9209329 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-021-00360-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer remains a challenging clinical problem. Despite the promising effects of immunotherapy in other solid cancers, prostate cancer has remained largely unresponsive. Oncolytic viruses represent a promising therapeutic avenue, as oncolytic virus treatment combines tumour cell lysis with activation of the immune system and mounting of effective anti-tumour responses. Mammalian Orthoreoviruses are non-pathogenic human viruses with a preference of lytic replication in human tumour cells. In this study, we evaluated the oncolytic efficacy of the bioselected oncolytic reovirus mutant jin-3 in multiple human prostate cancer models. The jin-3 reovirus displayed efficient infection, replication, and anti-cancer responses in 2D and 3D prostate cancer models, as well as in ex vivo cultured human tumour slices. In addition, the jin-3 reovirus markedly reduced the viability and growth of human cancer cell lines and patient-derived xenografts. The infection induced the expression of mediators of immunogenic cell death, interferon-stimulated genes, and inflammatory cytokines. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the reovirus mutant jin-3 displays tumour tropism, and induces potent oncolytic and immunomodulatory responses in human prostate cancer models. Therefore, jin-3 reovirus represents an attractive candidate for further development as oncolytic agent for treatment of patients with aggressive localised or advanced prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjanneke F. van de Merbel
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Urology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Geertje van der Horst
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Urology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Maaike H. van der Mark
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Urology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Selas T. F. Bots
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Diana J. M. van den Wollenberg
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Corrina M. A. de Ridder
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Experimental Urology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Debra Stuurman
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Experimental Urology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tilly Aalders
- grid.10417.330000 0004 0444 9382Department of Urology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sigrun Erkens-Schulz
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Experimental Urology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nadine van Montfoort
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Medical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter R. Karthaus
- grid.51462.340000 0001 2171 9952Human Pathology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Niven Mehra
- grid.10417.330000 0004 0444 9382Department of Medical Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Minke Smits
- grid.10417.330000 0004 0444 9382Department of Medical Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jack A. Schalken
- grid.10417.330000 0004 0444 9382Department of Urology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wytske M. van Weerden
- grid.5645.2000000040459992XDepartment of Experimental Urology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rob C. Hoeben
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gabri van der Pluijm
- grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Urology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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20
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Wang EJ, Chen JS, Jain S, Morshed RA, Haddad AF, Gill S, Beniwal AS, Aghi MK. Immunotherapy Resistance in Glioblastoma. Front Genet 2021; 12:750675. [PMID: 34976006 PMCID: PMC8718605 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.750675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is the most common malignant primary brain tumor in adults. Despite treatment consisting of surgical resection followed by radiotherapy and adjuvant chemotherapy, survival remains poor at a rate of 26.5% at 2 years. Recent successes in using immunotherapies to treat a number of solid and hematologic cancers have led to a growing interest in harnessing the immune system to target glioblastoma. Several studies have examined the efficacy of various immunotherapies, including checkpoint inhibitors, vaccines, adoptive transfer of lymphocytes, and oncolytic virotherapy in both pre-clinical and clinical settings. However, these therapies have yielded mixed results at best when applied to glioblastoma. While the initial failures of immunotherapy were thought to reflect the immunoprivileged environment of the brain, more recent studies have revealed immune escape mechanisms created by the tumor itself and adaptive resistance acquired in response to therapy. Several of these resistance mechanisms hijack key signaling pathways within the immune system to create a protumoral microenvironment. In this review, we discuss immunotherapies that have been trialed in glioblastoma, mechanisms of tumor resistance, and strategies to sensitize these tumors to immunotherapies. Insights gained from the studies summarized here may help pave the way for novel therapies to overcome barriers that have thus far limited the success of immunotherapy in glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaina J. Wang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Warren Alpert School of Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Jia-Shu Chen
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Warren Alpert School of Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Saket Jain
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Ramin A. Morshed
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Alexander F. Haddad
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Sabraj Gill
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Angad S. Beniwal
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Manish K. Aghi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
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Santos Apolonio J, Lima de Souza Gonçalves V, Cordeiro Santos ML, Silva Luz M, Silva Souza JV, Rocha Pinheiro SL, de Souza WR, Sande Loureiro M, de Melo FF. Oncolytic virus therapy in cancer: A current review. World J Virol 2021; 10:229-255. [PMID: 34631474 PMCID: PMC8474975 DOI: 10.5501/wjv.v10.i5.229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In view of the advancement in the understanding about the most diverse types of cancer and consequently a relentless search for a cure and increased survival rates of cancer patients, finding a therapy that is able to combat the mechanism of aggression of this disease is extremely important. Thus, oncolytic viruses (OVs) have demonstrated great benefits in the treatment of cancer because it mediates antitumor effects in several ways. Viruses can be used to infect cancer cells, especially over normal cells, to present tumor-associated antigens, to activate "danger signals" that generate a less immune-tolerant tumor microenvironment, and to serve transduction vehicles for expression of inflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokines. The success of therapies using OVs was initially demonstrated by the use of the genetically modified herpes virus, talimogene laherparepvec, for the treatment of melanoma. At this time, several OVs are being studied as a potential treatment for cancer in clinical trials. However, it is necessary to be aware of the safety and possible adverse effects of this therapy; after all, an effective treatment for cancer should promote regression, attack the tumor, and in the meantime induce minimal systemic repercussions. In this manuscript, we will present a current review of the mechanism of action of OVs, main clinical uses, updates, and future perspectives on this treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Santos Apolonio
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
| | | | - Maria Luísa Cordeiro Santos
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Marcel Silva Luz
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
| | - João Victor Silva Souza
- Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia, Campus Vitória da Conquista, Vitória da Conquista 45083-900, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Samuel Luca Rocha Pinheiro
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Wedja Rafaela de Souza
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Matheus Sande Loureiro
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Fabrício Freire de Melo
- Universidade Federal da Bahia, Instituto Multidisciplinar em Saúde, Vitória da Conquista 45029-094, Bahia, Brazil
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22
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Hofman L, Lawler SE, Lamfers MLM. The Multifaceted Role of Macrophages in Oncolytic Virotherapy. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081570. [PMID: 34452439 PMCID: PMC8402704 DOI: 10.3390/v13081570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the cancer hallmarks is immune evasion mediated by the tumour microenvironment (TME). Oncolytic virotherapy is a form of immunotherapy based on the application of oncolytic viruses (OVs) that selectively replicate in and induce the death of tumour cells. Virotherapy confers reciprocal interaction with the host’s immune system. The aim of this review is to explore the role of macrophage-mediated responses in oncolytic virotherapy efficacy. The approach was to study current scientific literature in this field in order to give a comprehensive overview of the interactions of OVs and macrophages and their effects on the TME. The innate immune system has a central influence on the TME; tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) generally have immunosuppressive, tumour-supportive properties. In the context of oncolytic virotherapy, macrophages were initially thought to predominantly contribute to anti-viral responses, impeding viral spread. However, macrophages have now also been found to mediate transport of OV particles and, after TME infiltration, to be subjected to a phenotypic shift that renders them pro-inflammatory and tumour-suppressive. These TAMs can present tumour antigens leading to a systemic, durable, adaptive anti-tumour immune response. After phagocytosis, they can recirculate carrying tissue-derived proteins, which potentially enables the monitoring of OV replication in the TME. Their role in therapeutic efficacy is therefore multifaceted, but based on research applying relevant, immunocompetent tumour models, macrophages are considered to have a central function in anti-cancer activity. These novel insights hold important clinical implications. When optimised, oncolytic virotherapy, mediating multifactorial inhibition of cancer immune evasion, could contribute to improved patient survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hofman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Sean E. Lawler
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis St., Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Martine L. M. Lamfers
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus Medical Center, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-010-703-5993
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23
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Leung EYL, McNeish IA. Strategies to Optimise Oncolytic Viral Therapies: The Role of Natural Killer Cells. Viruses 2021; 13:1450. [PMID: 34452316 PMCID: PMC8402671 DOI: 10.3390/v13081450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are an emerging class of anti-cancer agents that replicate selectively within malignant cells and generate potent immune responses. Their potential efficacy has been shown in clinical trials, with talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC or IMLYGIC®) now approved both in the United States and Europe. In healthy individuals, NK cells provide effective surveillance against cancer and viral infections. In oncolytic viral therapy, NK cells may render OV ineffective by rapid elimination of the propagating virus but could also improve therapeutic efficacy by preferential killing of OV-infected malignant cells. Existing evidence suggests that the overall effect of NK cells against OV is context dependent. In the past decade, the understanding of cancer and OV biology has improved significantly, which helped refine this class of treatments in early-phase clinical trials. In this review, we summarised different strategies that have been evaluated to modulate NK activities for improving OV therapeutic benefits. Further development of OVs will require a systematic approach to overcome the challenges of the production and delivery of complex gene and cell-based therapies in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Y. L. Leung
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Iain A. McNeish
- Ovarian Cancer Action Research Centre, Department of Surgery and Cancer, IRDB Building, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
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Spiesschaert B, Angerer K, Park J, Wollmann G. Combining Oncolytic Viruses and Small Molecule Therapeutics: Mutual Benefits. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3386. [PMID: 34298601 PMCID: PMC8306439 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The focus of treating cancer with oncolytic viruses (OVs) has increasingly shifted towards achieving efficacy through the induction and augmentation of an antitumor immune response. However, innate antiviral responses can limit the activity of many OVs within the tumor and several immunosuppressive factors can hamper any subsequent antitumor immune responses. In recent decades, numerous small molecule compounds that either inhibit the immunosuppressive features of tumor cells or antagonize antiviral immunity have been developed and tested for. Here we comprehensively review small molecule compounds that can achieve therapeutic synergy with OVs. We also elaborate on the mechanisms by which these treatments elicit anti-tumor effects as monotherapies and how these complement OV treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart Spiesschaert
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Viral Immunotherapy of Cancer, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (B.S.); (K.A.)
- Institute of Virology, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- ViraTherapeutics GmbH, 6063 Rum, Austria
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, 88397 Biberach a.d. Riss, Germany;
| | - Katharina Angerer
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Viral Immunotherapy of Cancer, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (B.S.); (K.A.)
- Institute of Virology, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - John Park
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, 88397 Biberach a.d. Riss, Germany;
| | - Guido Wollmann
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Viral Immunotherapy of Cancer, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (B.S.); (K.A.)
- Institute of Virology, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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25
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Chianese A, Santella B, Ambrosino A, Stelitano D, Rinaldi L, Galdiero M, Zannella C, Franci G. Oncolytic Viruses in Combination Therapeutic Approaches with Epigenetic Modulators: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13112761. [PMID: 34199429 PMCID: PMC8199618 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13112761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer rates have been accelerating significantly in recent years. Despite notable advances having been made in cancer therapy, and numerous studies being currently conducted in clinical trials, research is always looking for new treatment. Novel and promising anticancer therapies comprise combinations of oncolytic viruses and epigenetic modulators, including chromatin modifiers, such as DNA methyltransferase and histone deacetylases, and microRNA. Combinatorial treatments have several advantages: they enhance viral entry, replication, and spread between proximal cells and, moreover, they strengthen the immune response. In this review we summarize the main combination of therapeutic approaches, giving an insight into past, present, and future perspectives. Abstract According to the World Cancer Report, cancer rates have been increased by 50% with 15 million new cases in the year 2020. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the only one of the most common tumors to cause a huge increase in mortality with a survival rate between 40% and 70% at 5 years, due to the high relapse and limitations associated with current therapies. Despite great progress in medicine, oncological research is always looking for new therapies: different technologies have been evaluated in clinical trials and others have been already used in clinics. Among them, oncolytic virotherapy represents a therapeutic option with a widespread possibility of approaches and applications. Oncolytic viruses are naturally occurring, or are engineered, viruses characterized by the unique features of preferentially infecting, replicating, and lysing malignant tumor cells, as well as activating the immune response. The combination of oncolytic virotherapy and chemical drugs are arousing great interest in the tumor treatment. In this scenario, novel and promising anticancer therapies comprise combinations of oncolytic viruses and epigenetic modulators or inhibitors of the signalling pathways. Combination treatments are required to improve the immune response and allow viral entry, replication, and diffusion between proximal cells. In this review, we summarize all combination therapies associated with virotherapy, including co-administered inhibitors of chromatin modifiers (combination strategies) and inserted target sites for miRNAs (recombination or arming strategies).
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Chianese
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (A.C.); (A.A.); (D.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Biagio Santella
- Section of Microbiology and Virology, University Hospital “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy;
| | - Annalisa Ambrosino
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (A.C.); (A.A.); (D.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Debora Stelitano
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (A.C.); (A.A.); (D.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Luca Rinaldi
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy;
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (A.C.); (A.A.); (D.S.); (M.G.)
- Section of Microbiology and Virology, University Hospital “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy;
| | - Carla Zannella
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy; (A.C.); (A.A.); (D.S.); (M.G.)
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (G.F.)
| | - Gianluigi Franci
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (G.F.)
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26
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Annels NE, Simpson GR, Denyer M, Arif M, Coffey M, Melcher A, Harrington K, Vile R, Pandha H. Oncolytic Reovirus-Mediated Recruitment of Early Innate Immune Responses Reverses Immunotherapy Resistance in Prostate Tumors. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2021; 20:434-446. [PMID: 33665363 PMCID: PMC7900644 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2020.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancers are considered "cold" tumors characterized by minimal T cell infiltrates, absence of a type I interferon (IFN) signature, and the presence of immunosuppressive cells. This non-inflamed phenotype is likely responsible for the lack of sensitivity of prostate cancer patients to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. Oncolytic virus therapy can potentially overcome this resistance to immunotherapy in prostate cancers by transforming cold tumors into "hot," immune cell-infiltrated tumors. We investigated whether the combination of intratumoral oncolytic reovirus, followed by targeted blockade of Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) checkpoint inhibition and/or the immunomodulatory CD73/Adenosine system can enhance anti-tumor immunity. Treatment of subcutaneous TRAMP-C2 prostate tumors with combined intratumoral reovirus and anti-PD-1 or anti-CD73 antibody significantly enhanced survival of mice compared with reovirus or either antibody therapy alone. Only combination therapy led to rejection of pre-established tumors and protection from tumor re-challenge. This therapeutic effect was dependent on CD4+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. NanoString immune profiling of tumors confirmed that reovirus increased tumor immune cell infiltration and revealed an upregulation of the immune-regulatory receptor, B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA). This expression of BTLA on innate antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and its ligand, Herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM), on T cells from reovirus-infected tumors was in keeping with a role for the HVEM-BTLA pathway in promoting the potent anti-tumor memory response observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola E. Annels
- Targeted Cancer Therapy, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Leggett Building, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Guy R. Simpson
- Targeted Cancer Therapy, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Leggett Building, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Mick Denyer
- Targeted Cancer Therapy, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Leggett Building, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Mehreen Arif
- Targeted Cancer Therapy, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Leggett Building, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Matt Coffey
- Oncolytics Biotech, Inc., 210, 1167 Kensington Crescent NW Calgary, AB T2N 1X7, Canada
| | - Alan Melcher
- Translational Immunotherapy Team, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW6 6JB, UK
| | - Kevin Harrington
- Targeted Therapy Team, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW6 6JB, UK
| | - Richard Vile
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Hardev Pandha
- Targeted Cancer Therapy, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Leggett Building, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7WG, UK
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27
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Zhang B, Wang X, Cheng P. Remodeling of Tumor Immune Microenvironment by Oncolytic Viruses. Front Oncol 2021; 10:561372. [PMID: 33680911 PMCID: PMC7934618 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.561372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are potential antitumor agents with unique therapeutic mechanisms. They possess the ability of direct oncolysis and the induction of antitumor immunity. OV can be genetically engineered to potentiate antitumor efficacy by remodeling the tumor immune microenvironment. The present mini review mainly describes the effect of OVs on remodeling of the tumor immune microenvironment and explores the mechanism of regulation of the host immune system and the promotion of the immune cells to destroy carcinoma cells by OVs. Furthermore, this article focuses on the utilization of OVs as vectors for the delivery of immunomodulatory cytokines or antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xilei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ping Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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28
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Oncolytic Viruses and Hematological Malignancies: A New Class of Immunotherapy Drugs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 28:159-183. [PMID: 33704184 PMCID: PMC7816176 DOI: 10.3390/curroncol28010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The use of viruses for tumour treatment has been imagined more than one hundred years ago, when it was reported that viral diseases were occasionally leading to a decrease in neoplastic lesions. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) seem to have a specific tropism for tumour cells. Previously, it was hypothesised that OVs’ antineoplastic actions were mainly due to their ability to contaminate, proliferate and destroy tumour cells and the immediate destructive effect on cells was believed to be the single mechanism of action of OVs’ action. Instead, it has been established that oncolytic viruses operate via a multiplicity of systems, including mutation of tumour milieu and a composite change of the activity of immune effectors. Oncolytic viruses redesign the tumour environment towards an antitumour milieu. The aim of our work is to evaluate the findings present in the literature about the use of OVs in the cure of haematological neoplastic pathologies such as multiple myeloma, acute and chronic myeloid leukaemia, and lymphoproliferative diseases. Further experimentations are essential to recognize the most efficient virus or treatment combinations for specific haematological diseases, and the combinations able to induce the strongest immune response.
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29
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Müller L, Berkeley R, Barr T, Ilett E, Errington-Mais F. Past, Present and Future of Oncolytic Reovirus. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E3219. [PMID: 33142841 PMCID: PMC7693452 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT) has received significant attention in recent years, especially since the approval of talimogene Laherparepvec (T-VEC) in 2015 by the Food and Drug administration (FDA). Mechanistic studies of oncolytic viruses (OVs) have revealed that most, if not all, OVs induce direct oncolysis and stimulate innate and adaptive anti-tumour immunity. With the advancement of tumour modelling, allowing characterisation of the effects of tumour microenvironment (TME) components and identification of the cellular mechanisms required for cell death (both direct oncolysis and anti-tumour immune responses), it is clear that a "one size fits all" approach is not applicable to all OVs, or indeed the same OV across different tumour types and disease locations. This article will provide an unbiased review of oncolytic reovirus (clinically formulated as pelareorep), including the molecular and cellular requirements for reovirus oncolysis and anti-tumour immunity, reports of pre-clinical efficacy and its overall clinical trajectory. Moreover, as it is now abundantly clear that the true potential of all OVs, including reovirus, will only be reached upon the development of synergistic combination strategies, reovirus combination therapeutics will be discussed, including the limitations and challenges that remain to harness the full potential of this promising therapeutic agent.
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30
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Cook M, Chauhan A. Clinical Application of Oncolytic Viruses: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207505. [PMID: 33053757 PMCID: PMC7589713 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Leveraging the immune system to thwart cancer is not a novel strategy and has been explored via cancer vaccines and use of immunomodulators like interferons. However, it was not until the introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors that we realized the true potential of immunotherapy in combating cancer. Oncolytic viruses are one such immunotherapeutic tool that is currently being explored in cancer therapeutics. We present the most comprehensive systematic review of all oncolytic viruses in Phase 1, 2, and 3 clinical trials published to date. We performed a systematic review of all published clinical trials indexed in PubMed that utilized oncolytic viruses. Trials were reviewed for type of oncolytic virus used, method of administration, study design, disease type, primary outcome, and relevant adverse effects. A total of 120 trials were found; 86 trials were available for our review. Included were 60 phase I trials, five phase I/II combination trials, 19 phase II trials, and two phase III clinical trials. Oncolytic viruses are feverously being evaluated in oncology with over 30 different types of oncolytic viruses being explored either as a single agent or in combination with other antitumor agents. To date, only one oncolytic virus therapy has received an FDA approval but advances in bioengineering techniques and our understanding of immunomodulation to heighten oncolytic virus replication and improve tumor kill raises optimism for its future drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Cook
- Department of Internal Medicine, Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland Medical Center, 22 S. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA;
| | - Aman Chauhan
- Department of Internal Medicine-Medical Oncology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +504-278-0134
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31
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Cao GD, He XB, Sun Q, Chen S, Wan K, Xu X, Feng X, Li PP, Chen B, Xiong MM. The Oncolytic Virus in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1786. [PMID: 33014876 PMCID: PMC7509414 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer has always been an enormous threat to human health and survival. Surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy could improve the survival of cancer patients, but most patients with advanced cancer usually have a poor survival or could not afford the high cost of chemotherapy. The emergence of oncolytic viruses provided a new strategy for us to alleviate or even cure malignant tumors. An oncolytic virus can be described as a genetically engineered or naturally existing virus that can selectively replicate in cancer cells and then kill them without damaging the healthy cells. There have been many kinds of oncolytic viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, and Coxsackievirus. Moreover, they have different clinical applications in cancer treatment. This review focused on the clinical application of oncolytic virus and predicted the prospect by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-dong Cao
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xiao-bo He
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qiang Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biological Cancer, Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Sihan Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ke Wan
- Department of Oncology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xin Xu
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xudong Feng
- Department of Infectious Disease, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peng-ping Li
- Department of General Surgery, The First People’s Hospital of Xiaoshan District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Mao-ming Xiong
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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Marotel M, Hasim MS, Hagerman A, Ardolino M. The two-faces of NK cells in oncolytic virotherapy. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2020; 56:59-68. [PMID: 32586674 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are immunotherapeutics capable of directly killing cancer cells and with potent immunostimulatory properties. OVs exert their antitumor effect, at least partially, by activating the antitumor immune response, of which NK cells are an important component. However, if on the one hand increasing evidence revealed that NK cells are important mediators of oncolytic virotherapy, on the other hand, NK cells have evolved to fight viral infections, and therefore they can have a detrimental effect for the efficacy of OVs. In this review, we will discuss the dichotomy between the antitumor and antiviral functions of NK cells related to oncolytic virotherapy. We will also review NK cell-based and OV-based therapies, engineered OVs aimed at enhancing immune stimulation, and combination therapies involving OVs and NK cells currently used in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marotel
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - M S Hasim
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - A Hagerman
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada; University of Ottawa, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Ottawa, Canada
| | - M Ardolino
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada; University of Ottawa, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Ottawa, Canada.
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Cai L, Liu Z. Novel recombinant coxsackievirus B3 with genetically inserted basic peptide elicits robust antitumor activity against lung cancer. Cancer Med 2020; 9:5210-5220. [PMID: 32459400 PMCID: PMC7367620 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.3143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer therapy that utilizes oncolytic virus may offer an exciting alternative, and coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) is a potent oncolytic virus. This study was to assess the oncolytic activities of novel recombinant CVB3 with genetically inserted basic peptides in lung cancer. Recombinant CVB3 was produced in Vero cells, with or without genetically inserted basic peptides. In vitro and in vivo experiments with nude mouse models bearing human lung carcinoma xenografts were performed to examine the antitumor activities. Cytokines and immune responses to the recombinant CVB3 were determined in cynomolgus monkeys. Recombinant CVB3 with genetically inserted basic peptides was associated with significantly higher pH values within tumors. Mice treated with recombinant CVB3 showed significantly less tumor progression, and recombinant CVB3 with genetically inserted basic peptides appeared to enhance tumor suppression. Recombinant CVB3 was associated with significantly less proliferation of various lung cancer cells without affecting proliferation of normal lung fibroblasts. The cytokine profiles of the cynomolgus monkeys were comparable among control group (normal saline solution) and those given recombinant CVB3 with or without fused basic peptides, with no induction of excessive cytokine or immune responses. In conclusions, recombinant CVB3, especially those with fused basic peptides, possess strong antitumor activities without eliciting excessive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ligang Cai
- Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhiyi Liu
- Wuhan Boweid Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Wuhan, Hubei, China
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Hodgins JJ, Khan ST, Park MM, Auer RC, Ardolino M. Killers 2.0: NK cell therapies at the forefront of cancer control. J Clin Invest 2020; 129:3499-3510. [PMID: 31478911 DOI: 10.1172/jci129338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate cytotoxic lymphocytes involved in the surveillance and elimination of cancer. As we have learned more and more about the mechanisms NK cells employ to recognize and eliminate tumor cells, and how, in turn, cancer evades NK cell responses, we have gained a clear appreciation that NK cells can be harnessed in cancer immunotherapy. Here, we review the evidence for NK cells' critical role in combating transformed and malignant cells, and how cancer immunotherapies potentiate NK cell responses for therapeutic purposes. We highlight cutting-edge immunotherapeutic strategies in preclinical and clinical development such as adoptive NK cell transfer, chimeric antigen receptor-expressing NK cells (CAR-NKs), bispecific and trispecific killer cell engagers (BiKEs and TriKEs), checkpoint blockade, and oncolytic virotherapy. Further, we describe the challenges that NK cells face (e.g., postsurgical dysfunction) that must be overcome by these therapeutic modalities to achieve cancer clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Hodgins
- Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, and
| | - Sarwat T Khan
- Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Maria M Park
- Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, and
| | - Rebecca C Auer
- Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Surgery, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michele Ardolino
- Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, and
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Luo Y, Lin C, Zou Y, Ju F, Ren W, Lin Y, Wang Y, Huang X, Liu H, Yu Z, Liu P, Tan G, Yuan Q, Zhang J, Huang C, Xia N. Tumor-targeting oncolytic virus elicits potent immunotherapeutic vaccine responses to tumor antigens. Oncoimmunology 2020; 9:1726168. [PMID: 32117591 PMCID: PMC7028326 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2020.1726168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses represent a promising therapeutic modality, but they have yet to live up to their therapeutic potential. Safety and efficacy concerns impel us to identify least toxic oncolytic agents that would generate durable and multifaceted anti-tumor immune responses to disrupt the tumors. Here we describe a rational engineered oncolytic herpes virus (OVH) that is a selective killer for targeting tumors, has strong safety records, induces complete regression of tumors in multiple tumor models, and elicits potent antitumor immunity. By far, the potential of OVs in promoting the tumor antigen-specific humoral immune responses remains obscure. In this study, we found that effective treatment by OVH induced immunogenic cell death, which facilitates to elicit humoral immune responses. Depletion experiments revealed that B cells were required for maximal antitumor efficacy of oncolytic immunotherapy. Both serum transfer and antibody treatment experiments revealed that endogenous oncolysis-induced antigen-targeting therapeutic antibodies can lead to systemic tumor regression. Our data demonstrate that tumor-targeting immune modulatory properties confer oncolytic OVH virotherapy as potent immunotherapeutic cancer vaccines that can generate specific and efficacious antitumor humoral responses by eliciting endogenous tumor antigen-targeting therapeutic antibodies in situ, resulting in an efficacious and tumor-specific therapeutic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Chaolong Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Yidi Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Fei Ju
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Wenfeng Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Yanhua Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Yale Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Xiaoxuan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Huiling Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Zeng Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Pingguo Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Guowei Tan
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Quan Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Chenghao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Ningshao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
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Klose C, Berchtold S, Schmidt M, Beil J, Smirnow I, Venturelli S, Burkard M, Handgretinger R, Lauer UM. Biological treatment of pediatric sarcomas by combined virotherapy and NK cell therapy. BMC Cancer 2019; 19:1172. [PMID: 31795974 PMCID: PMC6889644 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-019-6387-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In pediatric sarcomas, outcomes of established therapies still remain poor, especially due to high-grade resistances to chemotherapeutic compounds. Taking novel biological approaches into account, virotherapy was found to be efficient in many pediatric sarcoma types. Also NK cell therapy was denoted to represent a promising upcoming strategy for pediatric sarcoma patients. We here investigated a combinatorial approach employing oncolytic measles vaccine virotherapeutics (MeV) together with activated human NK cells (or PBMCs). METHODS The human sarcoma cell lines A673 and HT1080 were used to evaluate the efficacy of this combinatorial treatment modality. Oncolysis was determined by measuring real-time cell proliferation using the xCELLigence RTCA SP system. Furthermore, expression of receptors on NK cells and the respective ligands on A673 cells was analyzed by flow cytometry. To measure the protein release of activated NK cells a LEGENDplex™ assay was performed. RESULTS Monotherapy with MeV led to a time- and dose-dependent oncolytic reduction of A673 and HT1080 sarcoma tumor cell masses. Concurrently, such MeV infections did not change the expression of NK cell ligands MICA/B, ULBP1, 2, and 3, CD112, and CD155. As shown by real-time proliferation assays, infections of A673 and HT1080 sarcoma cells with MeV followed by co-culture with activated NK cells or PBMCs led to enhanced sarcoma cell destruction when compared to the respective monotherapies. In parallel, this dual therapy resulted in an increased release of granzymes, perforin, and granulysin from NK cells. In contrast, expression of activation and ontogenesis receptors on NK cells was not found to be altered after co-culture with MeV-infected A673 sarcoma cells. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, the combined treatment strategy comprising oncolytic MeV and activated NK cells resulted in enhanced oncolysis of A673 and HT1080 cells when compared to the respective monotherapies. In parallel, we observed an increased release of NK cell activation markers upon co-culture with MeV-infected A673 human sarcoma cells. These results support the onset of clinical trials combining oncolytic virotherapy with NK cell based immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihab Klose
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Children’s Hospital Tuebingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str.1, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Susanne Berchtold
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), DKFZ partner site Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Marina Schmidt
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Children’s Hospital Tuebingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str.1, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Julia Beil
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), DKFZ partner site Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Irina Smirnow
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), DKFZ partner site Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Sascha Venturelli
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Vegetative and Clinical Physiology, University of Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Str. 27, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Markus Burkard
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Vegetative and Clinical Physiology, University of Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Str. 27, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Rupert Handgretinger
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Children’s Hospital Tuebingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str.1, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich M. Lauer
- Department of Internal Medicine VIII, University Hospital Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), DKFZ partner site Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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Mahalingam D, Wilkinson GA, Eng KH, Fields P, Raber P, Moseley JL, Cheetham K, Coffey M, Nuovo G, Kalinski P, Zhang B, Arora SP, Fountzilas C. Pembrolizumab in Combination with the Oncolytic Virus Pelareorep and Chemotherapy in Patients with Advanced Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: A Phase Ib Study. Clin Cancer Res 2019; 26:71-81. [PMID: 31694832 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-19-2078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Pelareorep is an intravenously delivered oncolytic reovirus that can induce a T-cell-inflamed phenotype in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Tumor tissues from patients treated with pelareorep have shown reovirus replication, T-cell infiltration, and upregulation of PD-L1. We hypothesized that pelareorep in combination with pembrolizumab and chemotherapy in patients with PDAC would be safe and effective. PATIENTS AND METHODS A phase Ib single-arm study enrolled patients with PDAC who progressed after first-line treatment. Patients received pelareorep, pembrolizumab, and either 5-fluorouracil, gemcitabine, or irinotecan until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. Study objectives included safety and dose-limiting toxicities, tumor response, evaluation for reovirus replication, and immune analysis in peripheral blood and tumor biopsies. RESULTS Eleven patients were enrolled. Disease control was achieved in three of the 10 efficacy-evaluable patients. One patient achieved partial response for 17.4 months. Two additional patients achieved stable disease, lasting 9 and 4 months, respectively. Treatment was well tolerated, with mostly grade 1 or 2 treatment-related adverse events, including flu-like symptoms. Viral replication was observed in on-treatment tumor biopsies. T-cell receptor sequencing from peripheral blood revealed the creation of new T-cell clones during treatment. High peripheral clonality and changes in the expression of immune genes were observed in patients with clinical benefit. CONCLUSIONS Pelareorep and pembrolizumab added to chemotherapy did not add significant toxicity and showed encouraging efficacy. Further evaluation of pelareorep and anti-PD-1 therapy is ongoing in follow-up studies. This research highlights the potential utility of several pretreatment and on-treatment biomarkers for pelareorep therapy warranting further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devalingam Mahalingam
- Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois. .,Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | | | - Kevin H Eng
- Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, New York
| | - Paul Fields
- Adaptive Biotechnologies, Seattle, Washington
| | | | - Jennifer L Moseley
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | | | - Matt Coffey
- Oncolytics Biotech Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Gerard Nuovo
- Ohio State University Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Pawel Kalinski
- Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, New York
| | - Bin Zhang
- Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Sukeshi Patel Arora
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
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Jennings VA, Scott GB, Rose AMS, Scott KJ, Migneco G, Keller B, Reilly K, Donnelly O, Peach H, Dewar D, Harrington KJ, Pandha H, Samson A, Vile RG, Melcher AA, Errington-Mais F. Potentiating Oncolytic Virus-Induced Immune-Mediated Tumor Cell Killing Using Histone Deacetylase Inhibition. Mol Ther 2019; 27:1139-1152. [PMID: 31053413 PMCID: PMC6554638 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
A clinical oncolytic herpes simplex virus (HSV) encoding granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), talimogene laherparepvec, causes regression of injected and non-injected melanoma lesions in patients and is now licensed for clinical use in advanced melanoma. To date, limited data are available regarding the mechanisms of human anti-tumor immune priming, an improved understanding of which could inform the development of future combination strategies with improved efficacy. This study addressed direct oncolysis and innate and adaptive human immune-mediated effects of a closely related HSV encoding GM-CSF (HSVGM-CSF) alone and in combination with histone deacetylase inhibition. We found that HSVGM-CSF supported activation of anti-melanoma immunity via monocyte-mediated type I interferon production, which activates NK cells, and viral maturation of immature dendritic cells (iDCs) into potent antigen-presenting cells for cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) priming. Addition of the histone deacetylase inhibitor valproic acid (VPA) to HSVGM-CSF treatment of tumor cells increased viral replication, viral GM-CSF production, and oncolysis and augmented the development of anti-tumor immunity. Mechanistically, VPA increased expression of activating ligands for NK cell recognition and induced expression of tumor-associated antigens, supporting innate NK cell killing and CTL priming. These data support the clinical combination of talimogene laherparepvec with histone deacetylase inhibition to enhance oncolysis and anti-tumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A Jennings
- The Institute of Cancer Research, Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London SW3 6JB, UK; Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Gina B Scott
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Ailsa M S Rose
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Karen J Scott
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Gemma Migneco
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Brian Keller
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Katrina Reilly
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Oliver Donnelly
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Howard Peach
- St James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Donald Dewar
- St James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Kevin J Harrington
- The Institute of Cancer Research, Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Hardev Pandha
- Leggett Building, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Adel Samson
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | | | - Alan A Melcher
- The Institute of Cancer Research, Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London SW3 6JB, UK.
| | - Fiona Errington-Mais
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Beckett Street, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
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Mast Cells and Natural Killer Cells-A Potentially Critical Interaction. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060514. [PMID: 31167464 PMCID: PMC6631774 DOI: 10.3390/v11060514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play critical roles in host defense against infectious agents or neoplastic cells. NK cells provide a rapid innate immune response including the killing of target cells without the need for priming. However, activated NK cells can show improved effector functions. Mast cells are also critical for early host defense against a variety of pathogens and are predominately located at mucosal surfaces and close to blood vessels. Our group has recently shown that virus-infected mast cells selectively recruit NK cells and positively modulate their functions through mechanisms dependent on soluble mediators, such as interferons. Here, we review the possible consequences of this interaction in both host defense and pathologies involving NK cell and mast cell activation.
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40
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Wang Z, Wang Z, Li B, Wang S, Chen T, Ye Z. Innate Immune Cells: A Potential and Promising Cell Population for Treating Osteosarcoma. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1114. [PMID: 31156651 PMCID: PMC6531991 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Advanced, recurrent, or metastasized osteosarcomas remain challenging to cure or even alleviate. Therefore, the development of novel therapeutic strategies is urgently needed. Cancer immunotherapy has greatly improved in recent years, with options including adoptive cellular therapy, vaccination, and checkpoint inhibitors. As such, immunotherapy is becoming a potential strategy for the treatment of osteosarcoma. Innate immunocytes, the first line of defense in the immune system and the bridge to adaptive immunity, are one of the vital effector cell subpopulations in cancer immunotherapy. Innate immune cell-based therapy has shown potent antitumor activity against hematologic malignancies and some solid tumors, including osteosarcoma. Importantly, some immune checkpoints are expressed on both innate and adaptive immune cells, modulating their functions in tumor immunity. Therefore, blocking or activating immune checkpoint-mediated downstream signaling pathways can improve the therapeutic effects of innate immune cell-based therapy. In this review, we summarize the current status and future prospects of innate immune cell-based therapy for the treatment of osteosarcoma, with a focus on the potential synergistic effects of combination therapy involving innate immunotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors/oncolytic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zenan Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Orthopedic Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhan Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Orthopedic Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Binghao Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Orthopedic Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shengdong Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Orthopedic Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Orthopedic Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhaoming Ye
- Department of Orthopedics, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,Institute of Orthopedic Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Sivanandam V, LaRocca CJ, Chen NG, Fong Y, Warner SG. Oncolytic Viruses and Immune Checkpoint Inhibition: The Best of Both Worlds. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2019; 13:93-106. [PMID: 31080879 PMCID: PMC6503136 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2019.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy and the emergence of immune checkpoint inhibitors have markedly changed the treatment paradigm for many cancers. They function to disrupt cancer cell evasion of the immune response and activate sustained anti-tumor immunity. Oncolytic viruses have also emerged as an additional therapeutic agent for cancer treatment. These viruses are designed to target and kill tumor cells while leaving the normal cells unharmed. As part of this process, oncolytic virus infection stimulates anti-cancer immune responses that augment the efficacy of checkpoint inhibition. These viruses have the capability of transforming a “cold” tumor microenvironment with few immune effector cells into a “hot” environment with increased immune cell and cytokine infiltration. For this reason, there are multiple ongoing clinical trials that combine oncolytic virotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors. This review will detail the key oncolytic viruses in preclinical and clinical studies and highlight the results of their testing with checkpoint inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkatesh Sivanandam
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | | | - Nanhai G Chen
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Yuman Fong
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Susanne G Warner
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
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42
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Davola ME, Mossman KL. Oncolytic viruses: how "lytic" must they be for therapeutic efficacy? Oncoimmunology 2019; 8:e1581528. [PMID: 31069150 PMCID: PMC6492965 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2019.1596006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) preferentially target and kill cancer cells without affecting healthy cells through a multi-modal mechanism of action. While historically the direct killing activity of OVs was considered the primary mode of action, initiation or augmentation of a host antitumor immune response is now considered an essential aspect of oncolytic virotherapy. To improve oncolytic virotherapy, many studies focus on increasing virus replication and spread. In this article, we open for discussion the traditional dogma that correlates replication with the efficacy of OVs, pointing out several examples that oppose this principle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eugenia Davola
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Karen Louise Mossman
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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43
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Igase M, Shousu K, Fujiki N, Sakurai M, Bonkobara M, Hwang CC, Coffey M, Noguchi S, Nemoto Y, Mizuno T. Anti-tumour activity of oncolytic reovirus against canine histiocytic sarcoma cells. Vet Comp Oncol 2019; 17:184-193. [PMID: 30761736 DOI: 10.1111/vco.12468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Canine histiocytic sarcoma is an aggressive, fatal neoplastic disease with a poor prognosis. Lomustine is generally accepted as the first-line systemic therapy, although this compound does not provide complete regression. Therefore, research into a novel approach against canine histiocytic sarcoma is needed. However, anti-tumour effects of oncolytic therapy using reovirus against histiocytic sarcoma are unknown. Here, we showed that reovirus has oncolytic activity in canine histiocytic sarcoma cell lines in vitro and in vivo. We found that reovirus can replicate and induce caspase-dependent apoptosis in canine histiocytic sarcoma cell lines. A single intra-tumoural injection of reovirus completely suppressed the growth of subcutaneously grafted tumours in NOD/SCID mice. Additionally, we demonstrated that susceptibility to reovirus-induced cell death was attributable to the extent of expression of type I interferons induced by reovirus infection in vitro. In conclusion, oncolytic reovirus appears to be an effective treatment option for histiocytic sarcoma, and therefore warrants further investigation in early clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Igase
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Kazuha Shousu
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Fujiki
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Masashi Sakurai
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Makoto Bonkobara
- Laboratory of Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chung C Hwang
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Matt Coffey
- Oncolytics Biotech Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shunsuke Noguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Radiology, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuki Nemoto
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Takuya Mizuno
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
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44
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Systemically Administered Reovirus-Induced Downregulation of Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1α in Subcutaneous Tumors. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2018; 12:162-172. [PMID: 30788427 PMCID: PMC6369106 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2018.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Reovirus, which possesses a 10-segmented double-stranded RNA genome, mediates superior antitumor effects via not only virus replication in a tumor cell-specific manner but also other mechanisms distinct from virus replication. Several groups, including ours, reported the reovirus-mediated downregulation of hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) following infection in cultured tumor cells; however, it remained to be clarified whether reovirus downregulates the expression of HIF-1α and its target genes in tumor-bearing hosts. We found that reovirus induced significant downregulation of protein levels of HIF-1α and its target genes in the subcutaneous tumors at 120 h post-systemic administration. Expression of reovirus capsid protein σ3 was found in the pimonidazole-positive hypoxic area in the tumor. Significant levels of tumor cell apoptosis were not found in the tumors of reovirus-treated mice at this time point, suggesting that reovirus-mediated tumor cell killing did not largely contribute to the downregulation of HIF-1α protein levels in the tumors. UV-inactivated reovirus did not induce downregulation of HIF-1α expression in the tumors, indicating that virus replication was indispensable for downregulation of HIF-1α expression in the subcutaneous tumors. This study provides important information for the development of reovirus-mediated virotherapy against various types of tumors.
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45
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Twumasi-Boateng K, Pettigrew JL, Kwok YYE, Bell JC, Nelson BH. Oncolytic viruses as engineering platforms for combination immunotherapy. Nat Rev Cancer 2018; 18:419-432. [PMID: 29695749 DOI: 10.1038/s41568-018-0009-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
To effectively build on the recent successes of immune checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapy and cancer vaccines, it is critical to rationally design combination strategies that will increase and extend efficacy to a larger proportion of patients. For example, the combination of anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4) and anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1) immune checkpoint inhibitors essentially doubles the response rate in certain patients with metastatic melanoma. However, given the heterogeneity of cancer, it seems likely that even more complex combinations of immunomodulatory agents may be required to obtain consistent, durable therapeutic responses against a broad spectrum of cancers. This carries serious implications in terms of toxicities for patients, feasibility for care providers and costs for health-care systems. A compelling solution is offered by oncolytic viruses (OVs), which can be engineered to selectively replicate within and destroy tumour tissue while simultaneously augmenting antitumour immunity. In this Opinion article, we argue that the future of immunotherapy will include OVs that function as multiplexed immune-modulating platforms expressing factors such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, tumour antigens, cytokines and T cell engagers. We illustrate this concept by following the trials and tribulations of tumour-reactive T cells from their initial priming through to the execution of cytotoxic effector function in the tumour bed. We highlight the myriad opportunities for OVs to help overcome critical barriers in the T cell journey, leading to new synergistic mechanisms in the battle against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwame Twumasi-Boateng
- Trev and Joyce Deeley Research Centre, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jessica L Pettigrew
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Y Y Eunice Kwok
- Trev and Joyce Deeley Research Centre, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - John C Bell
- Center for Innovative Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Brad H Nelson
- Trev and Joyce Deeley Research Centre, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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46
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Phillips MB, Stuart JD, Rodríguez Stewart RM, Berry JT, Mainou BA, Boehme KW. Current understanding of reovirus oncolysis mechanisms. Oncolytic Virother 2018; 7:53-63. [PMID: 29942799 PMCID: PMC6005300 DOI: 10.2147/ov.s143808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian orthoreovirus (reovirus) is under development as a cancer virotherapy. Clinical trials demonstrate that reovirus-based therapies are safe and tolerated in patients with a wide variety of cancers. Although reovirus monotherapy has proven largely ineffective, reovirus sensitizes cancer cells to existing chemotherapeutic agents and radiation. Clinical trials are underway to test the efficacy of reovirus in combination with chemotherapeutic and radiation regimens and to evaluate the effectiveness of reovirus in conjunction with immunotherapies. Central to the use of reovirus to treat cancer is its capacity to directly kill cancer cells and alter the cellular environment to augment other therapies. Apoptotic cell death is a prominent mechanism of reovirus cancer cell killing. However, reoviruses can also kill cancer cells through nonapoptotic mechanisms. Here, we describe mechanisms of reovirus cancer cell killing, highlight how reovirus is used in combination with existing cancer treatments, and discuss what is known as to how reovirus modulates cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Phillips
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Johnasha D Stuart
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Karl W Boehme
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Atlanta, GA, USA
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47
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Comins C, Simpson GR, Rogers W, Relph K, Harrington K, Melcher A, Roulstone V, Kyula J, Pandha H. Synergistic antitumour effects of rapamycin and oncolytic reovirus. Cancer Gene Ther 2018; 25:148-160. [PMID: 29720674 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-018-0011-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
There are currently numerous oncolytic viruses undergoing clinical trial evaluation in cancer patients and one agent, Talimogene laherparepvec, has been approved for the treatment of malignant melanoma. This progress highlights the huge clinical potential of this treatment modality, and the focus is now combining these agents with conventional anticancer treatments or agents that enhance viral replication, and thereby oncolysis, in the tumour microenvironment. We evaluated the combination of reovirus with rapamycin in B16F10 cell, a murine model of malignant melanoma, based on potential mechanisms by which mTOR inhibitors might enhance viral oncolysis. Rapamycin was not immunomodulatory in that it had no effect on the generation of an antireovirus-neutralising antibody response in C57/black 6 mice. The cell cycle effects of reovirus (increase G0/G1 fraction) were unaffected by concomitant or sequential exposure of rapamycin. However, rapamycin attenuated viral replication if given prior or concomitantly with reovirus and similarly reduced reovirus-induced apoptotic cell death Annexin V/PI and caspase 3/7 activation studies. We found clear evidence of synergistic antitumour effects of the combination both in vitro and in vivo, which was sequence dependent only in the in vitro setting. In conclusion, we have demonstrated synergistic antitumour efficacy of reovirus and rapamycin combination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Comins
- Oncology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Leggett Building, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Guy Richard Simpson
- Oncology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Leggett Building, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7WG, UK
| | - William Rogers
- Oncology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Leggett Building, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Kate Relph
- Oncology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Leggett Building, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7WG, UK
| | - Kevin Harrington
- Institute of Cancer Research, 123 Old Brompton Road, London, SW7 3RP, UK
| | - Alan Melcher
- Institute of Cancer Research, 123 Old Brompton Road, London, SW7 3RP, UK
| | - Victoria Roulstone
- Institute of Cancer Research, 123 Old Brompton Road, London, SW7 3RP, UK
| | - Joan Kyula
- Institute of Cancer Research, 123 Old Brompton Road, London, SW7 3RP, UK
| | - Hardev Pandha
- Oncology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Leggett Building, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7WG, UK.
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48
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Mahalingam D, Goel S, Aparo S, Patel Arora S, Noronha N, Tran H, Chakrabarty R, Selvaggi G, Gutierrez A, Coffey M, Nawrocki ST, Nuovo G, Mita MM. A Phase II Study of Pelareorep (REOLYSIN ®) in Combination with Gemcitabine for Patients with Advanced Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:E160. [PMID: 29799479 PMCID: PMC6025223 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10060160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has a poor prognosis, with 1 and 5-year survival rates of ~18% and 7% respectively. FOLFIRINOX or gemcitabine in combination with nab-paclitaxel are standard treatment options for metastatic disease. However, both regimens are more toxic than gemcitabine alone. Pelareorep (REOLYSIN®), a proprietary isolate of reovirus Type 3 Dearing, has shown antitumor activity in clinical and preclinical models. In addition to direct cytotoxic effects, pelareorep can trigger antitumor immune responses. Due to the high frequency of RAS mutations in PDAC, we hypothesized that pelareorep would promote selective reovirus replication in pancreatic tumors and enhance the anticancer activity of gemcitabine. Chemotherapy-naïve patients with advanced PDAC were eligible for the study. The primary objective was Clinical Benefit Rate (complete response (CR) + partial response (PR) + stable disease (SD) ≥ 12 weeks) and secondary objectives include overall survival (OS), toxicity, and pharmacodynamics (PD) analysis. The study enrolled 34 patients; results included one partial response, 23 stable disease, and 5 progressive disease. The median OS was 10.2 months, with a 1- and 2-year survival rate of 45% and 24%, respectively. The treatment was well tolerated with manageable nonhematological toxicities. PD analysis revealed reovirus replication within pancreatic tumor and associated apoptosis. Upregulation of immune checkpoint marker PD-L1 suggests future consideration of combining oncolytic virus therapy with anti-PD-L1 inhibitors. We conclude that pelareorep complements single agent gemcitabine in PDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devalingam Mahalingam
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
- Cancer Therapy and Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
| | - Sanjay Goel
- Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY 10467, USA.
| | | | - Sukeshi Patel Arora
- Cancer Therapy and Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
| | | | - Hue Tran
- Oncolytics Biotech Inc., Calgary, AB T2N 1X7, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | | - Steffan T Nawrocki
- Department of Medicine, Division of Translational and Regenerative Medicine, University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA.
| | - Gerard Nuovo
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH and Phylogeny, Inc., Powell, OH 43065, USA.
| | - Monica M Mita
- Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA.
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49
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Achard C, Surendran A, Wedge ME, Ungerechts G, Bell J, Ilkow CS. Lighting a Fire in the Tumor Microenvironment Using Oncolytic Immunotherapy. EBioMedicine 2018; 31:17-24. [PMID: 29724655 PMCID: PMC6013846 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virus (OV) therapy is potentially a game-changing cancer treatment that has garnered significant interest due to its versatility and multi-modal approaches towards tumor eradication. In the field of cancer immunotherapy, the immunological phenotype of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is an important determinant of disease prognosis and therapeutic success. There is accumulating data that OVs are capable of dramatically altering the TME immune landscape, leading to improved antitumor activity alone or in combination with assorted immune modulators. Herein, we review how OVs disrupt the immunosuppressive TME and can be used strategically to create a "pro-immune" microenvironment that enables and promotes potent, long-lasting host antitumor immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Achard
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada
| | - Abera Surendran
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Marie-Eve Wedge
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Guy Ungerechts
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Medical Oncology and Translational Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - John Bell
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Carolina S Ilkow
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada.
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50
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Katayama Y, Tachibana M, Kurisu N, Oya Y, Terasawa Y, Goda H, Kobiyama K, Ishii KJ, Akira S, Mizuguchi H, Sakurai F. Oncolytic Reovirus Inhibits Immunosuppressive Activity of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in a TLR3-Dependent Manner. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:2987-2999. [PMID: 29555782 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic reovirus, which possesses 10 segments of dsRNA genome, mediates antitumor effects via not only virus replication in a tumor cell-specific manner, but also activation of antitumor immunity; however, the mechanism(s) of reovirus-induced activation of antitumor immunity have not been fully elucidated. Recent studies have demonstrated that overcoming an immunosuppressive environment in tumor-bearing hosts is important to achieve efficient activation of antitumor immunity. Among the various types of cells involved in immunosuppression, it has been revealed that myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are significantly increased in tumor-bearing hosts and play crucial roles in the immunosuppression in tumor-bearing hosts. In this study, we examined whether reovirus inhibits the immunosuppressive activity of MDSCs, resulting in efficient activation of immune cells after in vivo administration. The results showed that splenic MDSCs recovered from PBS-treated tumor-bearing mice significantly suppressed the Ag-specific proliferation of CD8+ T cells. In contrast, the suppressive activity of MDSCs on T cell proliferation was significantly reduced after reovirus administration. Reovirus also inhibited the immunosuppressive activity of MDSCs in IFN-β promoter stimulator-1 knockout (KO) mice and in wild-type mice. In contrast, the immunosuppressive activity of MDSCs in TLR-3 KO mice was not significantly altered by reovirus treatment. The activation levels of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were significantly lower in TLR3 KO mice than in wild-type mice after reovirus administration. These results indicate that reovirus inhibits the immunosuppressive activity of MDSCs in a TLR3, but not IFN-β promoter stimulator-1, signaling-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Katayama
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masashi Tachibana
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Nozomi Kurisu
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yukako Oya
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yuichi Terasawa
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Goda
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Kouji Kobiyama
- Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation, Center for Vaccine and Adjuvant Research, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0085, Japan.,Laboratory of Vaccine Science, World Premier International Research Center Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ken J Ishii
- Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation, Center for Vaccine and Adjuvant Research, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0085, Japan.,Laboratory of Vaccine Science, World Premier International Research Center Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shizuo Akira
- Laboratory of Host Defense, World Premier International Research Center Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.,Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Mizuguchi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.,Laboratory of Hepatocyte Differentiation, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0085, Japan.,Global Center for Medical Engineering and Informatics, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; and
| | - Fuminori Sakurai
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; .,Laboratory of Regulatory Sciences for Oligonucleotide Therapeutics, Clinical Drug Development Unit, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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