Hen performance, egg quality, and the sensory evaluation of eggs from SCWL hens fed dietary flax

Egg Quality, Sensory Attributes, and Protein Metabolites of Laying Hens Fed Whole Flaxseed, Fish Oil, and Different Sources of Trace Elements

This study evaluated the effects of whole flaxseed (WFS), fish oil (FO), and different sources of Se, Zn, and Fe (inorganic, organic, and nano-source) on egg production, quality, sensory attributes, and serum protein metabolites in laying hens. A total of 144 hens were divided into six groups with six replicates of four hens each. Hens were fed six diets as follows: 1) control diet; 2) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO; 3) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg vitamin E (VE); 4) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg VE + inorganic sources of Se, Zn, and Fe (ISeZnFe); 5) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg VE + organic sources of Se, Zn, and Fe (OSeZnFe); 6) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg VE + nano-source of Se, Zn, and Fe (NSeZnFe) from 40-50 weeks of age. Laying hens fed 7.5% WFS, 1.5% FO, and different sources of trace elements in their diets had no negative effects on laying rate, egg weight, egg mass, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, body weight change, or survival rate compared to that of hens fed the control diet. Dietary treatments did not negatively affect the external and internal egg characteristics or egg sensory attributes. Feeding 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+VE+ISeZnFe positively influenced yolk color in fresh eggs. Dietary treatments had a significant impact on egg nutritional composition, with the highest levels of macronutrients found in eggs from hens fed the 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+VE+NSeZnFe treatment. The highest plasma globulin concentrations were observed in hens fed organic and nano-source trace elements. The same diets reduced plasma uric acid levels. Based on these findings, the inclusion of organic or nano-source trace minerals in diets containing WFS and FO positively affected egg quality and hen protein metabolites.

Dietary flaxseed cake influences on performance, quality, and sensory attributes of eggs, serum, and egg trace minerals of laying hens

Nowadays, there is a global shortage in feed supply for animal nutrition; however, there are a considerable amount of agro-industrial co- and by-products that may offer a reasonable solution. Flaxseed cake (FSC) is a by-product of flaxseed for oil extraction rich in n-3 α-linolenic acid (ALA). Thus, the dietary inclusion of FSC on laying performance, egg quality, and serum and egg trace elements (Se, Zn, and Fe) was evaluated using Hisex White hens. The hens were distributed to three equal experimental treatments and provided diets including 0%, 5%, or 10% FSC from 48 to 58 weeks of age. Findings clarified that up to 10% FSC in the laying hen diet had no detrimental effect on laying rate, egg mass, and feed utilization. It was found that FSC resulted in a valuable source of protein, energy, macro- (Ca and P), micro- (Se, Zn and Fe) elements, and essential amino acids, with arginine being the highest. Dietary FSC did not negatively influence the egg quality traits, as well as egg sensory attributes. Including 5% or 10% FSC in diet did not significantly affect serum total protein and renal function in terms of creatinine, uric acid, and uric acid-to-creatinine ratio. Different FSC levels did not influence the chemical composition of eggs and trace elements in serum and eggs. It could be concluded that FSC is a valuable feedstuff that can provide a good source of energy, protein, amino acids, and macro- and micro-elements for hens' nutrition. The inclusion of up to 10% of FSC in hens diet did not adversely influence egg laying performance, egg quality of both fresh and stored eggs, sensory attributes, and nutritional composition, as well as Se, Zn, and Fe in serum and eggs due to balanced nutrient profile of FSC.

Effects of Traditional Chinese Herbal Feed Additive on Production Performance, Egg Quality, Antioxidant Capacity, Immunity and Intestinal Health of Laying Hens

Chinese herbs have been used as feed additives in animal production. This study investigated the effects of a Chinese herbal feed-additive (TCM, which contained Elsholtzia ciliate, Atractylodes macrocephala, Punica granatum pericarpium, and Cyperus rotundus) on the production performance, egg quality, antioxidant capacity, immunity, and intestinal health of Roman laying hens. A total of 720 28-week-old hens were randomly allotted to three groups with six replicates of forty hens each. The groups were fed a basal diet (CON group), a basal diet with 50 mg/kg zinc bacitracin (ABX group), or a basal diet with 400 mg/kg TCM (TCM group) for 56 days. The results showed that the TCM group increased egg production, egg mass, albumen height, and Haugh unit compared with the CON group (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in egg weight, feed intake, feed conversion rate, and eggshell strength among all three groups (p > 0.05). Compared with the CON group, the TCM group enhanced the activities of glutathione peroxidase, total antioxidant capacity, and superoxide dismutase in serum and liver, and reduced malondialdehyde content (p < 0.05). The TCM also increased the levels of interleukin-2, interferon-γ, immunoglobulin A, immunoglobulin M, and immunoglobulin G, and decreased the levels of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 compared with the CON group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the TCM group increased jejunal goblet cell density and decreased ileal crypt depth and lymphocyte density compared with the CON group (p < 0.05). The results of 16S rRNA demonstrated that the TCM can change the diversity and composition of intestinal microbiota. At the phylum level, the abundance of Bacteroides increased while that of Firmicutes decreased in the TCM group (p > 0.05). At the genus level, the abundance of Lactobacillus, Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, and Phascolarctobacterium increased while that of Bacteroides and unclassified_o__Bacteroidales decreased in the TCM group (p > 0.05). The effects of ABX were weaker than those of the TCM. In conclusion, the TCM has positive effects on production performance and the intestinal health of hens.

Poultry Meat and Eggs as an Alternative Source of n-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Human Nutrition

The beneficial effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) on human health are widely known. Humans are rather inefficient in synthesizing n-3 LC-PUFA; thus, these compounds should be supplemented in the diet. However, most Western human diets have unbalanced n-6/n-3 ratios resulting from eating habits and the fact that fish sources (rich in n-3 LC-PUFA) are not sufficient (worldwide deficit ~347,956 t/y) to meet the world requirements. In this context, it is necessary to find new and sustainable sources of n-3 LC-PUFA. Poultry products can provide humans n-3 LC-PUFA due to physiological characteristics and the wide consumption of meat and eggs. The present work aims to provide a general overview of the main strategies that should be adopted during rearing and postproduction to enrich and preserve n-3 LC-PUFA in poultry products. The strategies include dietary supplementation of α-Linolenic acid (ALA) or n-3 LC-PUFA, or enhancing n-3 LC-PUFA by improving the LA (Linoleic acid)/ALA ratio and antioxidant concentrations. Moreover, factors such as genotype, rearing system, transport, and cooking processes can impact the n-3 LC-PUFA in poultry products. The use of a multifactorial view in the entire production chain allows the relevant enrichment and preservation of n-3 LC-PUFA in poultry products.

Effects of Dietary Indole-3-Acetate Sodium on Laying Performance, Egg Quality, Serum Hormone Levels and Biochemical Parameters of Danzhou Chickens

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of indole-3-acetate sodium (IAA-Na) inclusion in diets on the egg production performance, egg quality, intestinal tissue morphology, serum hormone levels and biochemical parameters of Danzhou chickens to preliminarily explore the efficacy of IAA-Na as a feed additive. A total of 192 Danzhou chickens (50 weeks old) were randomly assigned to 2 groups of 96. The diets for the treatment group consisted of the basal diets, supplemented with IAA-Na (200 mg/kg). The formal feeding trial lasted for four weeks. The results showed that the feed supplemented with IAA-Na not only increased the laying rate (p < 0.05) and egg yolk ratio (0.05 < p < 0.1), but also significantly reduced the feed:egg ratio (p < 0.05). In addition, the dietary supplementation of IAA-Na significantly increased the serum estradiol levels (p < 0.05) and decreased serum alkaline phosphatase activity (p < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the addition of IAA-Na to the diet had no significant effect on the intestinal tissue morphology or serum antioxidant capacity of Danzhou chickens. This study preliminarily provides evidence that dietary IAA-Na can improve laying performance, indicating that IAA-Na is a potentially effective feed additive for laying hens, but further studies are required before arriving at definite conclusions.

Effects of feeding broiler breeder hens a coextruded full-fat flaxseed and pulses mixture without or with multienzyme supplement

The effects of coextruded full-fat flaxseed and pulses (FFF; 1:1 wt/wt) mixture on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) enrichment in egg yolk, hepatic attributes, apparent retention (AR) of components, and ceca metabolites were evaluated in broiler breeder hens. The diets were as follows: 1) corn–soybean control, 2) control diet plus 18% FFF (FFF−), and 3) FFF plus enzyme supplement (FFF+) containing galactanase, protease, mannanase, glucanase, xylanase, amylase, and cellulase activities. Twenty-six-week-old Cobb 500 broiler breeder hens were allocated to 30 identical cages (2 hens/cage) and given 1-week adaptation period. The 3 diets were assigned to 10 replicate cages based on postadaptation BW and fed based on breeder curve for 30 D. Excreta samples were collected from day 24 to 27 for determination of AR of components, and eggs were collected from day 28 to 30 for yolk polyunsaturated fatty acids analyses. On day 30, birds were weighed, killed via cervical dislocation, liver weighed, and stored for fat analyses. Ceca digesta samples were taken for concentration of short-chain fatty acids. Liver and yolk weights as well as total yolk FA were not influenced by diets (P > 0.05). Control birds had lower yolk concentration of α-linolenic acid than birds fed either FFF− or FFF+ (P < 0.01) corresponding to 7.5, 36.8, and 37.3 mg/g for the control, FFF−, and FFF+, respectively. Control birds also exhibited lower yolk concentration of docosahexaenoic acid (P < 0.01). Control birds had higher hepatic concentration of crude fat and apparent retention of dry matter and crude protein compared with either the FFF− or FFF+ birds (P < 0.05). Birds fed FFF- diet had lower ceca digesta concentration of lactic acid than control and FFF+ (P < 0.05) birds. Results showed broiler breeder hens enriched egg yolk with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids without effects on the liver while the supplemental enzyme did not improve the utilization of FFF.

Long term effect of dietary lipid saturation on eggshell quality and bone characteristics of laying hens

This study investigated the long-term effect of dietary fatty acid saturation on eggshell quality and bone characteristics of laying hens at end of lay. Five isoenergetic (3,011.5 kcal AME/kg DM) and isonitrogenous (169 g CP/kg DM) diets were formulated using different lipid sources at a constant 30 g/kg inclusion level. The control, polyunsaturated omega-3 (PUFA n-3), polyunsaturated omega-6 (PUFA n-6), monounsaturated omega-9 (MUFA n-9), and saturated fatty acid (SFA) diets consisted of linseed- and fish oil (50:50 blend), fish oil, sunflower oil, high oleic acid sunflower oil, and tallow, respectively. A total of 200 individually caged Hy-Line Silver-Brown hens (20 wk of age) were randomly allocated to the 5 treatments (n = 40 replicates/treatment) and received the experimental diets for 54 wk. During weeks 58, 62, 66, 70, and 74 of age (end-of-lay period), 20 eggs/treatment per day (n = 140 eggs/treatment per week) were selected for determining eggshell quality traits. At 74 wk of age, 10 birds per treatment (n = 10 birds/treatment) were randomly selected for the determination of bone quality characteristics. Data were statistically analyzed (P < 0.05) using a fully randomized 1-way ANOVA. Dietary treatment had no effect (P > 0.05) on eggshell quality traits. The MUFA n-9 treatment with the highest unsaturated to SFA ratio (UFA: SFA) resulted in a higher (P < 0.05) femur weight (10.34 g) as well as femur- (52.99%) and tibia ash (51.07%) content than the SFA treatment. Also, the PUFA n-3 diet resulted in a higher (P < 0.05) femur weight (10.21 g), femur ash (51.82%), and percentage femur (0.57%) compared to the SFA diet. Results suggested that prolonged feeding of diets varying in FA profile had no negative effect on eggshell quality, whereas UFA: SFA and long-chain n-3 PUFA affected the bone quality (especially the femur) of hens at the end of lay.

Effect of a Combination of Fenugreek Seeds, Linseeds, Garlic and Copper Sulfate on Laying Hens Performances, Egg Physical and Chemical Qualities

Several investigations have suggested that fenugreek seeds may have a hypocholesterolemic activity, and thus be efficient in the treatment of egg yolk cholesterol. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effect of dietary incorporation of 3% of fenugreek seed combined with 3% of linseed, 1% of garlic paste, and 0.078% of copper sulfate on laying performance, egg quality and lipids profile. Forty four, 41 weeks old, Novogen White laying hens received for 42 days 100 g/d of basal diet (control) or experimental diet (CFSGLSCS). With the exception of egg weight, which showed a significant increase for hens fed on CFSGLSCS with 57.99 g compared to 56.34 g for the control group, egg production (90.84% for control compared to 87.89% for experimental diet), egg mass (50.95 g/d for control compared to 50.87 g/d for CFSGLSCS), feed efficiency (1.94 for control compared to 1.98 for CFSGLSCS) were not affected by dietary treatments. The addition of CFSGLSCS reduced (p < 0.05) egg yolk cholesterol by 5.4% and blood cholesterol from 158.42 mg/dL to 122.82 mg/dL for control and CFSGLSCS, respectively. The dietary addition of CFSGLSCS increased (p < 0.05) total lipids from 4.5 g/egg to 5.23 g/egg and didn’t affect (p > 0.05) yolk triglycerides.

Effect of including n-3/ n-6 fatty acid feed sources in diet on fertility and hatchability of broiler breeders and post-hatch performance and carcass parameters of progeny

Objective

The present trial was conducted to determine the influence of different dietary fatty acid (omega-3 and omega-6) sources on reproductive performance of female broiler breeders and growth performance and carcass traits of their progeny.

Methods

Two hundred and twenty, 25 weeks old Ross-308 male (20) and female (200) broiler breeders were used in the experiment for the period of 6 weeks. All birds were randomly divided into four dietary treatments (containing 2% soybean oil, 2% sunflower oil, 2% flaxseed oil, and 2% fish oil) each with five replicates of one male and ten females. Throughout this experiment hatching performance of broiler breeders, progeny growth performance and carcass parameters were recorded.

Results

The results showed that the inclusion of different fatty acid sources in female broiler breeders diet had no significant effects (p>0.05) on number of fertile eggs, post-hatch mortality, and fertility rate. The soybean oil supplemented group had significantly (p<0.05) higher late embryonic mortality compared to other three treatments.

Conclusion

It was concluded that inclusion of 2% of different sources of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (especially 2% flax seed oil) in broiler breeders’ diet can reduce late embryonic mortality. The other reproductive characteristics of parents and growth and carcass characteristics of progeny remained unaltered by dietary sources of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

Effects of extruded flaxseed on layer performance, nutrient retention and yolk fatty acid composition

1. This study was conducted to determine the effects of feeding an extruded flaxseed (EF) on layer performance, apparent total tract nutrient retention (ATTR) and egg yolk fatty acid concentrations. 2. Seventy-two White Leghorn laying hens (58-week-old; three per cage) were randomly allotted to one of four dietary treatments: 0%, 7.5%, 15.0% and 22.5% of EF-supplemented diets for 8 weeks. 3. Supplementation with EF had no effect on feed intake, egg production, feed conversion ratio and egg weight. Egg components (yolk, albumen and shell percentages) were similar among treatments, except that shell percentage was greater for layers fed 22.5% EF than those fed 7.5% and 15% EF. The ATTR of dry matter and organic matter were highest for 0% and 7.5% EF, intermediate for 15% EF and lowest for 22.5% EF. Similar reductions on ATTR of crude protein and nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolisable energy were observed for layers fed 22.5% EF relative to those fed 0% or 7.5% EF. 4. Feeding EF at 7.5%, 15.0% and 22.5% of the diet markedly increased (by 92%, 198% and 271%, respectively) egg yolk concentrations of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and reduced saturated fatty acid and n-6 PUFA concentrations. 5. It was concluded that omega-3 labelled eggs (300 mg/60 g of egg) may be produced with low (7.5% of diet) levels of dietary EF without compromising egg production parameters. However, feeding moderate to high levels of EF (i.e. 15% and 22.5% EF) may reduce total tract nutrient and energy utilisation.

Association Between Arachidonic Acid and Chicken Meat and Egg Flavor, and Their Genetic Regulation

In Japan, the majority of chicken meat is obtained from fast-growing broiler chickens. Because most Japanese chicken breeds have a low meat yield and egg production, many of these breeds are endangered. Recently, the palatability of meat and eggs of native chickens has been reevaluated in the Japanese market. Jidori, which means chicken from the local, is an indigenous local chicken that is more delicious, firmer in texture, and more expensive than the broiler chickens. Most Japanese consumers recognize that the meat of Jidori chicken is richer in flavor than that of the broiler chicken. However, the reason for this rich flavor of the meat of Jidori chicken has not been elucidated. Recently, we found that arachidonic acid (AA) (C20:4n-6), a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is associated with the rich flavor of the meat and eggs of Jidori chicken. The present paper summarizes the discovery of the involvement of AA in the flavor characteristic of the meat and eggs of chicken, and also the genetic regulation of the AA content in the meat and eggs of Jidori chicken.

Interactions between canola meal and flaxseed oil in the diets of White Lohmann hens on fatty acid profile and sensory characteristics of table eggs

The current study was designed to assess the fatty acid composition and sensory attributes of eggs procured from hens consuming diets containing canola meal (CM) and/or flax oil (FO). A total of 96 group-caged White Lohmann hens received 1 of 4 isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets for a period of 4 weeks. Diets were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial design, containing 24% canola meal, 7.5% flax oil, both, or neither (control). All yolk fatty acids were affected by flax oil inclusion, with the exception of stearic acid (SA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). Only SA was affected by CM inclusion. Additionally, significant interactions between CM and FO were observed for linoleic acid (LA) and total omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), with DPA approaching significance (P = 0.069). Trained panelists (n = 8) evaluated 7 aroma ('egg', 'creamy', 'buttery', 'salty', 'sweet', 'barny', and 'oceanic') and 6 flavor ('egg', 'creamy', 'buttery', 'salty', 'brothy', and 'oceanic') attributes of cooked egg product. No significant differences (P > 0.05) in aroma attributes were found between eggs from different dietary treatments. However, egg, creamy, buttery, and oceanic flavors were significantly different between the dietary treatments (P < 0.05). While oceanic flavor significantly increased with inclusion of FO, egg and creamy flavors showed a significant decrease (P < 0.05). Although CM addition alone did not result in significant sensory changes, the pairing of CM and FO resulted in even greater sensory changes than using FO alone, specifically with regard to egg flavor. Results from partial least squares analyses showed a strong association between oceanic flavor and omega-3 PUFA. Oppositely, egg, creamy, and buttery flavors were more correlated with the presence of omega-6 PUFA and palmitic acid. This experiment provides evidence that the interaction between CM and FO in the White Lohmann hen diet results in sensory changes of cooked eggs associated in part with changes in yolk fatty acid content.

Hempseed Products Fed to Hens Effectively Increased n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Total Lipids, Triacylglycerol and Phospholipid of Egg Yolk

Hempseed products represent potential alternative feed ingredients for poultry. However, their usage is not currently approved due to a lack of data to support their safety and efficacy. In this regard, the current study was conducted to assess the impact of dietary concentration of hempseed (HS) products and duration of their feeding to hens on the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) composition of egg yolk lipids. In the current study, 48 Lohmann LSL-Classic hens were individually housed in metabolism cages, in a completely randomized design, and provided one of six diets (wheat-barley-soybean-based) containing either HS (10, 20 and 30 %), hempseed oil (HO; 4.5 and 9.0 %) or no hempseed product (control) over 12 weeks. Increasing alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) intake via increasing dietary hempseed product inclusion, significantly (p < 0.0001) increased the n-3 PUFA contents of yolk total lipid. The values of ALA increased by 12-fold (152 ± 3.56 and 156 ± 2.42 mg/yolk) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by twofold to threefold (41.3 ± 1.57 and 43.6 ± 1.61 mg/yolk) over the control, for the highest levels of HS and HO inclusion, respectively. Increasing levels of hemp products in laying hen diets proved effective in manipulating the fatty acid profile of the total lipid, triacylglycerol (TAG) and total phospholipid (PL) fractions of yolks, enhancing the n-3 fatty acids and reducing the n-6/n-3 ratio. The latter benefit was achieved within 4 weeks of feeding hens either HS- or HO-containing diets.

Flax and flaxseed oil: an ancient medicine & modern functional food

Flaxseed is emerging as an important functional food ingredient because of its rich contents of α-linolenic acid (ALA, omega-3 fatty acid), lignans, and fiber. Flaxseed oil, fibers and flax lignans have potential health benefits such as in reduction of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes, cancer, arthritis, osteoporosis, autoimmune and neurological disorders. Flax protein helps in the prevention and treatment of heart disease and in supporting the immune system. As a functional food ingredient, flax or flaxseed oil has been incorporated into baked foods, juices, milk and dairy products, muffins, dry pasta products, macaroni and meat products. The present review focuses on the evidences of the potential health benefits of flaxseed through human and animals' recent studies and commercial use in various food products.

Fatty Acid Composition and Sensory Characteristics of Eggs Obtained from Hens Fed Flaxseed Oil, Dried Whitebait and/or Fructo-oligosaccharide

This study was conducted to assess the effects of flaxseed oil and dried whitebait as a source of ω-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA), which could be used to produce eggs enriched with ω-3 FA, and of fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS) as a source of prebiotics on performance of hens (commercial Hy-Line Brown laying hens), and FA composition, internal quality, and sensory characteristics of the eggs. Dietary FOS increased egg weight. The amounts of α-linolenic (ALA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA) in the eggs from the hens fed the flaxseed oil alone or flaxseed oil+dried whitebait diets were higher than those of the control. Hedonic scores for off-flavor, fishy flavor, buttery taste and overall acceptability of the eggs from the hens fed the diet containing flaxseed oil+ dried whitebait were lower (p<0.05) than those of the control. Overall acceptability of the eggs from the hens fed the diet containing soybean oil+dried whitebait was lower (p<0.05) than that of the control. However, all the sensory attributes of the eggs from the hens fed the diet containing flaxseed oil, dried whitebait and FOS were not significantly different from those of the control. These results confirmed that flaxseed oil increases the ALA content in the eggs and a combination of flaxseed oil and dried whitebait increases EPA and DHA in the eggs. Of significance was that addition of FOS to the flaxseed oil+dried whitebait diet improves the sensory characteristics of the eggs enriched with ω-3 FA.

Functional and sensory properties of hen eggs with modified fatty acid compositions

Foaming, emulsifying, gelling, and sensory properties of fresh and stored hen eggs fed with a diet supplemented with flax oil (FO), rapeseed oil (RO), fish oil (FISH), and by-product from black currant processing (BC) were investigated. With these diets, the ω6/ω3 fatty acid ratio of eggs varied from 1.5 to 5.8, while the ratio for eggs in the control group was 6.2. Compared to eggs in the control group, FO supplementation in the feed had statistically significant influences on the foaming properties of the fresh eggs. Eggs stored for 21 days lost part of their foaming properties in FISH oil supplemented group, but the foaming properties in all test groups were technically acceptable. The emulsifying properties of eggs in FO and FISH supplemented feeding groups were statistically different compared to control group. In boiled eggs, flax oil and fish oil supplementation induced off flavours in eggs, but no changes between the control group and test groups were found in the sensory properties of mayonnaise preparations. These results suggest that the egg processing industry may produce egg-based products using oil-supplemented eggs without major problems in functional or sensory properties.

The enrichment of hen eggs with omega-3 fatty acids

A study was conducted to determine the omega-3 fatty acid compositions of enriched eggs obtained from hens by feeding flaxseed and fish oil. Laying hens were fed a diet containing fish oil (FOD) (1.5%) or a mixture of flaxseed (10%) and fish oil (FFOD) (1.5%) for 15 and 30 days. Another group was fed commercial diet as a control. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) were not determined in the control group's eggs. However, the EPA level was 0.87% and 0.82% in the FOD group's eggs and 0.49% and 0.55% in the FFOD group's eggs, obtained after a 15- and 30-day feeding period, respectively. Corresponding values for DPA were 0.45% and 0.50% in the FOD group's eggs and 0.41% and 0.44% in the FFOD group's eggs. Docosahexaenoic acid contents of eggs obtained from the FOD group were 4.85% and 4.92% after a 15- and 30-day feeding period, respectively, compared with 3.29% and 3.91% in the FFOD group's eggs and 1.03% in the control group's eggs. The alpha-linolenic acid content of eggs was 0.45% and 0.49% in the FOD group's eggs after a 15- and 30-day feeding period, respectively, and 0.43% in the control group's eggs, whereas it was 3.61% and 4.10%, respectively, in the FFOD group's eggs.

The effect of feeding hemp seed meal to laying hens

Seed of the hemp cultivar Unika-b was cold-pressed to obtain hemp seed meal (HSM) containing 307 g/kg crude protein and 164 g/kg ether extract (60 g/kg linoleic acid, 120 g/kg alpha-linolenic acid, 160 g/kg oleic acid, lesser amounts of palmitic, stearic, and gamma-linolenic acids). For 4 weeks, 102 43-week-old DeKalb Sigma hens were fed on isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets containing 0, 50, 100 or 200 g/kg HSM. Eggs were collected for fatty acid analysis during the fourth week of feeding these diets. No significant differences were found between feed treatments for egg production, feed consumption, feed efficiency, body weight change or egg quality. Increasing dietary inclusion of HSM produced eggs with lower concentrations of palmitic acid and higher concentrations of linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids.

Long-term effects of feeding flaxseed on performance and egg fatty acid composition of brown and white hens

Two hundred fifty-six 18-wk-old Shaver White and ISA-Brown pullets were fed commercial diets containing either 0 or 10% flaxseed in order to study the long-term effects of feeding flaxseed on hen performance and egg production parameters. Performance was monitored over 10 consecutive 28-d periods. Flaxseed was introduced gradually at 28 wk of age and was maintained until hens were 53 wk of age, when flaxseed was gradually eliminated from the diet. Feed intake was less (P < 0.05) for hens fed flaxseed compared to those consuming the control diet. Flax-fed hens were also lighter (P < 0.05) compared to the control birds. Egg production, egg weight, shell weight, albumen height, and shell thickness were not significantly (P > 0.05) different for hens consuming 0 and 10% flaxseed; however, yolk weight was reduced (P < 0.05) in hens fed flaxseed. Both strains of birds fed flaxseed deposited significantly more n-3 fatty acids into their eggs. Sampling of livers at the end of the trial showed that hens fed flaxseed had a higher (P < 0.05) incidence of liver hemorrhages.

Dietary levels of chia: influence on hen weight, egg production and sensory quality, for two strains of hens

1. Laying hens, 225 white and 225 brown, were fed for 90 d to compare a control diet with diets containing 70, 140, 210 and 280 g/kg chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed. 2. Hen weight was not significantly affected by diet; however, manure production was less for the hens fed on chia. 3. Egg weight and production, yolk weight, and yolk percentage were determined at d 0, 30, 43, 58, 72 and 90. 4. A sensory evaluation was conducted on eggs produced during the last week of the trial. 5. No significant differences in egg production were found among treatments for the brown hens. 6. With the 280 g/kg chia diet, the white hens produced fewer and lighter eggs than did the hens fed on the control diet. 7. No significant differences were detected in yolk weight until d 90. 8. On this date the yolks produced by the white hens fed on the 70 g/kg chia diet were significantly lighter in weight, whereas the brown hens produced significantly heavier yolks, compared with the hens fed on the control diet. 9. Yolk weight as a percentage of egg weight was lower for white hens throughout the trial except on d 58 with the 140 g/kg chia diet. Significant differences, however, were detected only with the 70 g/ kg chia diet on d 90 and with the 210 g/kg chia diet on d 58, 72 and 90. 10. No significant differences in taste preference or flavour were found among any of the chia treatments and the control.

Long-term effects of feeding flaxseed-based diets. 1. Egg production parameters, components, and eggshell quality in two strains of laying hens

We used a split-plot design of five diets: control (corn-soy) with 3.8% Ca, 10% flaxseed with 3.8% Ca, 10% flaxseed with 4.5% Ca, 10% flaxseed with 3.8% Ca and 22,000 IU vitamin D3/kg, and 10% flaxseed with 4.5% Ca and 22,000 IU vitamin D3/kg, and two strains of birds, DeKalb Delta (DD) and Hy-Line W-36 (HL), to evaluate long-term effects of flaxseed supplementation on egg production parameters. Each of the five treatments was randomly assigned and replicated six times with five hens per replicate pen from 21 to 57 wk of age. Phase I was from 21 to 39 wk, Phase II was from 40 to 48 wk, and Phase III was from 49 to 57 wk. Feed consumption was significantly (P < 0.04) greater for the hens fed 10% flaxseed diets (100.9 g) when compared to the corn-soy controls (99.3 g). Overall average egg production (P < 0.05) was 87.8, 87.1, 86.0, 87.1, 84.8, for diets 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. Average hen weights during the study were significantly lower for the flaxseed-fed hens (1.559 kg) compared to the controls (1.616 kg). Egg weight was significantly affected by diet during Phase III with heavier eggs from flaxseed fed hens (62.6 g) compared to controls (61.44 g), but overall egg weight was not significantly affected. Average egg mass was not significantly affected by dietary treatments, but DD hens had a decrease in egg mass with Ca supplementation (Diet 2 vs. Diet 3), whereas HL egg mass increased with Ca supplementation. Percentage albumen had a significant strain effect and strain by diet interactions. Overall, significantly less albumen (P < 0.001) was produced by HL (59.4%) compared to DD (61.3%). Supplemental Ca increased albumen percentage in DD (interaction effect P < 0.03) and decreased albumen percentage in the HL strain. Flaxseed supplementation significantly increased albumen percentage (P < 0.02) when compared to the corn-soy control, 60.5 and 59.9%, respectively. An interaction effect (P < 0.01) was noted for percentage wet yolk, in which increasing Ca decreased wet yolk percentage in DD but increased yolk percentage in HL. Wet yolk percentage was also significantly (P < 0.001) less in DD (25.0%) when compared to HL (26.9%). Addition of flaxseed decreased yolk percent when compared to controls (P < 0.03) during Phase II. Ca supplementation significantly (P < 0.03) increased yolk solids in both strains. Grams of yolk solids per egg were affected by flaxseed supplementation (P < 0.06). Flaxseed eggs contained 7.18 g per egg yolk solids compared to 7.3 g in corn-soy control group. Wet shell percentage was significantly lower in the flaxseed diets (12.4%) when compared to the controls (12.6%). Addition of flaxseed to the diet of laying hens did not have any adverse effects on egg production parameters, but flaxseed supplementation can significantly alter weight of yolk solids and yolk and albumen percentages.

Studies on the metabolizable energy content of ground full-fat flaxseed fed in mash, pellet, and crumbled diets assayed with birds of different ages

Four experiments were carried out to determine the AMEn of ground flaxseed in chickens of different ages and to study the effect of feeding flaxseed in pelleted or crumbled diets on flaxseed AMEn. A corn-soybean meal basal diet was prepared, in which the energy-yielding ingredients were substituted with ground flaxseed at 5, 10, 15, or 20%. Experiments 1, 2, and 3 consisted of these five dietary treatments replicated six times using 9-d-, 6-wk-, and 79-wk-old birds, respectively. A total collection procedure was used to measure diet AMEn, and linear regression analyses were used to calculate the AMEn value of flaxseed for birds at different ages. Experiment 4 involved birds fed either a basal or a 10% ground flaxseed diet prepared as mash, pellets, or crumbles. The flaxseed AMEn values obtained with 9-d- and 6-wk-old chickens were 2,118 and 2,055 kcal/kg, respectively. These values contrast with those of Experiments 3 and 4, in which mature roosters were fed mash diets with AMEn values of 3,560 and 3,654 kcal/kg, respectively. In Experiment 4, a significant improvement in flaxseed AMEn was observed when diets were pelleted or crumbled (4,578 and 4,277 kcal/kg, respectively). We concluded that the difference in AMEn of flaxseed observed in young birds vs. that found in mature birds was likely due to a greater tolerance of the latter to flaxseed, with less evidence of diarrhea. Feeding flaxseed in pellet or crumbled diets can significantly increase AMEn value.

Dietary levels of chia: influence on yolk cholesterol, lipid content and fatty acid composition for two strains of hens

Four hundred fifty H&N laying hens, half white and half brown, were fed for 90 d to compare a control diet to diets containing 7, 14, 21, and 28% chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed. Cholesterol content, total fat content, and fatty acid composition of the yolks were determined 30, 43, 58, 72, and 90 d from the start of the trial. Significantly less cholesterol was found in the egg yolks produced by the hens fed the diets with 14, 21, and 28% chia compared with the control, except at Day 90. Palmitic fatty acid content and total saturated fatty acid content decreased as chia percentage increased and as the trial progressed. Total omega-3 fatty acid content was significantly greater (P < 0.05) for both strains for all chia diets compared with the control diet. Total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of the yolks from the chia diets was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than from the control diet. Generally, total PUFA content tended to be highest in the yolks of the white hens.

Effects of nutritionally balanced and stabilized flaxmeal-based diets on Eimeria tenella infections in chickens

Twenty Sex Sal cockerels were randomly assigned to each of eight groups; each of four nutritionally balanced diets were fed to two groups from 1 d through 4 wk of age. These diets contained 0, 2, 5, or 10% stabilized flaxseed meal that provided a calculated 0, 0.45, 1.11, or 2.22% n-3 fatty acids, primarily linolenic acid. At 3 wk of age, one group of chickens from each diet treatment was infected with Eimeria tenella and was housed in separate but similar conditions to uninfected control chickens. At 6 d postinfection, chickens were weighed, bled, killed, and scored for lesions. No level of dietary flaxmeal tested provided protection against weight gain depression, increased feed conversion ratios, or lesions. We concluded that these diets did not protect against E. tenella infection because levels of linolenic acid were not high enough, and the oxidative potentials were well suppressed by vitamin E and other stabilizers present.

Organoleptic evaluation of eggs produced by laying hens fed diets containing graded levels of flaxseed and vitamin E

Eighteen-week-old laying hens were fed diets containing 0, 10, or 20% ground flaxseed and 10 or 100 IU vitamin E/kg diet, in a factorial arrangement. When birds were 60 wk of age, eggs were collected from various treatments and used in taste panel studies. All studies involved freshly boiled eggs. In Experiment 1, four separate panels were conducted to obtain information on egg aroma, egg flavor, presence of any off-flavor, and overall acceptability of the egg. Pooled data showed a very significant difference among panelists for all attributes tested (P < 0.01) and off-flavors were detected in eggs from hens fed 10 and 20% flaxseed with 10 mg vitamin E/kg. In Experiment 2 panelists were asked to evaluate egg aroma, yolk flavor, and overall acceptability in eggs from birds fed the lowest level of vitamin E with 0 or 10% flaxseed, and birds fed 20% flaxseed and 10 or 100 mg vitamin E/kg. The highest ratings for egg aroma, yolk flavor, and overall acceptability were for the control eggs. There was a significant reduction in overall acceptability as flaxseed concentration increased (P < 0.05) and an interesting and significant (P < 0.05) decline in overall acceptability for birds fed 100 vs 10 IU vitamin E/kg diet in eggs for birds fed 20% flaxseed. In a third study, there was an indication of preference for eggs from birds not fed flaxseed, when the diet contained 10, rather than 100 IU vitamin E/kg diet. These data suggest that high (> 10%) levels of flaxseed used in the bird's diet will result in some decrease in overall egg acceptability as assessed by aroma and flavor. These effects seem to be accentuated by using high levels of vitamin E in the bird's diet.