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Zhang Y, Gantt SE, Keister EF, Elder H, Kolodziej G, Aguilar C, Studivan MS, Williams DE, Kemp DW, Manzello DP, Enochs IC, Kenkel CD. Performance of Orbicella faveolata larval cohorts does not align with previously observed thermal tolerance of adult source populations. Glob Chang Biol 2023; 29:6591-6605. [PMID: 37846617 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Orbicella faveolata, commonly known as the mountainous star coral, is a dominant reef-building species in the Caribbean, but populations have suffered sharp declines since the 1980s due to repeated bleaching and disease-driven mortality. Prior research has shown that inshore adult O. faveolata populations in the Florida Keys are able to maintain high coral cover and recover from bleaching faster than their offshore counterparts. However, whether this origin-specific variation in thermal resistance is heritable remains unclear. To address this knowledge gap, we produced purebred and hybrid larval crosses from O. faveolata gametes collected at two distinct reefs in the Upper Florida Keys, a nearshore site (Cheeca Rocks, CR) and an offshore site (Horseshoe Reef, HR), in two different years (2019, 2021). We then subjected these aposymbiotic larvae to severe (36°C) and moderate (32°C) heat challenges to quantify their thermal tolerance. Contrary to our expectation based on patterns of adult thermal tolerance, HR purebred larvae survived better and exhibited gene expression profiles that were less driven by stress response under elevated temperature compared to purebred CR and hybrid larvae. One potential explanation could be the compromised reproductive output of CR adult colonies due to repeated summer bleaching events in 2018 and 2019, as gametes originating from CR in 2019 contained less storage lipids than those from HR. These findings provide an important counter-example to the current selective breeding paradigm, that more tolerant parents will yield more tolerant offspring, and highlight the importance of adopting a holistic approach when evaluating larval quality for conservation and restoration purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingqi Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Shelby E Gantt
- Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Elise F Keister
- Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Holland Elder
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Graham Kolodziej
- University of Miami, Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Miami, Florida, USA
- Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems Division, NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Catalina Aguilar
- University of Miami, Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Miami, Florida, USA
- Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems Division, NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Michael S Studivan
- University of Miami, Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Miami, Florida, USA
- Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems Division, NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Dana E Williams
- Population and Ecosystem Monitoring Division, NOAA Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Dustin W Kemp
- Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Derek P Manzello
- Coral Reef Watch, Satellite Oceanography and Climatology Division, Center for Satellite Applications and Research, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Ian C Enochs
- Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems Division, NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Carly D Kenkel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Kemp DW, Hoadley KD, Lewis AM, Wham DC, Smith RT, Warner ME, LaJeunesse TC. Thermotolerant coral-algal mutualisms maintain high rates of nutrient transfer while exposed to heat stress. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231403. [PMID: 37727091 PMCID: PMC10509592 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Symbiotic mutualisms are essential to ecosystems and numerous species across the tree of life. For reef-building corals, the benefits of their association with endosymbiotic dinoflagellates differ within and across taxa, and nutrient exchange between these partners is influenced by environmental conditions. Furthermore, it is widely assumed that corals associated with symbionts in the genus Durusdinium tolerate high thermal stress at the expense of lower nutrient exchange to support coral growth. We traced both inorganic carbon (H13CO3-) and nitrate (15NO3-) uptake by divergent symbiont species and quantified nutrient transfer to the host coral under normal temperatures as well as in colonies exposed to high thermal stress. Colonies representative of diverse coral taxa associated with Durusdinium trenchii or Cladocopium spp. exhibited similar nutrient exchange under ambient conditions. By contrast, heat-exposed colonies with D. trenchii experienced less physiological stress than conspecifics with Cladocopium spp. while high carbon assimilation and nutrient transfer to the host was maintained. This discovery differs from the prevailing notion that these mutualisms inevitably suffer trade-offs in physiological performance. These findings emphasize that many host-symbiont combinations adapted to high-temperature equatorial environments are high-functioning mutualisms; and why their increased prevalence is likely to be important to the future productivity and stability of coral reef ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin W. Kemp
- Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL, USA
| | | | - Allison M. Lewis
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Drew C. Wham
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Robin T. Smith
- Center for Marine and Environmental Studies, University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, VI, USA
| | - Mark E. Warner
- School of Marine Science and Policy, University of Delaware, Lewes, DE, USA
| | - Todd C. LaJeunesse
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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3
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Butler CC, Turnham KE, Lewis AM, Nitschke MR, Warner ME, Kemp DW, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Fitt WK, van Oppen MJH, LaJeunesse TC. Formal recognition of host-generalist species of dinoflagellate (Cladocopium, Symbiodiniaceae) mutualistic with Indo-Pacific reef corals. J Phycol 2023; 59:698-711. [PMID: 37126002 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The existence of widespread species with the capacity to endure diverse, or variable, environments are of importance to ecological and genetic research, and conservation. Such "ecological generalists" are more likely to have key adaptations that allow them to better tolerate the physiological challenges of rapid climate change. Reef-building corals are dependent on endosymbiotic dinoflagellates (Family: Symbiodiniaceae) for their survival and growth. While these symbionts are biologically diverse, certain genetic types appear to have broad geographic distributions and are mutualistic with various host species from multiple genera and families in the order Scleractinia that must acquire their symbionts through horizontal transmission. Despite the considerable ecological importance of putative host-generalist symbionts, they lack formal species descriptions. In this study, we used molecular, ecological, and morphological evidence to verify the existence of five new host-generalist species in the symbiodiniacean genus Cladocopium. Their geographic distribution and prevalence among host communities corresponds to prevailing environmental conditions at both regional and local scales. The influence that each species has on host physiology may partially explain regional differences in thermal sensitivities among coral communities. The potential increased prevalence of a generalist species that endures environmental instability is a consequential ecological response to warming oceans. Large-scale shifts in symbiont dominance could ensure reef coral persistence and productivity in the near term. Ultimately, these formal designations should advance scientific communication and generate informed research questions on the physiology and ecology of coral-dinoflagellate mutualisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb C Butler
- Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kira E Turnham
- Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Allison M Lewis
- Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkely, California, USA
| | - Matthew R Nitschke
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | | - Madeleine J H van Oppen
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Sutherland KP, Griffin A, Park A, Porter JW, Heron SF, Eakin CM, Berry B, Kemp DW, Kemp KM, Lipp EK, Wares JP. Twenty-year record of white pox disease in the Florida Keys: importance of environmental risk factors as drivers of coral health. Dis Aquat Organ 2023; 154:15-31. [PMID: 37260163 DOI: 10.3354/dao03727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Declining coral populations worldwide place a special premium on identifying risks and drivers that precipitate these declines. Understanding the relationship between disease outbreaks and their drivers can help to anticipate when the risk of a disease pandemic is high. Populations of the iconic branching Caribbean elkhorn coral Acropora palmata have collapsed in recent decades, in part due to white pox disease (WPX). To assess the role that biotic and abiotic factors play in modulating coral disease, we present a predictive model for WPX in A. palmata using 20 yr of disease surveys from the Florida Keys plus environmental information collected simultaneously in situ and via satellite. We found that colony size was the most influential predictor for WPX occurrence, with larger colonies being at higher risk. Water quality parameters of dissolved oxygen saturation, total organic carbon, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and salinity were implicated in WPX likelihood. Both low and high wind speeds were identified as important environmental drivers of WPX. While high temperature has been identified as an important cause of coral mortality in both bleaching and disease scenarios, our model indicates that the relative influence of HotSpot (positive summertime temperature anomaly) was low and actually inversely related to WPX risk. The predictive model developed here can contribute to enabling targeted strategic management actions and disease surveillance, enabling managers to treat the disease or mitigate disease drivers, thereby suppressing the disease and supporting the persistence of corals in an era of myriad threats.
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Davies SW, Gamache MH, Howe-Kerr LI, Kriefall NG, Baker AC, Banaszak AT, Bay LK, Bellantuono AJ, Bhattacharya D, Chan CX, Claar DC, Coffroth MA, Cunning R, Davy SK, del Campo J, Díaz-Almeyda EM, Frommlet JC, Fuess LE, González-Pech RA, Goulet TL, Hoadley KD, Howells EJ, Hume BCC, Kemp DW, Kenkel CD, Kitchen SA, LaJeunesse TC, Lin S, McIlroy SE, McMinds R, Nitschke MR, Oakley CA, Peixoto RS, Prada C, Putnam HM, Quigley K, Reich HG, Reimer JD, Rodriguez-Lanetty M, Rosales SM, Saad OS, Sampayo EM, Santos SR, Shoguchi E, Smith EG, Stat M, Stephens TG, Strader ME, Suggett DJ, Swain TD, Tran C, Traylor-Knowles N, Voolstra CR, Warner ME, Weis VM, Wright RM, Xiang T, Yamashita H, Ziegler M, Correa AMS, Parkinson JE. Building consensus around the assessment and interpretation of Symbiodiniaceae diversity. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15023. [PMID: 37151292 PMCID: PMC10162043 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Within microeukaryotes, genetic variation and functional variation sometimes accumulate more quickly than morphological differences. To understand the evolutionary history and ecology of such lineages, it is key to examine diversity at multiple levels of organization. In the dinoflagellate family Symbiodiniaceae, which can form endosymbioses with cnidarians (e.g., corals, octocorals, sea anemones, jellyfish), other marine invertebrates (e.g., sponges, molluscs, flatworms), and protists (e.g., foraminifera), molecular data have been used extensively over the past three decades to describe phenotypes and to make evolutionary and ecological inferences. Despite advances in Symbiodiniaceae genomics, a lack of consensus among researchers with respect to interpreting genetic data has slowed progress in the field and acted as a barrier to reconciling observations. Here, we identify key challenges regarding the assessment and interpretation of Symbiodiniaceae genetic diversity across three levels: species, populations, and communities. We summarize areas of agreement and highlight techniques and approaches that are broadly accepted. In areas where debate remains, we identify unresolved issues and discuss technologies and approaches that can help to fill knowledge gaps related to genetic and phenotypic diversity. We also discuss ways to stimulate progress, in particular by fostering a more inclusive and collaborative research community. We hope that this perspective will inspire and accelerate coral reef science by serving as a resource to those designing experiments, publishing research, and applying for funding related to Symbiodiniaceae and their symbiotic partnerships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah W. Davies
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Matthew H. Gamache
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | | | | | - Andrew C. Baker
- Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Anastazia T. Banaszak
- Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | - Line Kolind Bay
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia
| | - Anthony J. Bellantuono
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Debashish Bhattacharya
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States
| | - Cheong Xin Chan
- Australian Centre for Ecogenomics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Danielle C. Claar
- Nearshore Habitat Program, Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA, USA
| | | | - Ross Cunning
- Daniel P. Haerther Center for Conservation and Research, John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Simon K. Davy
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Javier del Campo
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC - Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | | | - Jörg C. Frommlet
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Lauren E. Fuess
- Department of Biology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, United States
| | - Raúl A. González-Pech
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Tamar L. Goulet
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS, United States
| | - Kenneth D. Hoadley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama—Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| | - Emily J. Howells
- National Marine Science Centre, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Dustin W. Kemp
- Department of Biology, University of Alabama—Birmingham, Birmingham, Al, United States
| | - Carly D. Kenkel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Sheila A. Kitchen
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States
| | - Todd C. LaJeunesse
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Senjie Lin
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, United States
| | - Shelby E. McIlroy
- Swire Institute of Marine Science, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Ryan McMinds
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | | | - Clinton A. Oakley
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Raquel S. Peixoto
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Division of Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Carlos Prada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
| | - Hollie M. Putnam
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
| | | | - Hannah G. Reich
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
| | - James Davis Reimer
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | | | - Stephanie M. Rosales
- The Cooperative Institute For Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Osama S. Saad
- Department of Biological Oceanography, Red Sea University, Port-Sudan, Sudan
| | - Eugenia M. Sampayo
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Scott R. Santos
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Eiichi Shoguchi
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Edward G. Smith
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Michael Stat
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Timothy G. Stephens
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States
| | - Marie E. Strader
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - David J. Suggett
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Division of Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Timothy D. Swain
- Department of Marine and Environmental Science, Nova Southeastern University, Dania Beach, FL, United States
| | - Cawa Tran
- Department of Biology, University of San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Nikki Traylor-Knowles
- Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | | | - Mark E. Warner
- School of Marine Science and Policy, University of Delaware, Lewes, DE, United States
| | - Virginia M. Weis
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Rachel M. Wright
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Tingting Xiang
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Hiroshi Yamashita
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Maren Ziegler
- Department of Animal Ecology & Systematics, Justus Liebig University Giessen (Germany), Giessen, Germany
| | | | - John Everett Parkinson
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
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Hoadley KD, Pettay DT, Lewis A, Wham D, Grasso C, Smith R, Kemp DW, LaJeunesse T, Warner ME. Different functional traits among closely related algal symbionts dictate stress endurance for vital Indo-Pacific reef-building corals. Glob Chang Biol 2021; 27:5295-5309. [PMID: 34255912 PMCID: PMC9291761 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Reef-building corals in the genus Porites are one of the most important constituents of Indo-Pacific reefs. Many species within this genus tolerate abnormally warm water and exhibit high specificity for particular kinds of endosymbiotic dinoflagellates that cope with thermal stress better than those living in other corals. Still, during extreme ocean heating, some Porites exhibit differences in their stress tolerance. While corals have different physiological qualities, it remains unknown whether the stability and performance of these mutualisms is influenced by the physiology and genetic relatedness of their symbionts. We investigated two ubiquitous Pacific reef corals, Porites rus and Porites cylindrica, from warmer inshore and cooler offshore reef systems in Palau. While these corals harbored a similar kind of symbiont in the genus Cladocopium (within the ITS2 C15 subclade), rapidly evolving genetic markers revealed evolutionarily diverged lineages corresponding to each Porites species living in each reef habitat. Furthermore, these closely related Cladocopium lineages were differentiated by their densities in host tissues, cell volume, chlorophyll concentration, gross photosynthesis, and photoprotective pathways. When assessed using several physiological proxies, these previously undifferentiated symbionts contrasted in their tolerance to thermal stress. Symbionts within P. cylindrica were relatively unaffected by exposure to 32℃ for 14 days, whereas P. rus colonies lost substantial numbers of photochemically compromised symbionts. Heating reduced the ability of the offshore symbiont associated with P. rus to translocate carbon to the coral. By contrast, high temperatures enhanced symbiont carbon assimilation and delivery to the coral skeleton of inshore P. cylindrica. This study indicates that large physiological differences exist even among closely related symbionts, with significant implications for thermal susceptibility among reef-building Porites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth D. Hoadley
- School of Marine Science and PolicyUniversity of DelawareLewesUK
- Biological SciencesUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosaAlabamaUSA
- Dauphin Island Sea LabDauphin IslandAlabamaUSA
| | - Daniel. T. Pettay
- School of Marine Science and PolicyUniversity of DelawareLewesUK
- Present address:
University of South CarolinaBeaufortSouth CarolinaUSA
| | - Allison Lewis
- Department of BiologyPennsylvania State Institutes of Energy and the EnvironmentUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
- Present address:
National Science FoundationSilver SpringsMarylandUSA
| | - Drew Wham
- Department of BiologyPennsylvania State Institutes of Energy and the EnvironmentUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Chris Grasso
- School of Marine Science and PolicyUniversity of DelawareLewesUK
| | - Robin Smith
- Science Under SailWellington ParkQLDAustralia
- Present address:
The Nature ConservancySt. CroixUS Virgin IslandsUSA
| | - Dustin W. Kemp
- Department of BiologyUniversity of AlabamaBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Todd LaJeunesse
- Department of BiologyPennsylvania State Institutes of Energy and the EnvironmentUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Mark E. Warner
- School of Marine Science and PolicyUniversity of DelawareLewesUK
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Reich HG, Tu WC, Rodriguez IB, Chou Y, Keister EF, Kemp DW, LaJeunesse TC, Ho TY. Iron Availability Modulates the Response of Endosymbiotic Dinoflagellates to Heat Stress. J Phycol 2021; 57:3-13. [PMID: 32996595 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Warming and nutrient limitation are stressors known to weaken the health of microalgae. In situations of stress, access to energy reserves can minimize physiological damage. Because of its widespread requirements in biochemical processes, iron is an important trace metal, especially for photosynthetic organisms. Lowered iron availability in oceans experiencing rising temperatures may contribute to the thermal sensitivity of reef-building corals, which rely on mutualisms with dinoflagellates to survive. To test the influence of iron concentration on thermal sensitivity, the physiological responses of cultured symbiotic dinoflagellates (genus Breviolum; family Symbiodiniaceae) were evaluated when exposed to increasing temperatures (26 to 30°C) and iron concentrations ranging from replete (500 pM Fe') to limiting (50 pM Fe') under a diurnal light cycle with saturating radiance. Declines in photosynthetic efficiency at elevated temperatures indicated sensitivity to heat stress. Furthermore, five times the amount of iron was needed to reach exponential growth during heat stress (50 pM Fe' at 26-28°C vs. 250 pM Fe' at 30°C). In treatments where exponential growth was reached, Breviolum psygmophilum grew faster than B.minutum, possibly due to greater cellular contents of iron and other trace metals. The metal composition of B.psygmophilum shifted only at the highest temperature (30°C), whereas changes in B.minutum were observed at lower temperatures (28°C). The influence of iron availability in modulating each alga's response to thermal stress suggests the importance of trace metals to the health of coral-algal mutualisms. Ultimately, a greater ability to acquire scarce metals may improve the tolerance of corals to physiological stressors and contribute to the differences in performance associated with hosting one symbiont species over another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah G Reich
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Wan-Chen Tu
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Irene B Rodriguez
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yalan Chou
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Elise F Keister
- Department of Biology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, 35294, USA
| | - Dustin W Kemp
- Department of Biology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, 35294, USA
| | - Todd C LaJeunesse
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Tung-Yuan Ho
- Research Center for Environmental Changes, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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8
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Allgeier JE, Andskog MA, Hensel E, Appaldo R, Layman C, Kemp DW. Rewiring coral: Anthropogenic nutrients shift diverse coral-symbiont nutrient and carbon interactions toward symbiotic algal dominance. Glob Chang Biol 2020; 26:5588-5601. [PMID: 32710518 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Improving coral reef conservation requires heightened understanding of the mechanisms by which coral cope with changing environmental conditions to maintain optimal health. We used a long-term (10 month) in situ experiment with two phylogenetically diverse scleractinians (Acropora palmata and Porites porites) to test how coral-symbiotic algal interactions changed under real-world conditions that were a priori expected to be beneficial (fish-mediated nutrients) and to be harmful, but non-lethal, for coral (fish + anthropogenic nutrients). Analyzing nine response variables of nutrient stoichiometry and stable isotopes per coral fragment, we found that nutrients from fish positively affected coral growth, and moderate doses of anthropogenic nutrients had no additional effects. While growing, coral maintained homeostasis in their nutrient pools, showing tolerance to the different nutrient regimes. Nonetheless, structural equation models revealed more nuanced relationships, showing that anthropogenic nutrients reduced the diversity of coral-symbiotic algal interactions and caused nutrient and carbon flow to be dominated by the symbiont. Our findings show that nutrient and carbon pathways are fundamentally "rewired" under anthropogenic nutrient regimes in ways that could increase corals' susceptibility to further stressors. We hypothesize that our experiment captured coral in a previously unrecognized transition state between mutualism and antagonism. These findings highlight a notable parallel between how anthropogenic nutrients promote symbiont dominance with the holobiont, and how they promote macroalgal dominance at the coral reef scale. Our findings suggest more realistic experimental conditions, including studies across gradients of anthropogenic nutrient enrichment as well as the incorporation of varied nutrient and energy pathways, may facilitate conservation efforts to mitigate coral loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob E Allgeier
- Department of Ecology, and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mona A Andskog
- Department of Ecology, and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Enie Hensel
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Richard Appaldo
- Department of Ecology, and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Craig Layman
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Dustin W Kemp
- Department of Biology, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Durante MK, Baums IB, Williams DE, Vohsen S, Kemp DW. What drives phenotypic divergence among coral clonemates of Acropora palmata? Mol Ecol 2019; 28:3208-3224. [PMID: 31282031 PMCID: PMC6852117 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary rescue of populations depends on their ability to produce phenotypic variation that is heritable and adaptive. DNA mutations are the best understood mechanisms to create phenotypic variation, but other, less well-studied mechanisms exist. Marine benthic foundation species provide opportunities to study these mechanisms because many are dominated by isogenic stands produced through asexual reproduction. For example, Caribbean acroporid corals are long lived and reproduce asexually via breakage of branches. Fragmentation is often the dominant mode of local population maintenance. Thus, large genets with many ramets (colonies) are common. Here, we observed phenotypic variation in stress responses within genets following the coral bleaching events in 2014 and 2015 caused by high water temperatures. This was not due to genetic variation in their symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium "fitti") because each genet of this coral species typically harbours a single strain of S. "fitti". Characterization of the microbiome via 16S tag sequencing correlated the abundance of only two microbiome members (Tepidiphilus, Endozoicomonas) with a bleaching response. Epigenetic changes were significantly correlated with the host's genetic background, the location of the sampled polyps within the colonies (e.g., branch vs. base of colony), and differences in the colonies' condition during the bleaching event. We conclude that long-term microenvironmental differences led to changes in the way the ramets methylated their genomes, contributing to the differential bleaching response. However, most of the variation in differential bleaching response among clonemates of Acropora palmata remains unexplained. This research provides novel data and hypotheses to help understand intragenet variability in stress phenotypes of sessile marine species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dana E. Williams
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSoutheast Fisheries Science CenterMiamiFLUSA
| | - Sam Vohsen
- The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA
| | - Dustin W. Kemp
- The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA
- Present address:
University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamALUSA
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10
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Sutherland KP, Berry B, Park A, Kemp DW, Kemp KM, Lipp EK, Porter JW. Shifting white pox aetiologies affecting Acropora palmata in the Florida Keys, 1994-2014. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:rstb.2015.0205. [PMID: 26880837 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose 'the moving target hypothesis' to describe the aetiology of a contemporary coral disease that differs from that of its historical disease state. Hitting the target with coral disease aetiology is a complex pursuit that requires understanding of host and environment, and may lack a single pathogen solution. White pox disease (WPX) affects the Caribbean coral Acropora palmata. Acroporid serratiosis is a form of WPX for which the bacterial pathogen (Serratia marcescens) has been established. We used long-term (1994-2014) photographic monitoring to evaluate historical and contemporary epizootiology and aetiology of WPX affecting A. palmata at eight reefs in the Florida Keys. Ranges of WPX prevalence over time (0-71.4%) were comparable for the duration of the 20-year study. Whole colony mortality and disease severity were high in historical (1994-2004), and low in contemporary (2008-2014), outbreaks of WPX. Acroporid serratiosis was diagnosed for some historical (1999, 2003) and contemporary (2012, 2013) outbreaks, but this form of WPX was not confirmed for all WPX cases. Our results serve as a context for considering aetiology as a moving target for WPX and other coral diseases for which pathogens are established and/or candidate pathogens are identified. Coral aetiology investigations completed to date suggest that changes in pathogen, host and/or environment alter the disease state and complicate diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brett Berry
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Andrew Park
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Dustin W Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Keri M Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Erin K Lipp
- Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - James W Porter
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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11
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Kemp DW, Colella MA, Bartlett LA, Ruzicka RR, Porter JW, Fitt WK. Life after cold death: reef coral and coral reef responses to the 2010 cold water anomaly in the Florida Keys. Ecosphere 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dustin W. Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia AthensGeorgia USA
| | - Michael A. Colella
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission Fish and Wildlife Research Institute St. PetersburgFlorida USA
| | - Lucy A. Bartlett
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission Fish and Wildlife Research Institute St. PetersburgFlorida USA
| | - Rob R. Ruzicka
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission Fish and Wildlife Research Institute St. PetersburgFlorida USA
| | - James W. Porter
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia AthensGeorgia USA
| | - William K. Fitt
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia AthensGeorgia USA
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12
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Kemp DW, Rivers AR, Kemp KM, Lipp EK, Porter JW, Wares JP. Spatial Homogeneity of Bacterial Communities Associated with the Surface Mucus Layer of the Reef-Building Coral Acropora palmata. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143790. [PMID: 26659364 PMCID: PMC4682823 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral surface mucus layer (SML) microbiota are critical components of the coral holobiont and play important roles in nutrient cycling and defense against pathogens. We sequenced 16S rRNA amplicons to examine the structure of the SML microbiome within and between colonies of the threatened Caribbean reef-building coral Acropora palmata in the Florida Keys. Samples were taken from three spatially distinct colony regions—uppermost (high irradiance), underside (low irradiance), and the colony base—representing microhabitats that vary in irradiance and water flow. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) values of coral SML bacteria communities were greater than surrounding seawater and lower than adjacent sediment. Bacterial diversity and community composition was consistent among the three microhabitats. Cyanobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Alphaproteobacteria, and Proteobacteria, respectively were the most abundant phyla represented in the samples. This is the first time spatial variability of the surface mucus layer of A. palmata has been studied. Homogeneity in the microbiome of A. palmata contrasts with SML heterogeneity found in other Caribbean corals. These findings suggest that, during non-stressful conditions, host regulation of SML microbiota may override diverse physiochemical influences induced by the topographical complexity of A. palmata. Documenting the spatial distribution of SML microbes is essential to understanding the functional roles these microorganisms play in coral health and adaptability to environmental perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin W. Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Adam R. Rivers
- US Department of Energy, Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA 94598, United States of America
| | - Keri M. Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, United States of America
| | - Erin K. Lipp
- Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, United States of America
| | - James W. Porter
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, United States of America
| | - John P. Wares
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, United States of America
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13
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Thornhill DJ, Rotjan RD, Todd BD, Chilcoat GC, Iglesias-Prieto R, Kemp DW, LaJeunesse TC, Reynolds JM, Schmidt GW, Shannon T, Warner ME, Fitt WK. A connection between colony biomass and death in Caribbean reef-building corals. PLoS One 2011; 6:e29535. [PMID: 22216307 PMCID: PMC3245285 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased sea-surface temperatures linked to warming climate threaten coral reef ecosystems globally. To better understand how corals and their endosymbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium spp.) respond to environmental change, tissue biomass and Symbiodinium density of seven coral species were measured on various reefs approximately every four months for up to thirteen years in the Upper Florida Keys, United States (1994–2007), eleven years in the Exuma Cays, Bahamas (1995–2006), and four years in Puerto Morelos, Mexico (2003–2007). For six out of seven coral species, tissue biomass correlated with Symbiodinium density. Within a particular coral species, tissue biomasses and Symbiodinium densities varied regionally according to the following trends: Mexico≥Florida Keys≥Bahamas. Average tissue biomasses and symbiont cell densities were generally higher in shallow habitats (1–4 m) compared to deeper-dwelling conspecifics (12–15 m). Most colonies that were sampled displayed seasonal fluctuations in biomass and endosymbiont density related to annual temperature variations. During the bleaching episodes of 1998 and 2005, five out of seven species that were exposed to unusually high temperatures exhibited significant decreases in symbiotic algae that, in certain cases, preceded further decreases in tissue biomass. Following bleaching, Montastraea spp. colonies with low relative biomass levels died, whereas colonies with higher biomass levels survived. Bleaching- or disease-associated mortality was also observed in Acropora cervicornis colonies; compared to A. palmata, all A. cervicornis colonies experienced low biomass values. Such patterns suggest that Montastraea spp. and possibly other coral species with relatively low biomass experience increased susceptibility to death following bleaching or other stressors than do conspecifics with higher tissue biomass levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Thornhill
- Department of Field Conservation, Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America, and Department of Biology, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DT); (WF)
| | - Randi D. Rotjan
- Edgerton Research Laboratory, New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Brian D. Todd
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Geoff C. Chilcoat
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Roberto Iglesias-Prieto
- Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Cancun, Mexico
| | - Dustin W. Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Todd C. LaJeunesse
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | | | - Gregory W. Schmidt
- Department of Field Conservation, Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America, and Department of Biology, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, United States of America
- Edgerton Research Laboratory, New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Cancun, Mexico
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of Delaware, Lewes, Delaware, United States of America
| | - Thomas Shannon
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Mark E. Warner
- College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of Delaware, Lewes, Delaware, United States of America
| | - William K. Fitt
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DT); (WF)
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14
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Thornhill DJ, Kemp DW, Bruns BU, Fitt WK, Schmidt GW. CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN COLD TOLERANCE AND TEMPERATE BIOGEOGRAPHY IN A WESTERN ATLANTIC SYMBIODINIUM (DINOPHYTA) LINEAGE(1). J Phycol 2008; 44:1126-35. [PMID: 27041709 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00567.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Many corals form obligate symbioses with photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium Freudenthal (1962). These symbionts vary genotypically, with their geographical distribution and abundance dependent upon host specificity and tolerance to temperature and light variation. Despite the importance of these mutualistic relationships, the physiology and ecology of Symbiodinium spp. remain poorly characterized. Here, we report that rDNA internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) defined Symbiodinium type B2 associates with the cnidarian hosts Astrangia poculata and Oculina arbuscula from northerly habitats of the western Atlantic. Using pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry, we compared maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII of type B2 to that of common tropical Symbiodinium lineages (types A3, B1, and C2) under cold-stress conditions. Symbiont cultures were gradually cooled from 26°C to 10°C to simulate seasonal temperature declines. Cold stress decreased the maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII and likely the photosynthetic potential for all Symbiodinium clades tested. Cultures were then maintained at 10°C for a 2-week period and gradually returned to initial conditions. Subsequent to low temperature stress, only type B2 displayed rapid and full recovery of PSII photochemical efficiency, whereas other symbiont phylotypes remained nonfunctional. These findings indicate that the distribution and abundance of Symbiodinium spp., and by extension their cnidarian hosts, in temperate climates correspond significantly with the photosynthetic cold tolerance of these symbiotic algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Thornhill
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA Department of Biological Sciences, 101 Rouse Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - Dustin W Kemp
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA Department of Biological Sciences, 101 Rouse Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - Brigitte U Bruns
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA Department of Biological Sciences, 101 Rouse Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - William K Fitt
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA Department of Biological Sciences, 101 Rouse Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - Gregory W Schmidt
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA Department of Biological Sciences, 101 Rouse Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USAOdum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USADepartment of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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