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Foreman R, Miedzybrodzka EL, Eiríksson FF, Thorsteinsdóttir M, Bannon C, Wheller R, Reimann F, Gribble FM, Kay RG. Optimized LC-MS/MS Method for the Detection of ppCCK(21-44): A Surrogate to Monitor Human Cholecystokinin Secretion. J Proteome Res 2023; 22:2950-2958. [PMID: 37591880 PMCID: PMC10476265 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.3c00272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) is secreted postprandially from duodenal enteroendocrine cells and circulates in the low picomolar range. Detection of this digestion and appetite-regulating hormone currently relies on the use of immunoassays, many of which suffer from insufficient sensitivity in the physiological range and cross-reactivity problems with gastrin, which circulates at higher plasma concentrations. As an alternative to existing techniques, a liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry-based method was developed to measure CCK-derived peptides in cell culture supernatants. The method was initially applied to organoid studies and was capable of detecting both CCK8 and an N-terminal peptide fragment (prepro) ppCCK(21-44) in supernatants following stimulation. Extraction optimization was performed using statistical modeling software, enabling a quantitative LC-MS/MS method for ppCCK(21-44) capable of detecting this peptide in the low pM range in human plasma and secretion buffer solutions. Plasma samples from healthy individuals receiving a standardized meal (Ensure) after an overnight fast were analyzed; however, the method only had sensitivity to detect ppCCK(21-44). Secretion studies employing human intestinal organoids and meal studies in healthy volunteers confirmed that ppCCK(21-44) is a suitable surrogate analyte for measuring the release of CCK in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel
E. Foreman
- Wellcome-MRC
Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, Level
4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, U.K.
- Peptidomics
and Proteomics Core Facility, Level 4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic
Science, Addenbrooke’s
Hospital, Cambridge CB2
0QQ, U.K.
| | - Emily L. Miedzybrodzka
- Wellcome-MRC
Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, Level
4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, U.K.
| | | | | | - Christopher Bannon
- Wellcome-MRC
Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, Level
4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, U.K.
| | - Robert Wheller
- Drug
Development Solutions, Part of Alliance Pharma Ltd., Fordham CB7 5WW, U.K.
| | - Frank Reimann
- Wellcome-MRC
Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, Level
4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, U.K.
| | - Fiona M. Gribble
- Wellcome-MRC
Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, Level
4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, U.K.
| | - Richard G. Kay
- Wellcome-MRC
Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, Level
4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, U.K.
- Peptidomics
and Proteomics Core Facility, Level 4, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic
Science, Addenbrooke’s
Hospital, Cambridge CB2
0QQ, U.K.
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2
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Calderon RM, Smith CA, Miedzybrodzka EL, Silvaroli JA, Golczak M, Gribble FM, Reimann F, Blaner WS. Intestinal Enteroendocrine Cell Signaling: Retinol-binding Protein 2 and Retinoid Actions. Endocrinology 2022; 163:bqac064. [PMID: 35552670 PMCID: PMC9162388 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqac064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Retinol-binding protein 2-deficient (Rbp2-/-) mice are more prone to obesity, glucose intolerance, and hepatic steatosis than matched controls. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) blood levels are dysregulated in these mice. The present studies provide new insights into these observations. Single cell transcriptomic and immunohistochemical studies establish that RBP2 is highly expressed in enteroendocrine cells (EECs) that produce incretins, either GIP or glucagon-like peptide-1. EECs also express an enzyme needed for all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) synthesis, aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family member A1, and retinoic acid receptor-alpha, which mediates ATRA-dependent transcription. Total and GIP-positive EECs are significantly lower in Rbp2-/- mice. The plasma transport protein for retinol, retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) is also expressed in EECs and is cosecreted with GIP upon stimulation. Collectively, our data support direct roles for RBP2 and ATRA in cellular processes that give rise to GIP-producing EECs and roles for RBP2 and RBP4 within EECs that facilitate hormone storage and secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossana M Calderon
- Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Christopher A Smith
- Institute of Metabolic Sciences and MRC-Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB0 0QQ 44106, UK
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Institute of Metabolic Sciences and MRC-Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB0 0QQ 44106, UK
| | - Josie A Silvaroli
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Marcin Golczak
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Institute of Metabolic Sciences and MRC-Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB0 0QQ 44106, UK
| | - Frank Reimann
- Institute of Metabolic Sciences and MRC-Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB0 0QQ 44106, UK
| | - William S Blaner
- Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Miedzybrodzka EL, Gribble FM, Reimann F. Targeting the Enteroendocrine System for Treatment of Obesity. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2022; 274:487-513. [PMID: 35419620 DOI: 10.1007/164_2022_583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mimetics of the anorexigenic gut hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) were originally developed as insulinotropic anti-diabetic drugs but also evoke significant weight loss, leading to their recent approval as obesity therapeutics. Co-activation of receptors for GLP-1 and other gut hormones which reduce food intake - peptide YY (PYY3-36), cholecystokinin (CCK) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) - is now being explored clinically to enhance efficacy. An alternative approach involves pharmacologically stimulating endogenous secretion of these hormones from enteroendocrine cells (EECs) to recapitulate the metabolic consequences of bariatric surgery, where highly elevated postprandial levels of GLP-1 and PYY3-36 are thought to contribute to improved glycaemia and weight loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Frank Reimann
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
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4
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Miedzybrodzka EL, Foreman RE, Lu VB, George AL, Smith CA, Larraufie P, Kay RG, Goldspink DA, Reimann F, Gribble FM. Stimulation of motilin secretion by bile, free fatty acids, and acidification in human duodenal organoids. Mol Metab 2021; 54:101356. [PMID: 34662713 PMCID: PMC8590067 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Motilin is a proximal small intestinal hormone with roles in gastrointestinal motility, gallbladder emptying, and hunger initiation. In vivo motilin release is stimulated by fats, bile, and duodenal acidification but the underlying molecular mechanisms of motilin secretion remain poorly understood. This study aimed to establish the key signaling pathways involved in the regulation of secretion from human motilin-expressing M-cells. METHODS Human duodenal organoids were CRISPR-Cas9 modified to express the fluorescent protein Venus or the Ca2+ sensor GCaMP7s under control of the endogenous motilin promoter. This enabled the identification and purification of M-cells for bulk RNA sequencing, peptidomics, calcium imaging, and electrophysiology. Motilin secretion from 2D organoid-derived cultures was measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), in parallel with other gut hormones. RESULTS Human duodenal M-cells synthesize active forms of motilin and acyl-ghrelin in organoid culture, and also co-express cholecystokinin (CCK). Activation of the bile acid receptor GPBAR1 stimulated a 3.4-fold increase in motilin secretion and increased action potential firing. Agonists of the long-chain fatty acid receptor FFA1 and monoacylglycerol receptor GPR119 stimulated secretion by 2.4-fold and 1.5-fold, respectively. Acidification (pH 5.0) was a potent stimulus of M-cell calcium elevation and electrical activity, an effect attributable to acid-sensing ion channels, and a modest inducer of motilin release. CONCLUSIONS This study presents the first in-depth transcriptomic and functional characterization of human duodenal motilin-expressing cells. We identify several receptors important for the postprandial and interdigestive regulation of motilin release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Rachel E Foreman
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Van B Lu
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Amy L George
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Christopher A Smith
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Pierre Larraufie
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Richard G Kay
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Deborah A Goldspink
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Frank Reimann
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK.
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5
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Goldspink DA, Lu VB, Miedzybrodzka EL, Smith CA, Foreman RE, Billing LJ, Kay RG, Reimann F, Gribble FM. Labeling and Characterization of Human GLP-1-Secreting L-cells in Primary Ileal Organoid Culture. Cell Rep 2021; 31:107833. [PMID: 32610134 PMCID: PMC7342002 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) from intestinal L-cells stimulates insulin secretion and reduces appetite after food ingestion, and it is the basis for drugs against type-2 diabetes and obesity. Drugs targeting L- and other enteroendocrine cells are under development, with the aim to mimic endocrine effects of gastric bypass surgery, but they are difficult to develop without human L-cell models. Human ileal organoids, engineered by CRISPR-Cas9, express the fluorescent protein Venus in the proglucagon locus, enabling maintenance of live, identifiable human L-cells in culture. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)-purified organoid-derived L-cells, analyzed by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), express hormones, receptors, and ion channels, largely typical of their murine counterparts. L-cells are electrically active and exhibit membrane depolarization and calcium elevations in response to G-protein-coupled receptor ligands. Organoids secrete hormones in response to glucose and other stimuli. The ability to label and maintain human L-cells in organoid culture opens avenues to explore L-cell function and develop drugs targeting the human enteroendocrine system. Enteroendocrine differentiation and labeling in human small intestinal organoids RNA-seq and peptide LC-MS profiling of purified human GLP-1-secreting L-cells Human ileal L-cells are electrically active and respond to nutritional stimuli
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah A Goldspink
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Van B Lu
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Christopher A Smith
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Rachel E Foreman
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Lawrence J Billing
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Richard G Kay
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Frank Reimann
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Wellcome Trust - MRC Institute of Metabolic Science Metabolic Research Laboratories, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
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6
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Lewis JE, Miedzybrodzka EL, Foreman RE, Woodward ORM, Kay RG, Goldspink DA, Gribble FM, Reimann F. Selective stimulation of colonic L cells improves metabolic outcomes in mice. Diabetologia 2020; 63:1396-1407. [PMID: 32342115 PMCID: PMC7286941 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-020-05149-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Insulin-like peptide-5 (INSL5) is found only in distal colonic L cells, which co-express glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY). GLP-1 is a well-known insulin secretagogue, and GLP-1 and PYY are anorexigenic, whereas INSL5 is considered orexigenic. We aimed to clarify the metabolic impact of selective stimulation of distal colonic L cells in mice. METHODS Insl5 promoter-driven expression of Gq-coupled Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADD) was employed to activate distal colonic L cells (LdistalDq). IPGTT and food intake were assessed with and without DREADD activation. RESULTS LdistalDq cell stimulation with clozapine N-oxide (CNO; 0.3 mg/kg i.p.) increased plasma GLP-1 and PYY (2.67- and 3.31-fold, respectively); INSL5 was not measurable in plasma but was co-secreted with GLP-1 and PYY in vitro. IPGTT (2 g/kg body weight) revealed significantly improved glucose tolerance following CNO injection. CNO-treated mice also exhibited reduced food intake and body weight after 24 h, and increased defecation, the latter being sensitive to 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor 3 inhibition. Pre-treatment with a GLP1 receptor-blocking antibody neutralised the CNO-dependent improvement in glucose tolerance but did not affect the reduction in food intake, and an independent group of animals pair-fed to the CNO-treatment group demonstrated attenuated weight loss. Pre-treatment with JNJ-31020028, a neuropeptide Y receptor type 2 antagonist, abolished the CNO-dependent effect on food intake. Assessment of whole body physiology in metabolic cages revealed LdistalDq cell stimulation increased energy expenditure and increased activity. Acute CNO-induced food intake and glucose homeostasis outcomes were maintained after 2 weeks on a high-fat diet. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that selective distal colonic L cell stimulation has beneficial metabolic outcomes. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jo E Lewis
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK
| | - Rachel E Foreman
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK
| | - Orla R M Woodward
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK
| | - Richard G Kay
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK
| | - Deborah A Goldspink
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK.
| | - Frank Reimann
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science-Metabolic Research Laboratories, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 OQQ, UK.
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7
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Coll AP, Chen M, Taskar P, Rimmington D, Patel S, Tadross JA, Cimino I, Yang M, Welsh P, Virtue S, Goldspink DA, Miedzybrodzka EL, Konopka AR, Esponda RR, Huang JTJ, Tung YCL, Rodriguez-Cuenca S, Tomaz RA, Harding HP, Melvin A, Yeo GSH, Preiss D, Vidal-Puig A, Vallier L, Nair KS, Wareham NJ, Ron D, Gribble FM, Reimann F, Sattar N, Savage DB, Allan BB, O'Rahilly S. Publisher Correction: GDF15 mediates the effects of metformin on body weight and energy balance. Nature 2020; 578:E24. [PMID: 32051582 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2031-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
An Amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony P Coll
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Michael Chen
- NGM Biopharmaceuticals, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Debra Rimmington
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Satish Patel
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - John A Tadross
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Irene Cimino
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ming Yang
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Paul Welsh
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Samuel Virtue
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Deborah A Goldspink
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam R Konopka
- Division of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey T-J Huang
- Division of Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Y C Loraine Tung
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sergio Rodriguez-Cuenca
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rute A Tomaz
- Wellcome -Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Heather P Harding
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Audrey Melvin
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Giles S H Yeo
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David Preiss
- MRC Population Health Research Unit, Clinical Trial Service Unit and Epidemiological Studies Unit, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Antonio Vidal-Puig
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ludovic Vallier
- Wellcome -Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Nicholas J Wareham
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David Ron
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Frank Reimann
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Naveed Sattar
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David B Savage
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Stephen O'Rahilly
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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8
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Coll AP, Chen M, Taskar P, Rimmington D, Patel S, Tadross JA, Cimino I, Yang M, Welsh P, Virtue S, Goldspink DA, Miedzybrodzka EL, Konopka AR, Esponda RR, Huang JTJ, Tung YCL, Rodriguez-Cuenca S, Tomaz RA, Harding HP, Melvin A, Yeo GSH, Preiss D, Vidal-Puig A, Vallier L, Nair KS, Wareham NJ, Ron D, Gribble FM, Reimann F, Sattar N, Savage DB, Allan BB, O'Rahilly S. GDF15 mediates the effects of metformin on body weight and energy balance. Nature 2019; 578:444-448. [PMID: 31875646 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1911-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Metformin, the world's most prescribed anti-diabetic drug, is also effective in preventing type 2 diabetes in people at high risk1,2. More than 60% of this effect is attributable to the ability of metformin to lower body weight in a sustained manner3. The molecular mechanisms by which metformin lowers body weight are unknown. Here we show-in two independent randomized controlled clinical trials-that metformin increases circulating levels of the peptide hormone growth/differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), which has been shown to reduce food intake and lower body weight through a brain-stem-restricted receptor. In wild-type mice, oral metformin increased circulating GDF15, with GDF15 expression increasing predominantly in the distal intestine and the kidney. Metformin prevented weight gain in response to a high-fat diet in wild-type mice but not in mice lacking GDF15 or its receptor GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL). In obese mice on a high-fat diet, the effects of metformin to reduce body weight were reversed by a GFRAL-antagonist antibody. Metformin had effects on both energy intake and energy expenditure that were dependent on GDF15, but retained its ability to lower circulating glucose levels in the absence of GDF15 activity. In summary, metformin elevates circulating levels of GDF15, which is necessary to obtain its beneficial effects on energy balance and body weight, major contributors to its action as a chemopreventive agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony P Coll
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Michael Chen
- NGM Biopharmaceuticals, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Debra Rimmington
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Satish Patel
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - John A Tadross
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Irene Cimino
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ming Yang
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Paul Welsh
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Samuel Virtue
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Deborah A Goldspink
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam R Konopka
- Division of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey T-J Huang
- Division of Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Y C Loraine Tung
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sergio Rodriguez-Cuenca
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rute A Tomaz
- Wellcome -Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Heather P Harding
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Audrey Melvin
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Giles S H Yeo
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David Preiss
- MRC Population Health Research Unit, Clinical Trial Service Unit and Epidemiological Studies Unit, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Antonio Vidal-Puig
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ludovic Vallier
- Wellcome -Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Nicholas J Wareham
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David Ron
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Frank Reimann
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Naveed Sattar
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David B Savage
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Stephen O'Rahilly
- MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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9
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Lee E, Miedzybrodzka EL, Zhang X, Hatano R, Miyamoto J, Kimura I, Fujimoto K, Uematsu S, Rodriguez-Cuenca S, Vidal-Puig A, Gribble FM, Reimann F, Miki T. Diet-Induced Obese Mice and Leptin-Deficient Lepob/ob Mice Exhibit Increased Circulating GIP Levels Produced by Different Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184448. [PMID: 31509948 PMCID: PMC6769670 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
As glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) possesses pro-adipogenic action, the suppression of the GIP hypersecretion seen in obesity might represent a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of obesity. However, the mechanism of GIP hypersecretion remains largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated GIP secretion in two mouse models of obesity: High-fat diet-induced obese (DIO) mice and leptin-deficient Lepob/ob mice. In DIO mice, plasma GIP was increased along with an increase in GIP mRNA expression in the lower small intestine. Despite the robust alteration in the gut microbiome in DIO mice, co-administration of maltose and the α-glucosidase inhibitor (α-GI) miglitol induced the microbiome-mediated suppression of GIP secretion. The plasma GIP levels of Lepob/ob mice were also elevated and were suppressed by fat transplantation. The GIP mRNA expression in fat tissue was not increased in Lepob/ob mice, while the expression of an interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) was increased. Fat transplantation suppressed the expression of IL-1Ra. The plasma IL-1Ra levels were positively correlated with the plasma GIP levels. Accordingly, although circulating GIP levels are increased in both DIO and Lepob/ob mice, the underlying mechanisms differ, and the anti-obesity actions of α-GIs and leptin sensitizers may be mediated partly by the suppression of GIP secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunyoung Lee
- Department of Medical Physiology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Xilin Zhang
- Department of Medical Physiology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Ryo Hatano
- Department of Medical Physiology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
| | - Junki Miyamoto
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Ikuo Kimura
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Kosuke Fujimoto
- Department of Immunology and Genomics, Osaka City University School of Medicine, Osaka 545-8585, Japan.
- Division of Innate Immune Regulation, International Research and Development Center for Mucosal Vaccines, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku 108-8639, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Uematsu
- Department of Immunology and Genomics, Osaka City University School of Medicine, Osaka 545-8585, Japan.
- Division of Innate Immune Regulation, International Research and Development Center for Mucosal Vaccines, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku 108-8639, Japan.
| | - Sergio Rodriguez-Cuenca
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Antonio Vidal-Puig
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Frank Reimann
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Takashi Miki
- Department of Medical Physiology, Chiba University, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
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10
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Roberts GP, Larraufie P, Richards P, Kay RG, Galvin SG, Miedzybrodzka EL, Leiter A, Li HJ, Glass LL, Ma MKL, Lam B, Yeo GSH, Scharfmann R, Chiarugi D, Hardwick RH, Reimann F, Gribble FM. Comparison of Human and Murine Enteroendocrine Cells by Transcriptomic and Peptidomic Profiling. Diabetes 2019; 68:1062-1072. [PMID: 30733330 PMCID: PMC6477899 DOI: 10.2337/db18-0883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Enteroendocrine cells (EECs) produce hormones such as glucagon-like peptide 1 and peptide YY that regulate food absorption, insulin secretion, and appetite. Based on the success of glucagon-like peptide 1-based therapies for type 2 diabetes and obesity, EECs are themselves the focus of drug discovery programs to enhance gut hormone secretion. The aim of this study was to identify the transcriptome and peptidome of human EECs and to provide a cross-species comparison between humans and mice. By RNA sequencing of human EECs purified by flow cytometry after cell fixation and staining, we present a first transcriptomic analysis of human EEC populations and demonstrate a strong correlation with murine counterparts. RNA sequencing was deep enough to enable identification of low-abundance transcripts such as G-protein-coupled receptors and ion channels, revealing expression in human EECs of G-protein-coupled receptors previously found to play roles in postprandial nutrient detection. With liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, we profiled the gradients of peptide hormones along the human and mouse gut, including their sequences and posttranslational modifications. The transcriptomic and peptidomic profiles of human and mouse EECs and cross-species comparison will be valuable tools for drug discovery programs and for understanding human metabolism and the endocrine impacts of bariatric surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey P Roberts
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
- Cambridge Oesophago-Gastric Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Pierre Larraufie
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Paul Richards
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
- INSERM U1016, Institut Cochin, Université Paris-Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Richard G Kay
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Sam G Galvin
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Andrew Leiter
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA
| | - H Joyce Li
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA
| | - Leslie L Glass
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Marcella K L Ma
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Brian Lam
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Giles S H Yeo
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Raphaël Scharfmann
- INSERM U1016, Institut Cochin, Université Paris-Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Davide Chiarugi
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Richard H Hardwick
- Cambridge Oesophago-Gastric Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, U.K
| | - Frank Reimann
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K.
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K.
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11
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Patel S, Alvarez-Guaita A, Melvin A, Rimmington D, Dattilo A, Miedzybrodzka EL, Cimino I, Maurin AC, Roberts GP, Meek CL, Virtue S, Sparks LM, Parsons SA, Redman LM, Bray GA, Liou AP, Woods RM, Parry SA, Jeppesen PB, Kolnes AJ, Harding HP, Ron D, Vidal-Puig A, Reimann F, Gribble FM, Hulston CJ, Farooqi IS, Fafournoux P, Smith SR, Jensen J, Breen D, Wu Z, Zhang BB, Coll AP, Savage DB, O'Rahilly S. GDF15 Provides an Endocrine Signal of Nutritional Stress in Mice and Humans. Cell Metab 2019; 29:707-718.e8. [PMID: 30639358 PMCID: PMC6408327 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
GDF15 is an established biomarker of cellular stress. The fact that it signals via a specific hindbrain receptor, GFRAL, and that mice lacking GDF15 manifest diet-induced obesity suggest that GDF15 may play a physiological role in energy balance. We performed experiments in humans, mice, and cells to determine if and how nutritional perturbations modify GDF15 expression. Circulating GDF15 levels manifest very modest changes in response to moderate caloric surpluses or deficits in mice or humans, differentiating it from classical intestinally derived satiety hormones and leptin. However, GDF15 levels do increase following sustained high-fat feeding or dietary amino acid imbalance in mice. We demonstrate that GDF15 expression is regulated by the integrated stress response and is induced in selected tissues in mice in these settings. Finally, we show that pharmacological GDF15 administration to mice can trigger conditioned taste aversion, suggesting that GDF15 may induce an aversive response to nutritional stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish Patel
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Anna Alvarez-Guaita
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Audrey Melvin
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Debra Rimmington
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Alessia Dattilo
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Emily L Miedzybrodzka
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Irene Cimino
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Anne-Catherine Maurin
- INRA, Unité de Nutrition Humaine, Université Clermont Auvergne, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Geoffrey P Roberts
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Claire L Meek
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Samuel Virtue
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Lauren M Sparks
- Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Florida Hospital, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Stephanie A Parsons
- Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Florida Hospital, Orlando, FL, USA
| | | | - George A Bray
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Alice P Liou
- Internal Medicine Research Unit, Pfizer Global R&D, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Rachel M Woods
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Sion A Parry
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Per B Jeppesen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anders J Kolnes
- Section of Specialized Endocrinology, Department of Endocrinology, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway
| | - Heather P Harding
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK; Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Cambridge University, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - David Ron
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK; Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Cambridge University, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Antonio Vidal-Puig
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Frank Reimann
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Fiona M Gribble
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Carl J Hulston
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
| | - I Sadaf Farooqi
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Pierre Fafournoux
- INRA, Unité de Nutrition Humaine, Université Clermont Auvergne, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Steven R Smith
- Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Florida Hospital, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Jorgen Jensen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Danna Breen
- Internal Medicine Research Unit, Pfizer Global R&D, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Zhidan Wu
- Internal Medicine Research Unit, Pfizer Global R&D, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bei B Zhang
- Internal Medicine Research Unit, Pfizer Global R&D, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Anthony P Coll
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - David B Savage
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Stephen O'Rahilly
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.
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