1
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Charaev I, Bandurin DA, Bollinger AT, Phinney IY, Drozdov I, Colangelo M, Butters BA, Taniguchi T, Watanabe K, He X, Medeiros O, Božović I, Jarillo-Herrero P, Berggren KK. Single-photon detection using high-temperature superconductors. Nat Nanotechnol 2023; 18:343-349. [PMID: 36941357 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-023-01325-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The detection of individual quanta of light is important for quantum communication, fluorescence lifetime imaging, remote sensing and more. Due to their high detection efficiency, exceptional signal-to-noise ratio and fast recovery times, superconducting-nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) have become a critical component in these applications. However, the operation of conventional SNSPDs requires costly cryocoolers. Here we report the fabrication of two types of high-temperature superconducting nanowires. We observe linear scaling of the photon count rate on the radiation power at the telecommunications wavelength of 1.5 μm and thereby reveal single-photon operation. SNSPDs made from thin flakes of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ exhibit a single-photon response up to 25 K, and for SNSPDs from La1.55Sr0.45CuO4/La2CuO4 bilayer films, this response is observed up to 8 K. While the underlying detection mechanism is not fully understood yet, our work expands the family of materials for SNSPD technology beyond the liquid helium temperature limit and suggests that even higher operation temperatures may be reached using other high-temperature superconductors.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Charaev
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - D A Bandurin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| | | | - I Y Phinney
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - I Drozdov
- Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA
| | - M Colangelo
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - B A Butters
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - T Taniguchi
- International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics, National Institute of Material Science, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - K Watanabe
- Research Center for Functional Materials, National Institute of Material Science, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - X He
- Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - O Medeiros
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - I Božović
- Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - K K Berggren
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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2
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Agarwal A, Simonaitis J, Goyal VK, Berggren KK. Secondary electron count imaging in SEM. Ultramicroscopy 2023; 245:113662. [PMID: 36521266 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2022.113662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a versatile technique used to image samples at the nanoscale. Conventional imaging by this technique relies on finding the average intensity of the signal generated on a detector by secondary electrons (SEs) emitted from the sample and is subject to noise due to variations in the voltage signal from the detector. This noise can result in degradation of the SEM image quality for a given imaging dose. SE count imaging, which uses the direct count of SEs detected from the sample instead of the average signal intensity, would overcome this limitation and lead to improvement in SEM image quality. In this paper, we implement an SE count imaging scheme by synchronously outcoupling the detector and beam scan signals from the microscope and using custom code to count detected SEs. We demonstrate a ∼30% increase in the image signal-to-noise-ratio due to SE counting compared to conventional imaging. The only external hardware requirement for this imaging scheme is an oscilloscope fast enough to accurately sample the detector signal for SE counting, making the scheme easily implementable on any SEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Agarwal
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States of America.
| | - John Simonaitis
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States of America
| | - Vivek K Goyal
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, United States of America
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States of America
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3
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Lin CW, Huang S, Colangelo M, Chen C, Wong FNC, He Y, Berggren KK, Belcher AM. Surface Plasmon Enhanced Upconversion Fluorescence in Short-Wave Infrared for In Vivo Imaging of Ovarian Cancer. ACS Nano 2022; 16:12930-12940. [PMID: 35849731 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c05301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Short-wave infrared (SWIR; 850-1700 nm) upconversion fluorescence enables "autofluorescence-free" imaging with minimal tissue scattering, yet it is rarely explored due to the lack of strongly emissive SWIR upconversion fluorophores. In this work, we apply SWIR upconversion fluorescence for in vivo imaging with exceptional image contrast. Gold nanorods (AuNRs) are used to enhance the SWIR upconversion emission of small organic dyes, forming a AuNR-dye nanocomposite (NC). A maximal enhancement factor of ∼1320, contributed by both excitation and radiative decay rate enhancement, is achieved by varying the dye-to-AuNR ratio. In addition, the upconversion emission intensity of both free dyes and AuNR-dye NCs depends linearly on the excitation power, indicating that the upconversion emission mechanism remains unchanged upon enhancement, and it involves one-photon absorption. Moreover, the SWIR upconversion emission shows a significantly higher signal contrast than downconversion emission in the same emission window in a nonscattering medium. Finally, we apply the surface plasmon enhanced SWIR upconversion fluorescence for in vivo imaging of ovarian cancer, demonstrating high image contrast and low required dosage due to the suppressed autofluorescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Wei Lin
- The Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Shengnan Huang
- The Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Marco Colangelo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Changchen Chen
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Franco N C Wong
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yanpu He
- The Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Angela M Belcher
- The Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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4
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Colangelo M, Walter AB, Korzh BA, Schmidt E, Bumble B, Lita AE, Beyer AD, Allmaras JP, Briggs RM, Kozorezov AG, Wollman EE, Shaw MD, Berggren KK. Large-Area Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors for Operation at Wavelengths up to 7.4 μm. Nano Lett 2022; 22:5667-5673. [PMID: 35848767 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c05012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The optimization of superconducting thin-films has pushed the sensitivity of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) to the mid-infrared (mid-IR). Earlier demonstrations have shown that straight tungsten silicide nanowires can achieve unity internal detection efficiency (IDE) up to λ = 10 μm. For a high system detection efficiency (SDE), the active area needs to be increased, but material nonuniformity and nanofabrication-induced constrictions make mid-IR large-area meanders challenging to yield. In this work, we improve the sensitivity of superconducting materials and optimize a high-resolution nanofabrication process to demonstrate large-area SNSPDs with unity IDE at 7.4 μm. Our approach yields large-area meanders down to 50 nm width, with average line-width roughness below 10%, and with a lower impact from constrictions compared to previous demonstrations. Our methods pave the way to high-efficiency SNSPDs in the mid-IR band with potential impacts on astronomy, imaging, and physical chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Colangelo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Alexander B Walter
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Boris A Korzh
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Ekkehart Schmidt
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Bruce Bumble
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Adriana E Lita
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Andrew D Beyer
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Jason P Allmaras
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Ryan M Briggs
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | | | - Emma E Wollman
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Matthew D Shaw
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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5
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Prentiss M, Chu A, Berggren KK. Finding the infectious dose for COVID-19 by applying an airborne-transmission model to superspreader events. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265816. [PMID: 35679278 PMCID: PMC9182663 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We probed the transmission of COVID-19 by applying an airborne transmission model to five well-documented case studies—a Washington state church choir, a Korean call center, a Korean exercise class, and two different Chinese bus trips. For all events the likely index patients were pre-symptomatic or mildly symptomatic, which is when infective patients are most likely to interact with large groups of people. Applying the model to those events yields results that suggest the following: (1) transmission was airborne; (2) superspreading events do not require an index patient with an unusually high viral load; (3) the viral loads for all of the index patients were of the same order of magnitude and consistent with experimentally measured values for patients at the onset of symptoms, even though viral loads across the population vary by a factor of >108. In particular we used a Wells-Riley exposure model to calculate q, the total average number of infectious quanta inhaled by a person at the event. Given the q value for each event, the simple airborne transmission model was used to determined Sq, the rate at which the index patient exhaled infectious quanta and N0, the characteristic number of COVID-19 virions needed to induce infection. Despite the uncertainties in the values of some parameters of the superspreading events, all five events yielded (N0∼300–2,000 virions), which is similar to published values for influenza. Finally, this work describes the conditions under which similar methods can provide actionable information on the transmission of other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Prentiss
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Arthur Chu
- QVT Family Office, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Karl K. Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States of America
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6
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Chiles J, Charaev I, Lasenby R, Baryakhtar M, Huang J, Roshko A, Burton G, Colangelo M, Van Tilburg K, Arvanitaki A, Nam SW, Berggren KK. New Constraints on Dark Photon Dark Matter with Superconducting Nanowire Detectors in an Optical Haloscope. Phys Rev Lett 2022; 128:231802. [PMID: 35749181 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.231802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Uncovering the nature of dark matter is one of the most important goals of particle physics. Light bosonic particles, such as the dark photon, are well-motivated candidates: they are generally long-lived, weakly interacting, and naturally produced in the early universe. In this work, we report on Light A^{'} Multilayer Periodic Optical SNSPD Target, a proof-of-concept experiment searching for dark photon dark matter in the eV mass range, via coherent absorption in a multilayer dielectric haloscope. Using a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD), we achieve efficient photon detection with a dark count rate of ∼6×10^{-6} counts/s. We find no evidence for dark photon dark matter in the mass range of ∼0.7-0.8 eV with kinetic mixing ε≳10^{-12}, improving existing limits in ε by up to a factor of 2. With future improvements to SNSPDs, our architecture could probe significant new parameter space for dark photon and axion dark matter in the meV to 10 eV mass range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff Chiles
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - Ilya Charaev
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- University of Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Robert Lasenby
- Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Masha Baryakhtar
- Department of Physics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Junwu Huang
- Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada
| | - Alexana Roshko
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - George Burton
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - Marco Colangelo
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Ken Van Tilburg
- New York University CCPP, New York, New York 10003, United States
- Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Asimina Arvanitaki
- Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada
| | - Sae Woo Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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7
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Liu J, Dona K, Hoshino G, Knirck S, Kurinsky N, Malaker M, Miller DW, Sonnenschein A, Awida MH, Barry PS, Berggren KK, Bowring D, Carosi G, Chang C, Chou A, Khatiwada R, Lewis S, Li J, Nam SW, Noroozian O, Zhou TX. Broadband Solenoidal Haloscope for Terahertz Axion Detection. Phys Rev Lett 2022; 128:131801. [PMID: 35426699 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.131801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We introduce the Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection (BREAD) conceptual design and science program. This haloscope plans to search for bosonic dark matter across the [10^{-3},1] eV ([0.24, 240] THz) mass range. BREAD proposes a cylindrical metal barrel to convert dark matter into photons, which a novel parabolic reflector design focuses onto a photosensor. This unique geometry enables enclosure in standard cryostats and high-field solenoids, overcoming limitations of current dish antennas. A pilot 0.7 m^{2} barrel experiment planned at Fermilab is projected to surpass existing dark photon coupling constraints by over a decade with one-day runtime. Axion sensitivity requires <10^{-20} W/sqrt[Hz] sensor noise equivalent power with a 10 T solenoid and 10 m^{2} barrel. We project BREAD sensitivity for various sensor technologies and discuss future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Liu
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
- Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Kristin Dona
- Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Gabe Hoshino
- Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - Stefan Knirck
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - Noah Kurinsky
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
- Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Matthew Malaker
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - David W Miller
- Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
- Enrico Fermi Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | | | - Mohamed H Awida
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - Peter S Barry
- Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
- Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Daniel Bowring
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - Gianpaolo Carosi
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551, USA
| | - Clarence Chang
- Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
- Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Aaron Chou
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - Rakshya Khatiwada
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
- Department of Physics, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois 60616, USA
| | - Samantha Lewis
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
| | - Juliang Li
- Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Sae Woo Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
| | - Omid Noroozian
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 20771, USA
| | - Tony X Zhou
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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8
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Hochberg Y, Kahn Y, Kurinsky N, Lehmann BV, Yu TC, Berggren KK. Determining Dark-Matter-Electron Scattering Rates from the Dielectric Function. Phys Rev Lett 2021; 127:151802. [PMID: 34678036 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.127.151802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We show that the rate for dark-matter-electron scattering in an arbitrary material is determined by an experimentally measurable quantity, the complex dielectric function, for any dark matter interaction that couples to electron density. This formulation automatically includes many-body effects, eliminates all systematic theoretical uncertainties on the electronic wave functions, and allows a direct calibration of the spectrum by electromagnetic probes such as infrared spectroscopy, x-ray scattering, and electron energy-loss spectroscopy. Our formalism applies for several common benchmark models, including spin-independent interactions through scalar and vector mediators of arbitrary mass. We discuss the consequences for standard semiconductor and superconductor targets and find that the true reach of superconductor detectors for light mediators exceeds previous estimates by several orders of magnitude, with further enhancements possible due to the low-energy tail of the plasmon. Using a heavy-fermion superconductor as an example, we show how our formulation allows a rapid and systematic investigation of novel electron scattering targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonit Hochberg
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Yonatan Kahn
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Illinois Center for Advanced Studies of the Universe, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Noah Kurinsky
- Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois 60510, USA
- Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Benjamin V Lehmann
- Department of Physics, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA
- Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA
| | - To Chin Yu
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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9
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Simonaitis JW, Slayton B, Yang-Keathley Y, Keathley PD, Berggren KK. Publisher's Note: "Precise, subnanosecond, and high-voltage switching enabled by gallium nitride electronics integrated into complex loads" [Rev. Sci. Instrum. 92, 074704 (2021)]. Rev Sci Instrum 2021; 92:089902. [PMID: 34470379 DOI: 10.1063/5.0065081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John W Simonaitis
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Benjamin Slayton
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Yugu Yang-Keathley
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Phillip D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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10
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Simonaitis JW, Slayton B, Yang-Keathley Y, Keathley PD, Berggren KK. Precise, subnanosecond, and high-voltage switching enabled by gallium nitride electronics integrated into complex loads. Rev Sci Instrum 2021; 92:074704. [PMID: 34340436 DOI: 10.1063/5.0046706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report the use of commercial gallium nitride (GaN) power electronics to precisely switch complex distributed loads, such as electron lenses and deflectors. This was accomplished by taking advantage of the small form-factor, low-power dissipation, and high temperature compatibility of GaN field effect transistors (GaNFETs) to integrate pulsers directly into the loads to be switched, even under vacuum. This integration reduces parasitics to allow for faster switching and removes the requirement to impedance match the load to a transmission line by allowing for a lumped element approximation of the load even with subnanosecond switching. Depending on the chosen GaNFET and driver, these GaN pulsers are capable of generating pulses ranging from 100 to 650 V and 5 to 60 A in 0.25-8 ns using simple designs with easy control, few-nanosecond propagation delays, and MHz repetition rates. We experimentally demonstrate a simple 250 ps, 100 V pulser measured by using a directly coupled 2 GHz oscilloscope. By introducing resistive dampening, we can eliminate ringing to allow for precise 100 V transitions that complete a -10 to -90 V transition in 1.5 ns, limited primarily by the inductance of the oscilloscope measurement path. The performance of the pulser attached to various load structures is simulated, demonstrating the possibility of even faster switching of internal fields in these loads. We test these circuits under vacuum and up to 120 °C to demonstrate their flexibility. We expect these GaN pulsers to have broad application in fields such as optics, nuclear sciences, charged particle optics, and atomic physics that require nanosecond, high-voltage transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Simonaitis
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Benjamin Slayton
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Yugu Yang-Keathley
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Phillip D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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11
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Nardi A, Turchetti M, Britton WA, Chen Y, Yang Y, Dal Negro L, Berggren KK, Keathley PD. Nanoscale refractory doped titanium nitride field emitters. Nanotechnology 2021; 32:315208. [PMID: 33862600 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abf8de] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Refractory materials exhibit high damage tolerance, which is attractive for the creation of nanoscale field-emission electronics and optoelectronics applications that require operation at high peak current densities and optical intensities. Recent results have demonstrated that the optical properties of titanium nitride, a refractory and CMOS-compatible plasmonic material, can be tuned by adding silicon and oxygen dopants. However, to fully leverage the potential of titanium (silicon oxy)nitride, a reliable and scalable fabrication process with few-nm precision is needed. In this work, we developed a fabrication process for producing engineered nanostructures with gaps between 10 and 15 nm, aspect ratios larger than 5 with almost 90° steep sidewalls. Using this process, we fabricated large-scale arrays of electrically-connected bow-tie nanoantennas with few-nm free-space gaps. We measured a typical variation of 4 nm in the average gap size. Using applied DC voltages and optical illumination, we tested the electronic and optoelectronic response of the devices, demonstrating sub-10 V tunneling operation across the free-space gaps, and quantum efficiency of up to 1 × 10-3at 1.2μm, which is comparable to a bulk silicon photodiode at the same wavelength and three orders of magnitude higher than with nearly identical gold devices. Tests demonstrated that the titanium silicon oxynitride nanostructures did not significantly degrade, exhibiting less than 5 nm of shrinking of the average gap dimensions over few-μm2areas after 10 h of operation. Our results will be useful for developing the next generation of robust and CMOS-compatible nanoscale devices for high-speed and low-power field-emission electronics and optoelectronics applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nardi
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino, I-10129, Italy
| | - M Turchetti
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - W A Britton
- Division of Material Science & Engineering, Boston University, 15 Saint Mary's Street, Brookline, MA 02446, United States of America
| | - Y Chen
- Division of Material Science & Engineering, Boston University, 15 Saint Mary's Street, Brookline, MA 02446, United States of America
| | - Y Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - L Dal Negro
- Division of Material Science & Engineering, Boston University, 15 Saint Mary's Street, Brookline, MA 02446, United States of America
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering and Photonics Center, Boston University, 8 Saint Mary's Street, Boston, MA 02215, United States of America
- Department of Physics, Boston University, 590 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, United States of America
| | - K K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - P D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
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12
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Abedzadeh N, Krielaart MAR, Kim CS, Simonaitis J, Hobbs R, Kruit P, Berggren KK. Electrostatic electron mirror in SEM for simultaneous imaging of top and bottom surfaces of a sample. Ultramicroscopy 2021; 226:113304. [PMID: 33964613 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2021.113304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The use of electron mirrors in aberration correction and surface-sensitive microscopy techniques such as low-energy electron microscopy has been established. However, in this work, by implementing an easy to construct, fully electrostatic electron mirror system under a sample in a conventional scanning electron microscope (SEM), we present a new imaging scheme which allows us to form scanned images of the top and bottom surfaces of the sample simultaneously. We believe that this imaging scheme could be of great value to the field of in-situ SEM which has been limited to observation of dynamic changes such as crack propagation and other surface phenomena on one side of samples at a time. We analyze the image properties when using a flat versus a concave electron mirror system and discuss two different regimes of operation. In addition to in-situ SEM, we foresee that our imaging scheme could open up avenues towards spherical aberration correction by the use of electron mirrors in SEMs without the need for complex beam separators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navid Abedzadeh
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - M A R Krielaart
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Chung-Soo Kim
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - John Simonaitis
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Richard Hobbs
- School of Chemistry, Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research (AMBER) Centre and Centre for Research in Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Pieter Kruit
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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13
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Zheng M, Yang Y, Zhu D, Chen Y, Shu Z, Berggren KK, Soljačić M, Duan H. Enhancing Plasmonic Spectral Tunability with Anomalous Material Dispersion. Nano Lett 2021; 21:91-98. [PMID: 33347300 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c03293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The field confinement of plasmonic systems enables spectral tunability under structural variations or environmental perturbations, which is the principle for various applications including nanorulers, sensors, and color displays. Here, we propose and demonstrate that materials with anomalous dispersion, such as Ge in the visible, improve spectral tunability. We introduce our proposal with a semianalytical guided mode picture. Using Ge-based film (Ag/Au)-coupled gap plasmon resonators, we implement two architectures and demonstrate the improved tunability with single-particle dark-field scattering, ensemble reflection, and color generation. We observe three-fold enhancement of tunability with Ge nanodisks compared with that of Si, a normal-dispersion material in the visible. The structural color generation of large array systems, made of inversely fabricated Ge-Ag resonators, exhibits a wide gamut. Our results introduce anomalous material dispersion as an extra degree of freedom to engineer the spectral tunability of plasmonic systems, especially relevant for actively tunable plasmonics and metasurfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjie Zheng
- College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, 410082 Changsha, China
- Jihua Laboratory, 528000 Foshan, China
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yi Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Di Zhu
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Yiqin Chen
- College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, 410082 Changsha, China
| | - Zhiwen Shu
- College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, 410082 Changsha, China
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Marin Soljačić
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Huigao Duan
- College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, 410082 Changsha, China
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14
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Abstract
As the limits of traditional von Neumann computing come into view, the brain's ability to communicate vast quantities of information using low-power spikes has become an increasing source of inspiration for alternative architectures. Key to the success of these largescale neural networks is a power-efficient spiking element that is scalable and easily interfaced with traditional control electronics. In this work, we present a spiking element fabricated from superconducting nanowires that has pulse energies on the order of ∼10 aJ. We demonstrate that the device reproduces essential characteristics of biological neurons, such as a refractory period and a firing threshold. Through simulations using experimentally measured device parameters, we show how nanowire-based networks may be used for inference in image recognition and that the probabilistic nature of nanowire switching may be exploited for modeling biological processes and for applications that rely on stochasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Toomey
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - K Segall
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Colgate University, Hamilton, New York 13346, United States
| | - M Castellani
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - M Colangelo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - N Lynch
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - K K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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15
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Yang Y, Hobbs RG, Keathley PD, Berggren KK. Electron energy loss of ultraviolet plasmonic modes in aluminum nanodisks. Opt Express 2020; 28:27405-27414. [PMID: 32988035 DOI: 10.1364/oe.401835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We theoretically investigated electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) of ultraviolet surface plasmon modes in aluminum nanodisks. Using full-wave Maxell electromagnetic simulations, we studied the impact of the diameter on the resonant modes of the nanodisks. We found that the mode behavior can be separately classified for two distinct cases: (1) flat nanodisks where the diameter is much larger than the thickness and (2) thick nanodisks where the diameter is comparable to the thickness. While the multipolar edge modes and breathing modes of flat nanostructures have previously been interpreted using intuitive, analytical models based on surface plasmon polariton (SPP) modes of a thin-film stack, it has been found that the true dispersion relation of the multipolar edge modes deviates significantly from the SPP dispersion relation. Here, we developed a modified intuitive model that uses effective wavelength theory to accurately model this dispersion relation with significantly less computational overhead compared to full-wave Maxwell electromagnetic simulations. However, for the case of thick nanodisks, this effective wavelength theory breaks down, and such intuitive models are no longer viable. We found that this is because some modes of the thick nanodisks carry a polar (i.e., out of the substrate plane or along the electron beam direction) dependence and cannot be simply categorized as radial breathing modes or angular (azimuthal) multipolar edge modes. This polar dependence leads to radiative losses, motivating the use of simultaneous EELS and cathodoluminescence measurements when experimentally investigating the complex mode behavior of thick nanostructures.
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16
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Yang Y, Turchetti M, Vasireddy P, Putnam WP, Karnbach O, Nardi A, Kärtner FX, Berggren KK, Keathley PD. Light phase detection with on-chip petahertz electronic networks. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3407. [PMID: 32641698 PMCID: PMC7343884 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17250-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrafast, high-intensity light-matter interactions lead to optical-field-driven photocurrents with an attosecond-level temporal response. These photocurrents can be used to detect the carrier-envelope-phase (CEP) of short optical pulses, and enable optical-frequency, petahertz (PHz) electronics for high-speed information processing. Despite recent reports on optical-field-driven photocurrents in various nanoscale solid-state materials, little has been done in examining the large-scale electronic integration of these devices to improve their functionality and compactness. In this work, we demonstrate enhanced, on-chip CEP detection via optical-field-driven photocurrents in a monolithic array of electrically-connected plasmonic bow-tie nanoantennas that are contained within an area of hundreds of square microns. The technique is scalable and could potentially be used for shot-to-shot CEP tagging applications requiring orders-of-magnitude less pulse energy compared to alternative ionization-based techniques. Our results open avenues for compact time-domain, on-chip CEP detection, and inform the development of integrated circuits for PHz electronics as well as integrated platforms for attosecond and strong-field science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Marco Turchetti
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Praful Vasireddy
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - William P Putnam
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Physics and Center for Ultrafast Imaging, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Karnbach
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Alberto Nardi
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Franz X Kärtner
- Department of Physics and Center for Ultrafast Imaging, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science and Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Phillip D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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17
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Yang Y, Kim CS, Hobbs RG, Keathley PD, Berggren KK. Nanostructured-membrane electron phase plates. Ultramicroscopy 2020; 217:113053. [PMID: 32623205 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2020.113053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Electron beams can acquire designed phase modulations by passing through nanostructured material phase plates. These phase modulations enable electron wavefront shaping and benefit electron microscopy, spectroscopy, lithography, and interferometry. However, in the fabrication of electron phase plates, the typically used focused-ion-beam-milling method limits the fabrication throughput and hence the active area of the phase plates. Here, we fabricated large-area electron phase plates with electron-beam lithography and reactive-ion-etching. The phase plates are characterized by electron diffraction in transmission electron microscopes with various electron energies, as well as diffractive imaging in a scanning electron microscope. We found the phase plates could produce a null in the center of the bright-field based on coherent interference of diffractive beams. Our work adds capabilities to the fabrication of electron phase plates. The nullification of the direct beam and the tunable diffraction efficiency demonstrated here also paves the way towards novel dark-field electron-microscopy techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States.
| | - Chung-Soo Kim
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Richard G Hobbs
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States; Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN) and Advanced Materials Bio-Engineering Research Centre (AMBER), School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Phillip D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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18
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Zhu D, Colangelo M, Chen C, Korzh BA, Wong FNC, Shaw MD, Berggren KK. Resolving Photon Numbers Using a Superconducting Nanowire with Impedance-Matching Taper. Nano Lett 2020; 20:3858-3863. [PMID: 32271591 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c00985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Time- and number-resolved photon detection is crucial for quantum information processing. Existing photon-number-resolving (PNR) detectors usually suffer from limited timing and dark-count performance or require complex fabrication and operation. Here, we demonstrate a PNR detector at telecommunication wavelengths based on a single superconducting nanowire with an integrated impedance-matching taper. The taper provides a kΩ load impedance to the nanowire, making the detector's output amplitude sensitive to the number of photon-induced hotspots. The prototyping device was able to resolve up to four absorbed photons with 16.1 ps timing jitter and <2 c.p.s. device dark count rate. Its exceptional distinction between single- and two-photon responses is ideal for high-fidelity coincidence counting and allowed us to directly observe bunching of photon pairs from a single output port of a Hong-Ou-Mandel interferometer. This detector architecture may provide a practical solution to applications that require high timing resolution and few-photon discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhu
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Marco Colangelo
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Changchen Chen
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Boris A Korzh
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Franco N C Wong
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Matthew D Shaw
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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19
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Peng M, Murray-Bruce J, Berggren KK, Goyal VK. Source shot noise mitigation in focused ion beam microscopy by time-resolved measurement. Ultramicroscopy 2020; 211:112948. [PMID: 32171978 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2020.112948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Focused ion beam microscopy suffers from source shot noise - random variation in the number of incident ions in any fixed dwell time - along with random variation in the number of detected secondary electrons per incident ion. This multiplicity of sources of randomness increases the variance of the measurements and thus worsens the trade-off between incident ion dose and image accuracy. Repeated measurement with low dwell time, without changing the total ion dose, is a way to introduce time resolution to this form of microscopy. Through theoretical analyses and Monte Carlo simulations, we show that three ways to process time-resolved measurements result in mean-squared error (MSE) improvements compared to the conventional method of having no time resolution. In particular, maximum likelihood estimation provides reduction in MSE or reduction in required dose by a multiplicative factor approximately equal to the secondary electron yield. This improvement factor is similar to complete mitigation of source shot noise. Experiments with a helium ion microscope are consistent with the analyses and suggest accuracy improvement for a fixed source dose by a factor of about 4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minxu Peng
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - John Murray-Bruce
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Vivek K Goyal
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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20
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Yun HS, Do HW, Berggren KK, Ross CA, Choi HK. Commensurability-Driven Orientation Control during Block Copolymer Directed Self-Assembly. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:10852-10857. [PMID: 32024362 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b22104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the orientation of block copolymer (BCP) patterns in topographical templates is controlled using a simple template design rule. The orientation of the pattern is selected by using a template with one commensurate dimension and one incommensurate dimension. An array of binary states of a BCP pattern can be programmed into a desired layout by tuning of the template wall thickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Su Yun
- Division of Advanced Materials Engineering, Kongju National University, Cheonan 31080, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Wan Do
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Caroline A Ross
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Hong Kyoon Choi
- Division of Advanced Materials Engineering, Kongju National University, Cheonan 31080, Republic of Korea
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21
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Kim CS, Hobbs RG, Agarwal A, Yang Y, Manfrinato VR, Short MP, Li J, Berggren KK. Focused-helium-ion-beam blow forming of nanostructures: radiation damage and nanofabrication. Nanotechnology 2020; 31:045302. [PMID: 31578000 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab4a65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Targeted irradiation of nanostructures by a finely focused ion beam provides routes to improved control of material modification and understanding of the physics of interactions between ion beams and nanomaterials. Here, we studied radiation damage in crystalline diamond and silicon nanostructures using a focused helium ion beam, with the former exhibiting extremely long-range ion propagation and large plastic deformation in a process visibly analogous to blow forming. We report the dependence of damage morphology on material, geometry, and irradiation conditions (ion dose, ion energy, ion species, and location). We anticipate that our method and findings will not only improve the understanding of radiation damage in isolated nanostructures, but will also support the design of new engineering materials and devices for current and future applications in nanotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Soo Kim
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, United States of America
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22
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Nguyen MH, Ribeill GJ, Gustafsson MV, Shi S, Aradhya SV, Wagner AP, Ranzani LM, Zhu L, Baghdadi R, Butters B, Toomey E, Colangelo M, Truitt PA, Jafari-Salim A, McAllister D, Yohannes D, Cheng SR, Lazarus R, Mukhanov O, Berggren KK, Buhrman RA, Rowlands GE, Ohki TA. Cryogenic Memory Architecture Integrating Spin Hall Effect based Magnetic Memory and Superconductive Cryotron Devices. Sci Rep 2020; 10:248. [PMID: 31937815 PMCID: PMC6959315 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-57137-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most challenging obstacles to realizing exascale computing is minimizing the energy consumption of L2 cache, main memory, and interconnects to that memory. For promising cryogenic computing schemes utilizing Josephson junction superconducting logic, this obstacle is exacerbated by the cryogenic system requirements that expose the technology's lack of high-density, high-speed and power-efficient memory. Here we demonstrate an array of cryogenic memory cells consisting of a non-volatile three-terminal magnetic tunnel junction element driven by the spin Hall effect, combined with a superconducting heater-cryotron bit-select element. The write energy of these memory elements is roughly 8 pJ with a bit-select element, designed to achieve a minimum overhead power consumption of about 30%. Individual magnetic memory cells measured at 4 K show reliable switching with write error rates below 10-6, and a 4 × 4 array can be fully addressed with bit select error rates of 10-6. This demonstration is a first step towards a full cryogenic memory architecture targeting energy and performance specifications appropriate for applications in superconducting high performance and quantum computing control systems, which require significant memory resources operating at 4 K.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sriharsha V Aradhya
- Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
- Western Digital Corp., Fremont, CA, 94539, USA
| | | | | | - Lijun Zhu
- Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Reza Baghdadi
- Massachussetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Brenden Butters
- Massachussetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Emily Toomey
- Massachussetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Marco Colangelo
- Massachussetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Patrick A Truitt
- HYPRES, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
- SeeQC Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
| | - Amir Jafari-Salim
- HYPRES, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
- SeeQC Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
| | - David McAllister
- HYPRES, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
- Bluemont Technology, Luray, VA, 22835, USA
| | - Daniel Yohannes
- HYPRES, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
- SeeQC Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
| | - Sean R Cheng
- Raytheon BBN Technologies, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Rich Lazarus
- Raytheon BBN Technologies, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Oleg Mukhanov
- HYPRES, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
- SeeQC Inc., Elmsford, NY, 10523, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Massachussetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | | | | | - Thomas A Ohki
- Raytheon BBN Technologies, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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23
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Onen M, Butters BA, Toomey E, Gokmen T, Berggren KK. Design and characterization of superconducting nanowire-based processors for acceleration of deep neural network training. Nanotechnology 2020; 31:025204. [PMID: 31553955 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab47bc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Training of deep neural networks (DNNs) is a computationally intensive task and requires massive volumes of data transfer. Performing these operations with the conventional von Neumann architectures creates unmanageable time and power costs. Recent studies have shown that mixed-signal designs involving resistive crossbar architectures are capable of achieving acceleration factors as high as 30 000 × over the state of the art digital processors. These approaches involve utilization of non-volatile memory elements as local processors. However, no technology has been developed to-date that can satisfy the strict device requirements for the unit cell. This paper presents the superconducting nanowire-based processing element as a crosspoint device. The unit cell has many programmable non-volatile states that can be used to perform analog multiplication. Importantly, these states are intrinsically discrete due to quantization of flux, which provides symmetric switching characteristics. Operation of these devices in a crossbar is described and verified with electro-thermal circuit simulations. Finally, validation of the concept in an actual DNN training task is shown using an emulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murat Onen
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
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24
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Onen M, Turchetti M, Butters BA, Bionta MR, Keathley PD, Berggren KK. Single-Photon Single-Flux Coupled Detectors. Nano Lett 2020; 20:664-668. [PMID: 31851520 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b04440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we present a novel device that is a combination of a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector and a superconducting multilevel memory. We show that these devices can be used to count the number of detections through single-photon to single-flux conversion. Electrical characterization of the memory properties demonstrates single-flux quantum (SFQ) separated states. Optical measurements using attenuated laser pulses with different mean photon number, pulse energies and repetition rates are shown to differentiate single-photon detection from other possible phenomena, such as multiphoton detection and thermal activation. Finally, different geometries and material stacks to improve device performance, as well as arraying methods, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murat Onen
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Marco Turchetti
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Brenden A Butters
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Mina R Bionta
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Phillip D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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25
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Hochberg Y, Charaev I, Nam SW, Verma V, Colangelo M, Berggren KK. Detecting Sub-GeV Dark Matter with Superconducting Nanowires. Phys Rev Lett 2019; 123:151802. [PMID: 31702301 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.123.151802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We propose the use of superconducting nanowires as both target and sensor for direct detection of sub-GeV dark matter. With excellent sensitivity to small energy deposits on electrons and demonstrated low dark counts, such devices could be used to probe electron recoils from dark matter scattering and absorption processes. We demonstrate the feasibility of this idea using measurements of an existing fabricated tungsten-silicide nanowire prototype with 0.8-eV energy threshold and 4.3 ng with 10 000 s of exposure, which showed no dark counts. The results from this device already place meaningful bounds on dark matter-electron interactions, including the strongest terrestrial bounds on sub-eV dark photon absorption to date. Future expected fabrication on larger scales and with lower thresholds should enable probing of new territory in the direct detection landscape, establishing the complementarity of this approach to other existing proposals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonit Hochberg
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Ilya Charaev
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Sae-Woo Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Varun Verma
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Marco Colangelo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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26
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Toomey E, Segall K, Berggren KK. Design of a Power Efficient Artificial Neuron Using Superconducting Nanowires. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:933. [PMID: 31551691 PMCID: PMC6738026 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With the rising societal demand for more information-processing capacity with lower power consumption, alternative architectures inspired by the parallelism and robustness of the human brain have recently emerged as possible solutions. In particular, spiking neural networks (SNNs) offer a bio-realistic approach, relying on pulses, analogous to action potentials, as units of information. While software encoded networks provide flexibility and precision, they are often computationally expensive. As a result, hardware SNNs based on the spiking dynamics of a device or circuit represent an increasingly appealing direction. Here, we propose to use superconducting nanowires as a platform for the development of an artificial neuron. Building on an architecture first proposed for Josephson junctions, we rely on the intrinsic non-linearity of two coupled nanowires to generate spiking behavior, and use electrothermal circuit simulations to demonstrate that the nanowire neuron reproduces multiple characteristics of biological neurons. Furthermore, by harnessing the non-linearity of the superconducting nanowire's inductance, we develop a design for a variable inductive synapse capable of both excitatory and inhibitory control. We demonstrate that this synapse design supports direct fan-out, a feature that has been difficult to achieve in other superconducting architectures, and that the nanowire neuron's nominal energy performance is competitive with that of current technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Toomey
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Ken Segall
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY, United States
| | - Karl K. Berggren
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Cambridge, MA, United States
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27
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Roques-Carmes C, Kooi SE, Yang Y, Massuda A, Keathley PD, Zaidi A, Yang Y, Joannopoulos JD, Berggren KK, Kaminer I, Soljačić M. Towards integrated tunable all-silicon free-electron light sources. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3176. [PMID: 31320664 PMCID: PMC6639370 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11070-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracting light from silicon is a longstanding challenge in modern engineering and physics. While silicon has underpinned the past 70 years of electronics advancement, a facile tunable and efficient silicon-based light source remains elusive. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the generation of tunable radiation from a one-dimensional, all-silicon nanograting. Light is generated by the spontaneous emission from the interaction of these nanogratings with low-energy free electrons (2-20 keV) and is recorded in the wavelength range of 800-1600 nm, which includes the silicon transparency window. Tunable free-electron-based light generation from nanoscale silicon gratings with efficiencies approaching those from metallic gratings is demonstrated. We theoretically investigate the feasibility of a scalable, compact, all-silicon tunable light source comprised of a silicon Field Emitter Array integrated with a silicon nanograting that emits at telecommunication wavelengths. Our results reveal the prospects of a CMOS-compatible electrically-pumped silicon light source for possible applications in the mid-infrared and telecommunication wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Roques-Carmes
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Steven E Kooi
- Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies, NE47, 500 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Yi Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Aviram Massuda
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Phillip D Keathley
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Aun Zaidi
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Yujia Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - John D Joannopoulos
- Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies, NE47, 500 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Ido Kaminer
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 32000, Haifa, Israel
| | - Marin Soljačić
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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28
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Turchetti M, Kim CS, Hobbs R, Yang Y, Kruit P, Berggren KK. Design and simulation of a linear electron cavity for quantum electron microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2019; 199:50-61. [PMID: 30772718 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2019.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 01/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Quantum electron microscopy (QEM) is a measurement approach that could reduce sample radiation damage, which represents the main obstacle to sub-nanometer direct imaging of molecules in conventional electron microscopes. This method is based on the exploitation of interaction-free measurements in an electron resonator. In this work, we present the design of a linear resonant electron cavity, which is at the core of QEM. We assess its stability and optical properties during resonance using ray-tracing electron optical simulations. Moreover, we analyze the issue of spherical aberrations inside the cavity and we propose and verify through simulation two possible approaches to the problem. Finally, we discuss some of the important design parameters and constraints, such as conservation of temporal coherence and effect of alignment fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Turchetti
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Chung-Soo Kim
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Richard Hobbs
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Yujia Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Pieter Kruit
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628CJ Delft, Netherlands
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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29
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Keathley PD, Putnam WP, Hobbs RG, Berggren KK, Kartner FX. Antiresonant-like behavior in carrier-envelope-phase-sensitive sub-optical-cycle photoemission from plasmonic nanoantennas. EPJ Web Conf 2019. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201920508011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We study carrier-envelope-phase-sensitive (CEP-sensitive) photoemission from plasmonic nanoantennas excited with laser pulses of varying incident optical intensities. The CEP-sensitive current exhibits antiresonant-like features that we attribute to competing sub-optical-cycle bursts of photoelectrons.
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30
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Do HW, Choi HK, Gadelrab KR, Chang JB, Alexander-Katz A, Ross CA, Berggren KK. Directed self-assembly of a two-state block copolymer system. Nano Converg 2018; 5:25. [PMID: 30467681 PMCID: PMC6158142 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-018-0156-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In this work, ladder-shaped block copolymer structures consisting of parallel bars, bends, and T-junctions are formed inside square confinement. We define binary states by the two degenerate alignment orientations, and study properties of the two-state system. We control the binary states by creating openings around the confinement, changing the confinement geometry, or placing lithographic guiding patterns inside the confinement. Self-consistent field theory simulations show templating effect from the wall openings and reproduce the experimental results. We demonstrate scaling of a single binary state into a larger binary state array with individual binary state control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Wan Do
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Hong Kyoon Choi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
- Division of Advanced Materials Engineering, Kongju National University, Cheonan, South Korea
| | - Karim R. Gadelrab
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Jae-Byum Chang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Alfredo Alexander-Katz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Caroline A. Ross
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Karl K. Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
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31
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Sunter KA, Berggren KK. Optical modeling of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors using the transfer matrix method: publisher's note. Appl Opt 2018; 57:5672. [PMID: 30118080 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.005672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This publisher's note amends the Funding and Acknowledgment sections in Appl. Opt.57, 4872 (2018)APOPAI0003-693510.1364/AO.57.004872.
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32
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Flatabø R, Agarwal A, Hobbs R, Greve MM, Holst B, Berggren KK. Exploring proximity effects and large depth of field in helium ion beam lithography: large-area dense patterns and tilted surface exposure. Nanotechnology 2018; 29:275301. [PMID: 29652671 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aabe22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Helium ion beam lithography (HIL) is an emerging nanofabrication technique. It benefits from a reduced interaction volume compared to that of an electron beam of similar energy, and hence reduced long-range scattering (proximity effect), higher resist sensitivity and potentially higher resolution. Furthermore, the small angular spread of the helium ion beam gives rise to a large depth of field. This should enable patterning on tilted and curved surfaces without the need of any additional adjustments, such as laser-auto focus. So far, most work on HIL has been focused on exploiting the reduced proximity effect to reach single-digit nanometer resolution, and has thus been concentrated on single-pixel exposures over small areas. Here we explore two new areas of application. Firstly, we investigate the proximity effect in large-area exposures and demonstrate HIL's capabilities in fabricating precise high-density gratings on large planar surfaces (100 μm × 100 μm, with pitch down to 35 nm) using an area dose for exposure. Secondly, we exploit the large depth of field by making the first HIL patterns on tilted surfaces (sample stage tilted 45°). We demonstrate a depth of field greater than 100 μm for a resolution of about 20 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranveig Flatabø
- University of Bergen, Department of Physics and Technology, Allégaten 55, NO-5007 Bergen, Norway. Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA 02139, United States of America
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33
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Zhu D, Zhao QY, Choi H, Lu TJ, Dane AE, Englund D, Berggren KK. A scalable multi-photon coincidence detector based on superconducting nanowires. Nat Nanotechnol 2018; 13:596-601. [PMID: 29867085 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0160-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Coincidence detection of single photons is crucial in numerous quantum technologies and usually requires multiple time-resolved single-photon detectors. However, the electronic readout becomes a major challenge when the measurement basis scales to large numbers of spatial modes. Here, we address this problem by introducing a two-terminal coincidence detector that enables scalable readout of an array of detector segments based on superconducting nanowire microstrip transmission line. Exploiting timing logic, we demonstrate a sixteen-element detector that resolves all 136 possible single-photon and two-photon coincidence events. We further explore the pulse shapes of the detector output and resolve up to four-photon events in a four-element device, giving the detector photon-number-resolving capability. This new detector architecture and operating scheme will be particularly useful for multi-photon coincidence detection in large-scale photonic integrated circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhu
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Qing-Yuan Zhao
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Research Institute of Superconductor Electronics, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Hyeongrak Choi
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Tsung-Ju Lu
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Andrew E Dane
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Dirk Englund
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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34
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Sunter KA, Berggren KK. Optical modeling of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors using the transfer matrix method. Appl Opt 2018; 57:4872-4883. [PMID: 30118105 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.004872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We present optical modeling of superconducting nanowire single photon detector devices using an analytical approach based on the transfer matrix method. We find that the optimal dielectric layer thicknesses vary slightly with the thickness and fill factor of the NbN layer and explore novel device geometries that can be described as a stack of thin films, such as devices on multilayered substrates, free-standing membranes, and optical fiber facets. In addition, the analytical results here show the importance of accounting for coherence correctly when an integrated cavity is included in the device structure and the relative insignificance of an anti-reflection coating in most cases.
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35
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Abstract
Full three dimensional (3D) simulations of ion implantation are necessary in a wide range of nanoscience and nanotechnology applications to capture the increasing effect of ion leakage out of surfaces. Using a recently developed 3D Monte Carlo simulation code IM3D, we first quantify the relative error of the 1D approach in three applications of nano-scale ion implantation: (1) nano-beam for nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center creation, (2) implantation of nanowires to fabricate p-n junctions, and (3) irradiation of nano-pillars for small-scale mechanical testing of irradiated materials. Because the 1D approach fails to consider the exchange and leakage of ions from boundaries, its relative error increases dramatically as the beam/target size shrinks. Lastly, the "Bragg peak" phenomenon, where the maximum radiation dose occurs at a finite depth away from the surface, relies on the assumption of broad beams. We discovered a topological transition of the point-defect or defect-cluster distribution isosurface when one varies the beam width, in agreement with a previous focused helium ion beam irradiation experiment. We conclude that full 3D simulations are necessary if either the beam or the target size is comparable or below the SRIM longitudinal ion range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
| | - Yong Gang Li
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA. and Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China and University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China
| | - Michael P Short
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
| | - Chung-Soo Kim
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Ju Li
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA. and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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36
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McCaughan AN, Toomey E, Schneider M, Berggren KK, Nam SW. A kinetic-inductance-based superconducting memory element with shunting and sub-nanosecond write times. Supercond Sci Technol 2018; 32:10.1088/1361-6668/aae50d. [PMID: 32116414 PMCID: PMC7047614 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6668/aae50d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We present a kinetic-inductance-based superconducting memory element with non-destructive readout, femtojoule read and write energies, both read and write shunts, which is writeable with pulses shorter than 400 ps. The element utilizes both a high-kinetic-inductance layer made from tungsten silicide as well as a low-kinetic-inductance layer made from niobium. By using tungsten silicide-which has a long (20 ns) thermal time constant-and measuring bit error rates from 10 MHz to 1 GHz, we were able to verify that the thin-film elements could be operated at a data rate at least as fast as the material thermal time constant with a bit error ratio less than 10-6. We also analyze the margins of the device, and outline the characteristics by which a more efficient device may be designed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam N McCaughan
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway St, Boulder, CO 80305, United States of America
| | - Emily Toomey
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Michael Schneider
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway St, Boulder, CO 80305, United States of America
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Sae Woo Nam
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway St, Boulder, CO 80305, United States of America
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37
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Ivry Y, Surick JJ, Barzilay M, Kim CS, Najafi F, Kalfon-Cohen E, Dane AD, Berggren KK. Superconductor-superconductor bilayers for enhancing single-photon detection. Nanotechnology 2017; 28:435205. [PMID: 28850552 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa8902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Here, we optimized ultrathin films of granular NbN on SiO2 and of amorphous αW5Si3. We showed that hybrid superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) made of 2 nm thick αW5Si3 films over 2 nm thick NbN films exhibit advantageous coexistence of timing (<5 ns reset time and 52 ps timing jitter) and efficiency (>96% quantum efficiency) performance. We discuss the governing mechanism of this hybridization via the proximity effect. Our results demonstrate saturated SNSPDs performance at 1550 nm optical wavelength and suggest that such hybridization can significantly expand the range of available superconducting properties, impacting other nano-superconducting technologies. Lastly, this hybridization may be used to tune properties, such as the amorphous character of superconducting films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yachin Ivry
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel. Solid State Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel. Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
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38
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Hobbs RG, Putnam WP, Fallahi A, Yang Y, Kärtner FX, Berggren KK. Mapping Photoemission and Hot-Electron Emission from Plasmonic Nanoantennas. Nano Lett 2017; 17:6069-6076. [PMID: 28926275 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b02495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Understanding plasmon-mediated electron emission and energy transfer on the nanometer length scale is critical to controlling light-matter interactions at nanoscale dimensions. In a high-resolution lithographic material, electron emission and energy transfer lead to chemical transformations. In this work, we employ such chemical transformations in two different high-resolution electron-beam lithography resists, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and hydrogen silsesquioxane (HSQ), to map local electron emission and energy transfer with nanometer resolution from plasmonic nanoantennas excited by femtosecond laser pulses. We observe exposure of the electron-beam resists (both PMMA and HSQ) in regions on the surface of nanoantennas where the local field is significantly enhanced. Exposure in these regions is consistent with previously reported optical-field-controlled electron emission from plasmonic hotspots as well as earlier work on low-electron-energy scanning probe lithography. For HSQ, in addition to exposure in hotspots, we observe resist exposure at the centers of rod-shaped nanoantennas in addition to exposure in plasmonic hotspots. Optical field enhancement is minimized at the center of nanorods suggesting that exposure in these regions involves a different mechanism to that in plasmonic hotspots. Our simulations suggest that exposure at the center of nanorods results from the emission of hot electrons produced via plasmon decay in the nanorods. Overall, the results presented in this work provide a means to map both optical-field-controlled electron emission and hot-electron transfer from nanoparticles via chemical transformations produced locally in lithographic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Hobbs
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - William P Putnam
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Physics and Center for Ultrafast Imaging, University of Hamburg , Hamburg, Germany
- Northrop Grumman Corporation, NG Next , Redondo Beach, California 90254, United States
| | - Arya Fallahi
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron , 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yujia Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Franz X Kärtner
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Physics and Center for Ultrafast Imaging, University of Hamburg , Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron , 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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39
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Carpenter CL, Nicaise S, Theofanis PL, Shykind D, Berggren KK, Delaney KT, Fredrickson GH. Orientational Preference in Multilayer Block Copolymer Nanomeshes with Respect to Layer-to-Layer Commensurability. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Samuel Nicaise
- Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | - David Shykind
- Intel Corporation, Hillsboro, Oregon 97124, United States
| | - Karl K. Berggren
- Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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40
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Park WM, Bedewy M, Berggren KK, Keating AE. Modular assembly of a protein nanotriangle using orthogonally interacting coiled coils. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10577. [PMID: 28874805 PMCID: PMC5585338 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10918-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic protein assemblies that adopt programmed shapes would support many applications in nanotechnology. We used a rational design approach that exploits the modularity of orthogonally interacting coiled coils to create a self-assembled protein nanotriangle. Coiled coils have frequently been used to construct nanoassemblies and materials, but rarely with successful prior specification of the resulting structure. We designed a heterotrimer from three pairs of heterodimeric coiled coils that mediate specific interactions while avoiding undesired crosstalk. Non-associating pairs of coiled-coil units were strategically fused to generate three chains that were predicted to preferentially form the heterotrimer, and a rational annealing process led to the desired oligomer. Extensive biophysical characterization and modeling support the formation of a molecular triangle, which is a shape distinct from naturally occurring supramolecular nanostructures. Our approach can be extended to design more complex nanostructures using additional coiled-coil modules, other protein parts, or templated surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won Min Park
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA
| | - Mostafa Bedewy
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15261, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA
| | - Amy E Keating
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA.
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA.
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41
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Agarwal A, Kim CS, Hobbs R, Dyck DV, Berggren KK. A nanofabricated, monolithic, path-separated electron interferometer. Sci Rep 2017; 7:1677. [PMID: 28490745 PMCID: PMC5432008 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01466-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Progress in nanofabrication technology has enabled the development of numerous electron optic elements for enhancing image contrast and manipulating electron wave functions. Here, we describe a modular, self-aligned, amplitude-division electron interferometer in a conventional transmission electron microscope. The interferometer consists of two 45-nm-thick silicon layers separated by 20 μm. This interferometer is fabricated from a single-crystal silicon cantilever on a transmission electron microscope grid by gallium focused-ion-beam milling. Using this interferometer, we obtain interference fringes in a Mach-Zehnder geometry in an unmodified 200 kV transmission electron microscope. The fringes have a period of 0.32 nm, which corresponds to the [1̄1̄1] lattice planes of silicon, and a maximum contrast of 15%. We use convergent-beam electron diffraction to quantify grating alignment and coherence. This design can potentially be scaled to millimeter-scale, and used in electron holography. It could also be applied to perform fundamental physics experiments, such as interaction-free measurement with electrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Agarwal
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Chung-Soo Kim
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Richard Hobbs
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Dirk van Dyck
- EMAT, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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42
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Abstract
We describe a superconducting three-terminal device that uses a simple geometric effect known as current crowding to sense the flow of current and actuate a readout signal. The device consists of a "Y"-shaped current combiner, with two currents (sense and bias) entering separately through the top arms of the "Y", intersecting, and then exiting together through the bottom leg of the "Y". When current is added to or removed from one of the arms (e.g., the sense arm), the superconducting critical current in the other arm (i.e., the bias arm) is modulated. The current in the sense arm can thus be determined by measuring the critical current of the bias arm, or inversely, the sense current can be used to modulate the state of the bias arm. The dependence of the bias critical current on the sense current occurs due to the geometric current crowding effect, which causes the sense current to interact locally with the bias arm. Measurement of the critical current in the bias arm does not break the superconducting state of the sense arm or of the bottom leg, and thus, quantized currents trapped in a superconducting loop were able to be repeatedly measured without changing the state of the loop. Current crowding is a universal effect in nanoscale superconductors, and so this device has potential for applicability across a broad range of superconducting technologies and materials. More generally, any technology in which geometrically induced flow crowding exists in the presence of a strong nonlinearity might make use of this type of device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam N McCaughan
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Nathnael S Abebe
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Qing-Yuan Zhao
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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43
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Nourbakhsh A, Zubair A, Sajjad RN, Tavakkoli K G A, Chen W, Fang S, Ling X, Kong J, Dresselhaus MS, Kaxiras E, Berggren KK, Antoniadis D, Palacios T. MoS 2 Field-Effect Transistor with Sub-10 nm Channel Length. Nano Lett 2016; 16:7798-7806. [PMID: 27960446 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Atomically thin molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is an ideal semiconductor material for field-effect transistors (FETs) with sub-10 nm channel lengths. The high effective mass and large bandgap of MoS2 minimize direct source-drain tunneling, while its atomically thin body maximizes the gate modulation efficiency in ultrashort-channel transistors. However, no experimental study to date has approached the sub-10 nm scale due to the multiple challenges related to nanofabrication at this length scale and the high contact resistance traditionally observed in MoS2 transistors. Here, using the semiconducting-to-metallic phase transition of MoS2, we demonstrate sub-10 nm channel-length transistor fabrication by directed self-assembly patterning of mono- and trilayer MoS2. This is done in a 7.5 nm half-pitch periodic chain of transistors where semiconducting (2H) MoS2 channel regions are seamlessly connected to metallic-phase (1T') MoS2 access and contact regions. The resulting 7.5 nm channel-length MoS2 FET has a low off-current of 10 pA/μm, an on/off current ratio of >107, and a subthreshold swing of 120 mV/dec. The experimental results presented in this work, combined with device transport modeling, reveal the remarkable potential of 2D MoS2 for future sub-10 nm technology nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Wei Chen
- Department of Physics, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Shiang Fang
- Department of Physics, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | | | | | | | - Efthimios Kaxiras
- Department of Physics, Harvard University , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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44
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Hobbs RG, Manfrinato VR, Yang Y, Goodman SA, Zhang L, Stach EA, Berggren KK. High-Energy Surface and Volume Plasmons in Nanopatterned Sub-10 nm Aluminum Nanostructures. Nano Lett 2016; 16:4149-4157. [PMID: 27295061 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we use electron energy-loss spectroscopy to map the complete plasmonic spectrum of aluminum nanodisks with diameters ranging from 3 to 120 nm fabricated by high-resolution electron-beam lithography. Our nanopatterning approach allows us to produce localized surface plasmon resonances across a wide spectral range spanning 2-8 eV. Electromagnetic simulations using the finite element method support the existence of dipolar, quadrupolar, and hexapolar surface plasmon modes as well as centrosymmetric breathing modes depending on the location of the electron-beam excitation. In addition, we have developed an approach using nanolithography that is capable of meV control over the energy and attosecond control over the lifetime of volume plasmons in these nanodisks. The precise measurement of volume plasmon lifetime may also provide an opportunity to probe and control the DC electrical conductivity of highly confined metallic nanostructures. Lastly, we show the strong influence of the nanodisk boundary in determining both the energy and lifetime of surface plasmons and volume plasmons locally across individual aluminum nanodisks, and we have compared these observations to similar effects produced by scaling the nanodisk diameter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Hobbs
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Vitor R Manfrinato
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yujia Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Sarah A Goodman
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Lihua Zhang
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Eric A Stach
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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45
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Abstract
We report on a method of nanoSQUID modulation which uses kinetic inductance rather than magnetic inductance to manip-ulate the internal fluxoid state. We produced modulation using injected current rather than an applied magnetic field. Using this injected current, we were able to observe the triangle-wave shaped modulation of the device critical current which was periodic according to the London fluxoid quantization condition. The measurement results also confirmed that the fluxoid state inside a superconducting loop can be manipulated using primarily kinetic inductance. By using primarily kinetic inductance rather than magnetic inductance, the size of the coupling inductor was reduced by a factor of 10. As a result, this approach may provide a means to reduce the size of SQUID-based superconducting electronics. Additionally, this method provides a convenient way to perform kinetic inductance characterizations of superconducting thin films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam N McCaughan
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of EECS, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Qingyuan Zhao
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of EECS, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of EECS, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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46
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Kruit P, Hobbs RG, Kim CS, Yang Y, Manfrinato VR, Hammer J, Thomas S, Weber P, Klopfer B, Kohstall C, Juffmann T, Kasevich MA, Hommelhoff P, Berggren KK. Designs for a quantum electron microscope. Ultramicroscopy 2016. [PMID: 26998703 DOI: 10.1016/i.ultramic.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
One of the astounding consequences of quantum mechanics is that it allows the detection of a target using an incident probe, with only a low probability of interaction of the probe and the target. This 'quantum weirdness' could be applied in the field of electron microscopy to generate images of beam-sensitive specimens with substantially reduced damage to the specimen. A reduction of beam-induced damage to specimens is especially of great importance if it can enable imaging of biological specimens with atomic resolution. Following a recent suggestion that interaction-free measurements are possible with electrons, we now analyze the difficulties of actually building an atomic resolution interaction-free electron microscope, or "quantum electron microscope". A quantum electron microscope would require a number of unique components not found in conventional transmission electron microscopes. These components include a coherent electron beam-splitter or two-state-coupler, and a resonator structure to allow each electron to interrogate the specimen multiple times, thus supporting high success probabilities for interaction-free detection of the specimen. Different system designs are presented here, which are based on four different choices of two-state-couplers: a thin crystal, a grating mirror, a standing light wave and an electro-dynamical pseudopotential. Challenges for the detailed electron optical design are identified as future directions for development. While it is concluded that it should be possible to build an atomic resolution quantum electron microscope, we have also identified a number of hurdles to the development of such a microscope and further theoretical investigations that will be required to enable a complete interpretation of the images produced by such a microscope.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Kruit
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628CJ Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - R G Hobbs
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - C-S Kim
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Y Yang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - V R Manfrinato
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - J Hammer
- Department of Physics, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Staudtstrasse 1, d-91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - S Thomas
- Department of Physics, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Staudtstrasse 1, d-91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - P Weber
- Department of Physics, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Staudtstrasse 1, d-91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - B Klopfer
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - C Kohstall
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - T Juffmann
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - M A Kasevich
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - P Hommelhoff
- Department of Physics, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Staudtstrasse 1, d-91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - K K Berggren
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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47
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Chang JB, Kim YH, Thompson E, No YH, Kim NH, Arrieta J, Manfrinato VR, Keating AE, Berggren KK. The Orientations of Large Aspect-Ratio Coiled-Coil Proteins Attached to Gold Nanostructures. Small 2016; 12:1498-1505. [PMID: 26799936 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201502419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Methods for patterning biomolecules on a substrate at the single molecule level have been studied as a route to sensors with single-molecular sensitivity or as a way to probe biological phenomena at the single-molecule level. However, the arrangement and orientation of single biomolecules on substrates has been less investigated. Here, the arrangement and orientation of two rod-like coiled-coil proteins, cortexillin and tropomyosin, around patterned gold nanostructures is examined. The high aspect ratio of the coiled coils makes it possible to study their orientations and to pursue a strategy of protein orientation via two-point attachment. The proteins are anchored to the surfaces using thiol groups, and the number of cysteine residues in tropomyosin is varied to test how this variation affects the structure and arrangement of the surface-attached proteins. Molecular dynamics studies are used to interpret the observed positional distributions. Based on initial studies of protein attachment to gold post structures, two 31-nm-long tropomyosin molecules are aligned between the two sidewalls of a trench with a width of 68 nm. Because the approach presented in this study uses one of twenty natural amino acids, this method provides a convenient way to pattern biomolecules on substrates using standard chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Byum Chang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Yong Ho Kim
- Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea
| | - Evan Thompson
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Young Hyun No
- Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea
| | - Nam Hyeong Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea
| | - Jose Arrieta
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Vitor R Manfrinato
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Amy E Keating
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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48
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Bellei F, Cartwright AP, McCaughan AN, Dane AE, Najafi F, Zhao Q, Berggren KK. Free-space-coupled superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors for infrared optical communications. Opt Express 2016; 24:3248-3257. [PMID: 26906988 DOI: 10.1364/oe.24.003248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes the construction of a cryostat and an optical system with a free-space coupling efficiency of 56.5% ± 3.4% to a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD) for infrared quantum communication and spectrum analysis. A 1K pot decreases the base temperature to T = 1.7 K from the 2.9 K reached by the cold head cooled by a pulse-tube cryocooler. The minimum spot size coupled to the detector chip was 6.6 ± 0.11 µm starting from a fiber source at wavelength, λ = 1.55 µm. We demonstrated photon counting on a detector with an 8 × 7.3 µm2 area. We measured a dark count rate of 95 ± 3.35 kcps and a system detection efficiency of 1.64% ± 0.13%. We explain the key steps that are required to improve further the coupling efficiency.
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49
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Tavakkoli K. G. A, Nicaise SM, Gadelrab KR, Alexander-Katz A, Ross CA, Berggren KK. Multilayer block copolymer meshes by orthogonal self-assembly. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10518. [PMID: 26796218 PMCID: PMC4736107 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Continued scaling-down of lithographic-pattern feature sizes has brought templated self-assembly of block copolymers (BCPs) into the forefront of nanofabrication research. Technologies now exist that facilitate significant control over otherwise unorganized assembly of BCP microdomains to form both long-range and locally complex monolayer patterns. In contrast, the extension of this control into multilayers or 3D structures of BCP microdomains remains limited, despite the possible technological applications in next-generation devices. Here, we develop and analyse an orthogonal self-assembly method in which multiple layers of distinct-molecular-weight BCPs naturally produce nanomesh structures of cylindrical microdomains without requiring layer-by-layer alignment or high-resolution lithographic templating. The mechanisms for orthogonal self-assembly are investigated with both experiment and simulation, and we determine that the control over height and chemical preference of templates are critical process parameters. The method is employed to produce nanomeshes with the shapes of circles and Y-intersections, and is extended to produce three layers of orthogonally oriented cylinders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Tavakkoli K. G.
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Samuel M. Nicaise
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karim R. Gadelrab
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Alfredo Alexander-Katz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Caroline A. Ross
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karl K. Berggren
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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50
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Abstract
Hydrothermally synthesized ZnO nanowire arrays are critical components in a range of nanostructured semiconductor devices. The device performance is governed by relevant nanowire morphological parameters that cannot be fully controlled during bulk hydrothermal synthesis due to its transient nature. Here, we maintain homeostatic zinc concentration, pH, and temperature by employing continuous flow synthesis and demonstrate independent tailoring of nanowire array dimensions including areal density, length, and diameter on device-relevant length scales. By applying diffusion/reaction-limited analysis, we separate the effect of local diffusive transport from the c-plane surface reaction rate and identify direct incorporation as the c-plane growth mechanism. Our analysis defines guidelines for precise and independent control of the nanowire length and diameter by operating in rate-limiting regimes. We validate its utility by using surface adsorbents that limit reaction rate to obtain spatially uniform vertical growth rates across a patterned substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayce J Cheng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and ‡Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Samuel M Nicaise
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and ‡Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Karl K Berggren
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and ‡Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Silvija Gradečak
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and ‡Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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