Telemonitoring of the Continuum of Care of Hepatitis C During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Brazil

Introduction: To accomplish elimination of hepatitis C virus (HCV) by 2030, as proposed by the World Health Organization, the Brazilian Ministry of Health outlined the Hepatitis C Elimination Plan, which provides coverage of all critical steps in the continuum of care (CoC) of hepatitis C. As expected, the advent of COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the CoC of hepatitis C worldwide. The Brazilian Liver Institute launched a remote patient monitoring (RPM) program to assist the general population at risk in HCV testing and to provide linkage and retention to care for HCV-positive subjects. The RPM program was also designed to relink HCV-positive patients lost to follow-up during the COVID-19 pandemic due to their limited access to the health care system. Methods: The HCV telemonitoring number was highly advertised in Brazilian media. The RPM program was conducted by dedicated health care personnel trained to follow a predefined script designed to provide awareness, ensure consistent information for educational purposes, and recruit eligible participants to be tested for HCV. Results: From August 2020 to December 2021, 3,738 subjects entered in contact with RPM. There were 26,884 interactions (mean 7.2 interactions per participant), mostly by WhatsApp (78%). Twenty out of those 221 subjects (9%) who tested were HCV positive. Those subjects altogether with 128 other patients with HCV, tested elsewhere, were followed in the HCV CoC. Up to now, 94% of them were linked to care, 24% are undergoing treatment and 8% achieved sustained virological response (SVR). Conclusions: Our preliminary results showed that HCV CoC telemonitoring was a feasible and useful strategy to follow HCV at-risk subjects through all cascade of care until SVR during the COVID-19 health care disruption. It could be used beyond the defervescence of SARS-CoV-2 pandemic to ensure linkage to care of those HCV-positive patients.

Improvement of indirect immunofluorescence technique to detect antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies and its impact on test positivity rate

The indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) technique for antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) detection is subject to substantial differences across laboratories. This study aimed to assess the impact of improvements in the IIF-ANCA technique on the positivity rate of ANCA tests. A cross-sectional study was performed with serum samples from patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), and ulcerative colitis (UC). A paired analysis was performed for IIF-ANCA results using the traditional method and a modified protocol after a series of specific adjustments in the technique based on the protocol of IIF-ANCA test performed at a nation-wide private laboratory in Brazil. ANCA specificity was assessed by ELISA for anti-proteinase 3 (PR3) and anti-myeloperoxidase (MPO) antibodies. Sixty-one patients were evaluated. The positivity rate of IIF-ANCA tests at disease presentation performed at the University reference laboratory was 32.3% in AAV, AIH, and UC patients, whereas the positivity rates of IIF-ANCA and ELISA tests in other laboratories were 75.0 and 72.7%, respectively. After modifications in the IIF-ANCA technique, there was a significant increase in the positivity rate (14.8 vs 34.3%; P=0.0002) and in median titers [1/40 (1/30-1/160) vs 1/80 (1/40-1/80); P=0.0003] in AAV, AIH, and UC patients. UC had the highest increment in positive results from 5.3 to 36.8%. There was poor agreement between MPO- or PR3-ANCA and both IIF-ANCA techniques. In conclusion, modifications in the IIF-ANCA protocol led to a significant improvement in its positivity rate and titers.

Choosing wisely recommendations regarding the top five list of procedures to avoid in the treatment of viral hepatitis: A position statement from the Brazilian Society of Hepatology endorsed by the Latin American Association for the Study of the liver

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

The Choosing Wisely (CW) initiative aims to improve daily practice supported by evidence concerning unnecessary medical tests, procedures, and treatments. This philosophy is essential in managing viral hepatitis (VH), which primary care physicians increasingly carry out. It is also essential to achieving disease elimination. Thus, the aim of our study was to propose evidence-based CW recommendations in VH.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Brazilian Society of Hepatology (SBH) formed a panel of experts in VH who selected evidence-based CW recommendations, which were subsequently scrutinized and ranked by all members of SBH using a web-based approach.

RESULTS

Five recommendations were chosen in order of importance: 1) do not order anti-HCV testing after achieving sustained virological response; 2) do not request serial HCV viral load to evaluate HCV progression, 3) do not add ribavirin to direct-acting antivirals in non-cirrhotic, naïve HCV patients; 4) do not screen for hepatocellular carcinoma in HCV patients with none to moderate fibrosis (≤ F2); 5) do not request anti-HBs after HBV vaccination, except for children born to HBV-infected mothers, hemodialysis patients, healthcare professionals, people who have had sexual contact with chronic HBV carriers, HIV-positive persons and immunocompromised individuals (hematopoietic stem-cell transplant recipients or persons receiving chemotherapy).

CONCLUSIONS

CW recommendations may help general practitioners adopt a more rational and cost-effective approach in managing patients with VH in Brazil and Latin America, leading to lesser waste or harm to patients.

Clinical features and treatment outcomes of primary biliary cholangitis in a highly admixed population

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Little is known about primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) in non-whites. The purpose of this study was to evaluate clinical features and outcomes of PBC in a highly admixed population.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Brazilian Cholestasis Study Group multicentre database was reviewed to assess demographics, clinical features and treatment outcomes of Brazilian patients with PBC.

RESULTS

562 patients (95% females, mean age 51 ± 11 years) with PBC were included. Concurrent autoimmune diseases and overlap with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) occurred, respectively, in 18.9% and 14%. After a mean follow-up was 6.2 ± 5.3 years, 32% had cirrhosis, 7% underwent liver transplantation and 3% died of liver-related causes. 96% were treated with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and 12% required add-on therapy with fibrates, either bezafibrate, fenofibrate or ciprofibrate. Response to UDCA and to UDCA/fibrates therapy varied from 39%-67% and 42-61%, respectively, according to different validated criteria. Advanced histological stages and non-adherence to treatment were associated with primary non-response to UDCA, while lower baseline alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels correlated with better responses to both UDCA and UDCA/fibrates.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical features of PBC in highly admixed Brazilians were similar to those reported in Caucasians and Asians, but with inferior rates of overlap syndrome with AIH. Response to UDCA was lower than expected and inversely associated with histological stage and baseline AST and ALP levels. Most of patients benefited from add-on fibrates, including ciprofibrate. A huge heterogeneity in response to UDCA therapy according to available international criteria was observed and reinforces the need of global standardization.

Brazilian registry for the elimination of hepatitis C in dialysis units: a call to action for Nephrology

Infection by the hepatitis C virus is more prevalent in patients on dialysis than in the general population in Brazil, and has been associated with worse outcomes. Current therapy for hepatitis C is highly effective, safe, and widely available in Brazil, with coverage provided to dialysis patients with chronic kidney disease, which makes the elimination of hepatitis C a viable target. The Brazilian Society of Nephrology, the Brazilian Society of Hepatology, and the Brazilian Liver Institute developed the "Brazilian Registry for the Elimination of Hepatitis C in Dialysis Units". This project aims to identify, treat, and monitor the response to treatment of patients on chronic dialysis infected with the hepatitis C virus in Brazil. This article presents the issue and invites Brazilian nephrologists to rally around the achievement of a significant goal.

Disease burden of chronic hepatitis C in Brazil

Background

Hepatitis C virus infection is a major cause of cirrhosis; hepatocellular carcinoma; and liver transplantation. The aim of this study was to estimate hepatitis C virus disease progression and the burden of disease from a nationwide perspective.

Methods

Using a model developed to forecast hepatitis C virus disease progression and the number of cases at each stage of liver disease; hepatitis C virus-infected population and associated disease progression in Brazil were quantified. The impact of two different strategies was compared: higher sustained virological response and treatment eligibility rates (1) or higher diagnosis and treatment rates associated with increased sustained virological response rates (2).

Results

The number of infected individuals is estimated to decline by 35% by 2030 (1,255,000 individuals); while the number of cases of compensated (n = 325,900) and decompensated (n = 45,000) cirrhosis; hepatocellular carcinoma (n = 19,100); and liver-related deaths (n = 16,700) is supposed to peak between 2028 and 2032. In strategy 2; treated cases increased over tenfold in 2020 (118,800 treated) as compared to 2013 (11,740 treated); with sustained virological response increased to 90% and treatment eligibility to 95%. Under this strategy; the number of infected individuals decreased by 90% between 2013 and 2030. Compared to the base case; liver-related deaths decreased by 70% by 2030; while hepatitis C virus-related liver cancer and decompensated cirrhosis decreased by 75 and 80%; respectively.

Conclusions

While the incidence and prevalence of hepatitis C virus in Brazil are decreasing; cases of advanced liver disease continue to rise. Besides higher sustained virological response rates; new strategies focused on increasing the proportion of diagnosed patients and eligibility to treatment should be adopted in order to reduce the burden of hepatitis C virus infection in Brazil.

Historical epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in selected countries

Chronic infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a leading indicator for liver disease. New treatment options are becoming available, and there is a need to characterize the epidemiology and disease burden of HCV. Data for prevalence, viremia, genotype, diagnosis and treatment were obtained through literature searches and expert consensus for 16 countries. For some countries, data from centralized registries were used to estimate diagnosis and treatment rates. Data for the number of liver transplants and the proportion attributable to HCV were obtained from centralized databases. Viremic prevalence estimates varied widely between countries, ranging from 0.3% in Austria, England and Germany to 8.5% in Egypt. The largest viremic populations were in Egypt, with 6,358,000 cases in 2008 and Brazil with 2,106,000 cases in 2007. The age distribution of cases differed between countries. In most countries, prevalence rates were higher among males, reflecting higher rates of injection drug use. Diagnosis, treatment and transplant levels also differed considerably between countries. Reliable estimates characterizing HCV-infected populations are critical for addressing HCV-related morbidity and mortality. There is a need to quantify the burden of chronic HCV infection at the national level.

The present and future disease burden of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection with today's treatment paradigm

The disease burden of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is expected to increase as the infected population ages. A modelling approach was used to estimate the total number of viremic infections, diagnosed, treated and new infections in 2013. In addition, the model was used to estimate the change in the total number of HCV infections, the disease progression and mortality in 2013-2030. Finally, expert panel consensus was used to capture current treatment practices in each country. Using today's treatment paradigm, the total number of HCV infections is projected to decline or remain flat in all countries studied. However, in the same time period, the number of individuals with late-stage liver disease is projected to increase. This study concluded that the current treatment rate and efficacy are not sufficient to manage the disease burden of HCV. Thus, alternative strategies are required to keep the number of HCV individuals with advanced liver disease and liver-related deaths from increasing.

Strategies to manage hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease burden

The number of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections is projected to decline while those with advanced liver disease will increase. A modeling approach was used to forecast two treatment scenarios: (i) the impact of increased treatment efficacy while keeping the number of treated patients constant and (ii) increasing efficacy and treatment rate. This analysis suggests that successful diagnosis and treatment of a small proportion of patients can contribute significantly to the reduction of disease burden in the countries studied. The largest reduction in HCV-related morbidity and mortality occurs when increased treatment is combined with higher efficacy therapies, generally in combination with increased diagnosis. With a treatment rate of approximately 10%, this analysis suggests it is possible to achieve elimination of HCV (defined as a >90% decline in total infections by 2030). However, for most countries presented, this will require a 3-5 fold increase in diagnosis and/or treatment. Thus, building the public health and clinical provider capacity for improved diagnosis and treatment will be critical.

Prediction of significant liver fibrosis in kidney transplant patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection: the TX-3 index

HCV infection is highly prevalent among kidney transplant (KT) recipients. The natural history and management of these patients are controversial. We sought to assess the diagnostic value of noninvasive markers of liver fibrosis in KT HCV-infected patients. This cross-sectional study included 102 KT individuals with positive HCV-RNA. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to identify variables associated with significant fibrosis (METAVIR > or = F2). Significant fibrosis was observed in 20 patients (20%). Time after transplantation, AST level, and platelet count were identified as independent predictors of significant fibrosis. Based on the regression model, a simplified index was devised. The AUROC for the TX-3 model was 0.867 +/- 0.081 (0.909, when adjusted by DANA). Values < or =4.0 of TX-3 showed a NPV of 97% and scores >9.6 exhibited a PPV of 71%. If biopsy indication was restricted to scores in the intermediate range of TX-3, this could have been correctly avoided in 68% of cases. The APRI score provided a correct diagnosis in only 47 individuals (46%) and exhibited lower diagnostic indices for both cutoffs, as compared to the TX-3 index. Comparison of AUROCs showed a trend towards superior diagnostic accuracy for TX-3 over APRI, although the difference between AUROCs did not reach statistical significance (0.867 +/- 0.053 vs 0.762 +/- 0.066, respectively, P = 0.064). In conclusion, significant liver fibrosis can be reliably predicted in KT HCV-infected subjects by simple and widely available parameters. If additional studies confirm our results, this model might obviate the requirement for a liver biopsy in a significant proportion of those patients.

Serum levels of YKL-40 and hyaluronic acid as noninvasive markers of liver fibrosis in haemodialysis patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is highly prevalent among end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients undergoing haemodialysis and it is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in this population. The aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of YKL-40 and hyaluronic acid (HA) as noninvasive markers of liver fibrosis in 185 ESRD HCV-infected patients. Significant liver fibrosis was defined as METAVIR F2, F3 or F4 stages. Significant fibrosis was observed in 45 patients (24%). By univariate analysis, higher levels of YKL-40, HA, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) as well as reduced platelet count were associated with fibrosis. However, by multivariate analysis, only AST (P = 0.001), platelet count (P = 0.004) and HA (P = 0.042) were independently associated with significant fibrosis. For the prediction of significant fibrosis, the areas under receiver operating characterictic curve (AUROC) of the regression model (0.798) was significantly higher than the AUROC of YKL-40 (0.607) and HA (0.650). No difference was noted between the AUROC of the regression model and AST to platelet ratio index (APRI) (0.787). Values <8.38 of the regression model showed a negative predictive value of 94% and scores >or=9.6 exhibited a positive predictive value of 65%. If biopsy indication was restricted to scores in the intermediate range of the regression model, it could have been correctly avoided in 61% of the cases. In conclusion, APRI and a model based on AST, platelet count and HA showed better accuracy than YKL-40 and HA (when used solely) for the prediction of significant fibrosis in ESRD HCV-infected patients.

Anti-hepatitis C virus-positive blood donors: are women any different?

We sought to assess clinical, epidemiological, biochemical, serological and histological characteristics of anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive female blood donors and compare them with men. As women are frequently the minority among blood donors, studies evaluating this population usually reflect characteristics of male gender. This retrospective study included 380 blood donors with confirmed positive anti-HCV. The mean age was 36.9 +/- 11.3 years and 33.2% were women. Compared with men, female donors showed higher prevalence of prior transfusion of blood products (P = 0.031) and lower prevalence of intravenous drug use (P = 0.001) and alcohol abuse (P < 0.001). Women exhibited lower medians of alanine aminotransferase (P < 0.001) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (P < 0.001). They also showed higher platelet count (P < 0.001) and prothrombin activity (P = 0.049), and a lower frequency of antibody against core antigen of hepatitis B virus (anti-HBc) positivity (P = 0.032). A higher proportion of spontaneous viral clearance (P = 0.001) and a lower frequency of viraemia (P < 0.001) were observed among women. On liver biopsy, women had lower prevalence of fibrosis stage > or = 2. Multivariate analysis identified age (OR = 1.050, 95% CI: 1.019-1.081, P = 0.001) and anti-HBc positivity (OR = 2.184, 95% CI: 1.010-4.722, P = 0.047) as independent predictors of significant fibrosis. Female blood donors presented higher prevalence of spontaneous viral clearance as well as biochemical and histological evidence of less advanced liver disease. These findings could be because of intrinsic characteristics of female gender or secondary to associated factors such as younger age or anti-HBc positivity.

Weight-based combination therapy with peginterferon alpha-2b and ribavirin for naïve, relapser and non-responder patients with chronic hepatitis C

Combination therapy with pegylated interferon and ribavirin is considered the new standard therapy for naïve patients with chronic hepatitis C. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of treatment with weight-based peginterferon alpha-2b (1.5 mg/kg per week) plus ribavirin (800-1,200 mg/day) for 48 weeks in naïve, relapser and non-responder (to previous treatment with interferon plus ribavirin) patients with chronic hepatitis C. Sixty-seven naïve, 26 relapser and 40 non-responder patients were enrolled. The overall sustained virological response (SVR) for the intention-to-treat population was 54% for naïve, 62% for relapser and 38% for non-responder patients. In the naïve subgroup, SVR was significantly higher in patients with the non-1 genotype (67%) compared to those with genotype 1 (45%). In relapsers and non-responders, SVR was, respectively, 69% and 24% in patients with genotype 1 and 43% and 73% in those with genotype non-1. There were no significant differences in SVR rates among the three body weight ranges (<65 kg, 65-85 kg and >85 kg) in any of the subgroups. Early virological response (EVR) was reached by 78%, 81% and 58% of naïve, relapser and non-responder patients, respectively, and among those with EVR, 63%, 67% and 61%, respectively, subsequently achieved SVR. All of the non-responder patients who did not have EVR reached SVR. Treatment was discontinued in 13% of the patients, due to loss to follow-up, hematological abnormalities or depression.

Lack of Impact of Hepatitis C Virus Coinfection in End-Stage Renal Disease Patients With Hepatitis B Virus Infection

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection results in more severe forms of liver disease in nonuremic patients; however, the impact of HCV coinfection is not clearly known in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients with HBV infection. We sought to determine the impact of HCV coinfection in HBV-infected ESRD patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The HBsAg-positive ESRD patients evaluated between March 1999 and May 2003 were divided into two groups: group B, HBV infection alone, and group BC, HBV-HCV coinfection (anti-HCV-positive). Both groups were compared regarding epidemiological, laboratory, and histological findings. A liver biopsy was obtained in cases with evidence of viral replication and/or elevated alanine aminotransferase.

RESULTS

One hundred patients (73% men) with mean age of 42 +/- 11 years (55 patients in group B and 45 in group BC) were studied. Comparison between groups showed a difference in time on hemodialysis and duration of infection, which were higher in group BC (P < .001 and P = .001, respectively) and in history of blood transfusion, which was also more frequent in group BC (P = .04). Liver biopsies, obtained from 15 patients in group B and 28 patients in group BC, showed no difference in frequency of septal fibrosis (60% in group B vs 48% in group BC, P = .46) or interface hepatitis (73% vs 71%, P = .99).

CONCLUSIONS

HBV-HCV coinfection was related to a longer time on hemodialysis, longer duration of infection, and history of blood transfusion. Contrary to nonuremic patients, HCV coinfection was not associated with more severe forms of liver disease in ESRD patients.

Demographic and anthropometrical analysis and genotype distribution of chronic hepatitis C patients treated in public and private reference centers in Brazil

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a serious public health problem, since 80% to 85% of HCV carriers develop a persistent infection that can progress into liver cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma. Considering that the response of hepatitis C patients to combination therapy with interferon and ribavirin depends on HCV characteristics as well as on host features, we made a retrospective analysis of demographic and anthropometrical data and HCV genotype distribution of chronic hepatitis C patients treated in public and private reference centers in Brazil. The medical records of 4,996 patients were reviewed, 81% from public and 19% from private institutions. Patients' median age was 46 years, and there was a higher prevalence of male (62%) and white patients (80%). The analysis of HCV-infecting strains showed a predominance of genotype 1 (64%) over genotypes 2 and 3. The patients' mean weight was 70.6 kg, and 65% of the patients weighed less than 77 kg. Overweight and obesity were observed in 37.8% and 13.6% of the patients, respectively. Since a body weight of 75 kg or less has been considered an independent factor that significantly increases the odds of achieving a sustained virological response, the Brazilian population seems to have a more favorable body weight profile to achieve a sustained response than the American and European populations. The finding that 65% of chronic hepatitis C patients have a body weight of 77 kg or less may have a positive pharmacoeconomic impact on the treatment of genotype 1 HCV patients with weight-based doses of peginterferon.

Prevalence of previous hepatitis A virus infection in renal transplant patients with hepatitis C: evidence of persistent anti-hepatitis A virus immune response

Data concerning the prevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection among kidney transplant recipients are scarce. There is little information concerning natural immunity acquired after acute HAV infection. In most renal transplant recipients, anti-HAV antibodies are not detectable after vaccination; it is reasonable to suppose that immunosuppressive therapy interferes with the immunity. The objective of this study was to evaluate, in an endemic area, the prevalence of anti-HAV immunoglobulin (Ig)G in renal transplant recipients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. The prevalence of anti-HAV IgG was assessed in 40 HCV-positive renal transplant recipients. This group showed a 90% prevalence of previous HAV infection. These findings suggest that in an endemic area, the prevalence of previous HAV infection is high, even among immunosuppressed patients. HAV antibodies acquired after natural infection are detectable even after the onset of immunosuppressive therapy. These data should be considered when renal transplant recipients are considered for HAV vaccination. Prevaccination screening of renal transplant recipients must follow the same guidelines as those for immunocompetent subjects.

Interferon-alpha receptor 1 mRNA expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells is associated with response to interferon-alpha therapy of patients with chronic hepatitis C

Interferon (IFN)-alpha receptor mRNA expression in liver of patients with chronic hepatitis C has been shown to be a response to IFN-alpha therapy. The objective of the present study was to determine whether the expression of mRNA for subunit 1 of the IFN-alpha receptor (IFNAR1) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) is associated with the response to IFN-alpha in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Thirty patients with positive anti-HCV and HCV-RNA, and abnormal levels of alanine aminotransferase in serum were selected and treated with IFN-alpha 2b for one year. Those with HBV or HIV infection, or using alcohol were not included. Thirteen discontinued the treatment and were not evaluated. The IFN-alpha response was monitored on the basis of alanine aminotransferase level and positivity for HCV-RNA in serum. IFNAR1-mRNA expression in PBMC was measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction before and during the first three months of therapy. The results are reported as IFNAR1-mRNA/beta-actin-mRNA ratio (mean +/- SD). Before treatment, responder patients had significantly higher IFNAR1-mRNA expression in PBMC (0.67 +/- 0.15; N = 5; P < 0.05) compared to non-responders (0.35 +/- 0.17; N = 12) and controls (0.30 +/- 0.16; N = 9). Moreover, IFNAR1-mRNA levels were significantly reduced after 3 months of treatment in responders, whereas there were no differences in IFNAR1 expression in non-responders during IFN-alpha therapy. Basal IFNAR1-mRNA expression was not correlated with the serum level of alanine and aspartate aminotransferases or the presence of cirrhosis. The present results suggest that IFNAR1-mRNA expression in PBMC is associated with IFN-alpha response to hepatitis C and may be useful for monitoring therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis C.

In vitro-induced antibody production in chronic hepatitis C virus infection

The objectives of the present study were to assess the in vitro-induced anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody production (IVIAP) in relation to the clinical, biochemical, virologic and histologic variables of patients with HCV infection. The study included 57 patients (60% males) with HCV infection (anti-HCV and HCV-RNA positive). Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) was elevated in 89% of the patients. Mean viral load was 542,241 copies/ml and histology of the liver showed chronic hepatitis in 27/52 (52%) and cirrhosis in 11/52 (21%) patients. IVIAP levels were determined by immunoenzymatic assay at median absorbance of 0.781 at 450 nm. IVIAP was negative in 14% of the patients. When groups with IVIAP levels above and below the median were compared, high IVIAP levels were associated with the male sex, elevated ALT levels and more advanced disease stage. After logistic regression analysis, advanced histologic damage to the liver remained as the only independent variable associated with elevated IVIAP levels. Using a receiver operator characteristic curve, the best cut-off level for IVIAP was established (= 1.540), with 71% sensitivity and 94% specificity for the detection of more advanced disease stages (grades 3 and 4). These findings are consistent with the participation of immunological mechanisms in the genesis of the hepatic lesions induced by HCV and indicate that the IVIAP test may be useful as a noninvasive marker of liver damage either alone or in combination with other markers.