Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells Modified with the NS5A Gene of Hepatitis C Virus Induce a Cellular Immune Response Exceeding the Response to DNA Immunization with This Gene

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the basic culprits behind chronic liver disease, which may result in cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma. In spite of the extensive research conducted, a vaccine against HCV has not been yet created. We have obtained human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and used them for expressing the HCV NS5A protein as a model vaccination platform. Sixteen hMSC lines of a different origin were transfected with the pcNS5A-GFP plasmid to obtain genetically modified MSCs (mMSCs). The highest efficiency was obtained by the transfection of dental pulp MSCs. C57BL/6 mice were immunized intravenously with mMSCs, and the immune response was compared with the response to the pcNS5A-GFP plasmid, which was injected intramuscularly. It was shown that the antigen-specific lymphocyte proliferation and the number of IFN-γ-synthesizing cells were two to three times higher after the mMSC immunization compared to the DNA immunization. In addition, mMSCs induced more CD4+ memory T cells and an increase in the CD4+/CD8+ ratio. The results suggest that the immunostimulatory effect of mMSCs is associated with the switch of MSCs to the pro-inflammatory phenotype and a decrease in the proportion of myeloid derived suppressor cells. Thus, the possibility of using human mMSCs for the creation of a vaccine against HCV has been shown for the first time.

Complete and Prolonged Inhibition of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection In Vitro by CRISPR/Cas9 and CRISPR/CasX Systems

Almost all people become infected with herpes viruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), during their lifetime. Typically, these viruses persist in a latent form that is resistant to all available antiviral medications. Under certain conditions, such as immunosuppression, the latent forms reactivate and cause disease. Moreover, strains of herpesviruses that are drug-resistant have rapidly emerged. Therefore, it is important to develop alternative methods capable of eradicating herpesvirus infections. One promising direction is the development of CRISPR/Cas systems for the therapy of herpesvirus infections. We aimed to design a CRISPR/Cas system for relatively effective long-term and safe control of HSV-1 infection. Here, we show that plasmids encoding the CRISPR/Cas9 system from Streptococcus pyogenes with a single sgRNA targeting the UL30 gene can completely suppress HSV-1 infection of the Vero cell line within 6 days and provide substantial protection within 9 days. For the first time, we show that CRISPR/CasX from Deltaproteobacteria with a single guide RNA against UL30 almost completely suppresses HSV-1 infection of the Vero cell line for 3 days and provides substantial protection for 6 days. We also found that the Cas9 protein without sgRNAs attenuates HSV-1 infection. Our results show that the developed CRISPR/Cas systems are promising therapeutic approaches to control HSV-1 infections.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells Can Both Enhance and Inhibit the Cellular Response to DNA Immunization by Genes of Nonstructural Proteins of the Hepatitis C Virus

Despite extensive research, there is still no vaccine against the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The aim of this study was to investigate whether MSCs can exhibit adjuvant properties during DNA vaccination against hepatitis C. We used the pcNS3-NS5B plasmid encoding five nonstructural HCV proteins and MSCs derived from mice bone marrow. Five groups of DBA mice were immunized with the plasmid and/or MSCs in a different order. Group 1 was injected with the plasmid twice at intervals of 3 weeks; Group 2 with the plasmid, and after 24 h with MSCs; Group 3 with MSCs followed by the plasmid the next day; Group 4 with only MSCs; and Group 5 with saline. When the MSCs were injected prior to DNA immunization, the cell immune response to HCV proteins assessed by the level of IFN-γ synthesis was markedly increased compared to DNA alone. In contrast, MSCs injected after DNA suppressed the immune response. Apparently, the high level of proinflammatory cytokines detected after DNA injection promotes the conversion of MSCs introduced later into the immunosuppressive MSC2. The low level of cytokines in mice before MSC administration promotes the high immunostimulatory activity of MSC1 in response to a DNA vaccine. Thus, when administered before DNA, MSCs are capable of exhibiting promising adjuvant properties.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells Can Both Enhance and Inhibit the Cellular Response to DNA Immunization by Genes of Nonstructural Proteins of the Hepatitis C Virus

Despite extensive research, there is still no vaccine against the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The aim of this study was to investigate whether MSCs can exhibit adjuvant properties during DNA vaccination against hepatitis C. We used the pcNS3-NS5B plasmid encoding five nonstructural HCV proteins and MSCs derived from mice bone marrow. Five groups of DBA mice were immunized with the plasmid and/or MSCs in a different order. Group 1 was injected with the plasmid twice at intervals of 3 weeks; Group 2 with the plasmid, and after 24 h with MSCs; Group 3 with MSCs followed by the plasmid the next day; Group 4 with only MSCs; and Group 5 with saline. When the MSCs were injected prior to DNA immunization, the cell immune response to HCV proteins assessed by the level of IFN-γ synthesis was markedly increased compared to DNA alone. In contrast, MSCs injected after DNA suppressed the immune response. Apparently, the high level of proinflammatory cytokines detected after DNA injection promotes the conversion of MSCs introduced later into the immunosuppressive MSC2. The low level of cytokines in mice before MSC administration promotes the high immunostimulatory activity of MSC1 in response to a DNA vaccine. Thus, when administered before DNA, MSCs are capable of exhibiting promising adjuvant properties.

[Preventive Vaccination with Mesenchymal Stem Cells Protects Mice from Lethal Infection Caused by Herpes Simplex Virus 1]

Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) infect almost all organs and tissues, cause genital herpes-the most common sexually transmitted disease-disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), and lead to severe complications in children. Despite the available drugs, the incidence of HSV-1/2 continues to rise. None of the prophylactic vaccine candidates have shown a protective effect in trials nor approval for use in clinical practice. We have investigated the protective properties of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) isolated from the bone marrow of mice. A comparative analysis of the protective response to the introduction of primary and modified MSCs (mMSC) was carried out using the plasmid containing gene of the HSV and an inactivated virus in a model of lethal HSV-1 infection in mice. mMSCs were obtained by transfection of the Us6 gene encoding glycoprotein D (gD) of the HSV, the plasmid contained the same gene. After twofold immunization with primary MSCs, the formation of antibodies interacting with the viral antigen (according to enzyme immunoassay data) and neutralizing the infectious activity of HSV-1 in the reaction of biological neutralization was observed in the peripheral blood of mice. In addition, the introduction of primary MSCs induced the production of interferon gamma (INF-γ) which is detected in the peripheral blood of mice. After infection with HSV-1, the immunized mice showed significantly increased titers of virus-specific antibodies, an increased level of IFNγ, and were completely protected from lethal HSV-1 infection. The protective effect of the other three immunogens was lower and did not exceed 50-65%. Considering the wide availability of MSCs, the proven safety of intravenous administration, and the results obtained in this work on the ability to induce innate, adaptive and protective immunity to HSV-1, MSCs can be considered a promising basis for the development of new cellular vaccines for the prevention of herpesvirus and other viral infections.

[The role of herpesviruses in development of diseases of the urogenital tract and infertility in women]

This review presents the data on the spreading of all known human herpesviruses (НHVs) in female urogenital tract. According to the WHO almost 500 million people worldwide suffer from genital infection caused by НHVs. НHVs were detected in various inflammatory diseases of female upper and lower genital tract (vaginitis and cervicitis), in extrauterine pregnancy (in fallopian tubes), in infertility (cervical channel, endometrium and ovaries). Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV‑1) was identified for the first time in oocytes after failed in vitro fertilization (IVF). НHVs produce negative effect on the entire reproductive process from conception to childbirth. It was established that HSV, cytomegalovirus (CMV) and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) markedly increase the risk of spontaneous abortion, preterm birth and stillbirth. Intrauterine НHV infection is a major cause of congenital malformations. Data on humoral and cell immunity in genital herpesvirus infections (НHVI) are also reviewed. Intravaginal HSV‑2 infection changes cell composition of vaginal mucosa, i.e., together with cells mobilized from the blood, protective role is performed by resident memory T‑cells (TRM), natural killer cells (NK‑cells) and regulatory T‑cells (Treg) whose function consists in maintaining the balance of the activities of lymphocytes. Constant НHVI spreading is largely explained by transition of primary infection to potentially reactivating latent form, since latent virus is unavailable to immune recognition and medicines. The genome editing system CRISPR/Cas9 can recognize and modify not only active but also latent viruses. The promising pilot results with the use of this system offer the possibility of developing innovative technologies for НHV elimination and НHVI eradication.

[Development and properties of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies for fusion protein of respiratory syncytial virus.]

INTRODUCTION

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and the elderly. The absence of a wide range of therapeutic drugs and vaccines indicates to the high relevance of the development of new effective drugs for the prevention and treatment of RSV infections.

PURPOSE

to obtain highly active and specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) capable of detecting RSV in infected cells and neutralizing the infectious activity of the virus in vitro.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

RSV reference strains of group A 2 subgroups (A2 and Long) were propagated in HEp-2 and MA-104 cell lines, respectively. Mice were immunized with purified RSV A2 virus. MAbs were obtained using hybridoma technology.

RESULTS

A panel of 6 MAbs reacting with RSV strains А2 and Long has been obtained. Four MAbs were IgG (IgG2a or IgG2b subtype), two MAbs were IgM. All MAbs reacted with RSV F-protein in immunochemical tests. The MAbs actively reacted with RSV in ELISA, in immufluorescence and peroxidase staining of infected cells, and in immunodot test. Five out of 6 MAbs neutralized of RSV in cell culture. Different properties of MAbs suggest that they target different antigenic sites of F-protein.

DISCUSSION

Comparative analysis suggests that the obtained MAbs can be used for the development of diagnostic preparations, for RSV detection in clinical materials and confirmation of infection etiology by rapid culture method.

CONCLUSION

High activity and specificity of MAbs indicate that they can serve as a basis for development vaccines and preventive medicines.

DNA sequence-specific ligands. XVIII. Synthesis, physico-chemical properties; genetic, virological, and biochemical studies of fluorescent dimeric bisbenzimidazoles DBPA(n)

A set of AT-specific fluorescent dimeric bisbenzimidazoles DBPA(n) with linkers of different lengths bound to DNA in the minor groove were synthesized and their genetic, virological, and biochemical studies were performed. The DBPA(n) were shown to be effective inhibitors of the histon-like protein H-NS, a regulator of the DNA transcription factor, as well as of the Aliivibrio logei Quorum Sensing regulatory system in E. coli cells. Their antiviral activity was tested in model cell lines infected with herpes simplex virus type I. Also, it was found that DBPA(n) could inhibit catalytic activities of HIV-1 integrase at low micromolar concentrations. All of the dimeric bisbenzimidazoles DBPA(n) manifested fluorescent properties, were well soluble in water, nontoxic up to concentrations of 200 µM, and could penetrate into nuclei followed by binding to DNA.

Genetically Modified Mouse Mesenchymal Stem Cells Expressing Non-Structural Proteins of Hepatitis C Virus Induce Effective Immune Response

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the major causes of chronic liver disease and leads to cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma. Despite extensive research, there is still no vaccine against HCV. In order to induce an immune response in DBA/2J mice against HCV, we obtained modified mouse mesenchymal stem cells (mMSCs) simultaneously expressing five nonstructural HCV proteins (NS3-NS5B). The innate immune response to mMSCs was higher than to DNA immunization, with plasmid encoding the same proteins, and to naïve unmodified MSCs. mMSCs triggered strong phagocytic activity, enhanced lymphocyte proliferation, and production of type I and II interferons. The adaptive immune response to mMSCs was also more pronounced than in the case of DNA immunization, as exemplified by a fourfold stronger stimulation of lymphocyte proliferation in response to HCV, a 2.6-fold higher rate of biosynthesis, and a 30-fold higher rate of secretion of IFN-γ, as well as by a 40-fold stronger production of IgG2a antibodies to viral proteins. The immunostimulatory effect of mMSCs was associated with pronounced IL-6 secretion and reduction in the population of myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Thus, this is the first example that suggests the feasibility of using mMSCs for the development of an effective anti-HCV vaccine.

Thiophene-based water-soluble fullerene derivatives as highly potent antiherpetic pharmaceuticals

Here we report the Friedel-Crafts arylation of chlorofullerenes C60Cl6 and C70Cl8 with thiophene-based methyl esters. While C60Cl6 formed expected Cs-C60R5Cl products, C70Cl8 demonstrated a tendency for both substitution of chlorine atoms and addition of an extra thiophene unit, thus forming Cs-C70R8 and C1-C70R9H compounds. The synthesized water-soluble C60 and C70 fullerene derivatives with thiophene-based addends demonstrated high activity against a broad range of viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus, influenza virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus. The record activity of C70 fullerene derivatives against herpes simplex virus together with low toxicity in mice makes them promising candidates for the development of novel non-nucleoside antiherpetic drugs.

[Mesenchymal stem cells enhance immune response and protect mice against lethal herpes viral infection.]

The objective of this study was to evaluate immunoregulatory and protective potential of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) in a mouse model of lethal HSV1 infection. MSC were isolated from bone marrow of DBA mice and cultured in flasks with DMEM containing 10% FBS, insulin, transferrin, selenite, fbroblast growth factor, glutaminе and gentamicin. Antiviral activity was tested on HSV1-infected Vero cells. In vivo experiments were performed on DBA mice divided into 5 groups (10 animals each): group 1, intact (naïve) mice; group 2, intravenous (iv) MSC injection; group 3, ntraperitoneal infection with 20 LD50 HSV1 followed by MSC injection; group 4, HSV1 infection followed by acyclovir (ACV) injection; group 5, HSV1 infection and iv injection of saline. Isolated cells were consistent with MSC morphologically, by adhesive ability and surface receptors. Conditioned media from MSC collected after 4-5 passages inhibited HSV1 infection in vitro by 64-70% and contained IL-6 and TNF-α, whose concentrations were 5- and 20-fold higher, respectively, than in the control. MSC and ACV injections protected 70% and 60% of DBA mice, respectively, compared with the control (group 5, 10% survival). High activity of virus neutralizing anti-HSV1 antibodies and activation of T cell proliferation were observed in survived mice from group 3. Serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in these mice were lower and that of INF-γ much higher than in agonizing animals of this group (Р<0.05). These fndings indicate that MSC therapy is a prospective approach to the development of new effective management of generalized HSV1 infection.

[Change of phenotypic properties of escape mutants and readaptants of influenza virus A (H1N1)pdm09 under the influence of selected mutations in the molecule of hemagglutinin.]

INTRODUCTION

After the emergence and spread of pandemic H1N1 viruses in 2009, antigenic epitopes recognized by neutralizing antibodies against the hemagglutinin of influenza A/Moscow/01/09(H1N1)pdm09 viruses were studied.

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to obtain readapted variants of the virus from a low-virulent escapemutant that has an increased affinity of the avian and the human types cellular receptors compared to the wild type and the comparative study of their antigenic and receptor specificity.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Viruses were accumulated in 10-day-old chicken embryos. The MAB panel against HA of influenza virus strain A/IIV-Moscow/01/09(H1N1)sw1 was used in the form of ascites fluids from mice. Immunization of mice, HI testing, elution of viruses from chicken erythrocytes, PCR and sequencing of readapted variants were performed by standard methods.

RESULTS

The amino acid substitution A198E acquired in the process of readaptation leads to changes in the antigenic specificity. A correlation was found between a decrease in virulence of a low-virulent escape mutant associated with the substitution D190N in the hemagglutinin molecule and an increase in the hemagglutinating titer to inhibitors in normal mouse serum. Viruses with low affinity of cellular receptor analogs and carrying amino acid substitutions have an increased ability to elute from chicken erythrocytes.

DISCUSSION

The results discuss the effect of mutations in the HA molecule of the influenza A(H1N1) pdm09 virus to the change in antigen specificity; virulence for mice, adsorption-elution at cellular receptors.

CONCLUSION

A comparative study of the antigenic specificity and receptor-binding activity of the escape mutants was conducted for the hemagglutinin of the influenza virus A/Moscow/01/2009 (H1N1)swl, and the readapted variants obtained for one of the escape mutants with reduced virulence for mouse. Monitoring the pleiotropic effect of mutations in the hemagglutinin H1 molecule is necessary to predict variants of the virus with pandemic potential.

Diversion of the Arbuzov reaction: alkylation of C-Cl instead of phosphonic ester formation on the fullerene cage

We report an "inversed" Arbuzov reaction of the fullerene derivatives C₆₀Ar₅Cl with trialkyl phosphites P(OR)₃ producing alkylated fullerene derivatives C₆₀Ar₅R (R = Me, Et, iPr, nBu) with almost quantitative yields. This reaction provides a convenient synthetic route for the preparation of a large variety of functionalized fullerene derivatives with tailored properties, e.g. water-soluble compounds demonstrating promising antiviral activities against HCMV, HSV1, HIV and several influenza virus strains.

[A Plasmid-Expressed CRISPR/Cas9 System Suppresses Replication of HSV Type I in a Vero Cell Culture]

Herpesviruses are widespread in the human population. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1) alone infects more than 3.7 billion people. In most of these, the virus establishes a latent form resistant to the action of all antiviral drugs. Moreover, completely drug-resistant strains of herpesviruses are known, which has prompted the search for alternative approaches to the treatment of herpesviruses, including genome editing with prokaryotic CRISPR/Cas. The CRISPR/Cas9 system of Streptococcus pyogens effectively suppresses HSV1 infection when expressed from genome-integrated lentiviral vectors. However, there are concerns about the safety of this approach. Here we describe the system built upon the plasmid-encoded CRISPR/Cas9 targeted against UL52 and UL29 genes of the HSV1 primase-helicase complex. The construct was transfected into Vero cells with no significant cytotoxic effects detected. Complete suppression of HSV1 infection within two days was observed, raising the possibility that the proposed plasmid-expressed CRISPR/Cas9 system may be used for the screening of genes important for the HSV1 life cycle and for development of novel strategies for targeted therapy of herpesvirus infections.

[Dimeric bisbenzimidazoles suppress the herpes simplex virus and human cytomegalovirus infections in cell сultures]

Antiviral activity of new AТ-specific fluorescent symmetric dimeric bisbenzimidazoles of DBА(n) series was assessed in the cell models of infections caused by type 1 herpes simplex virus (HSV1) and human cytomegalovirus (CMV). In DBA(n) molecules bisbenzimidazole fragments are bound to an oligomethylene liner with varied number of methylene groups in the linker (n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11). In contrast to DB(n) dimeric bisbenzimidazoles, in DBA(n) series terminal fragments of macromolecules contain N-dimethylaminopropylcarboxamide groups instead of N-methylpiperazine groups. DBА(n) compounds better dissolve in water, pass across plasma and nuclear membrane, and stain DNA in living cells. DBA(1) and DBA(7) produced therapeutic effects in HSV1 infection; DBA(7) completely suppressed the infection. DBA(11) displayed in vitro therapeutic activity in HSV1 and CMV infections. In addition, DBA(7) and DBA(1) showed microbicidal activity. Thus, DBA(11), which is active against two viruses causing severe diseases with serious health consequences for immunodeficient individuals, should be further investigated. High antiviral activity of DBA(7) in all test models indicates that this compound is a promising active agent for innovative antiviral drugs.

DNA sequence-specific ligands. XVII. Synthesis, spectral properties, virological and biochemical studies of fluorescent dimeric bisbenzimidazoles DBA(n)

A series of DNA minor groove binding fluorescent dimeric bisbenzimidazoles DBA(n) bearing linkers of various length were synthesized and their biochemical and antiviral activities were evaluated. Their antiviral activity was assessed in model cell systems infected with human herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) and cytomegalovirus (CMV). Compounds DBA(1) and DBA(7) demonstrated in vitro inhibitory properties towards HSV-1, and DBA(7) completely blocked the viral infection. Compound DBA(11) displayed the in vitro therapeutic activity towards both HSV-1 and CMV. All of the DBA(n) could fluoresce, were well soluble in water, not cytotoxic to a concentration of 240 µM, penetrated well into cell nuclei by binding to DNA and could inhibit topo-I at low micromolecular concentrations.

[Effect of amino acid substitutions in small subunit of avian H5N2 influenza virus hemagglutinin on selection of the mutants resistant to neutralizing monoclonal antibodies]

Changes associated with the resistance to physical and chemical factors in the hemagglutinin (HA) of influenza A viruses may play an important role in the selection of different influenza variants during circulation in nature. Here, we studied the escape mutants of influenza virus A/mallard/Pennsylvania/10218/84 (H5N2) that were selected by the monoclonal antibody. The escape mutant m4F11(4) carried a single amino acid substitution in large subunit (HA1) of the HA, S145P1, and two ones, m4G10(10) and m4G10(6), had additional amino acid changes in the small subunit (HA2), namely: L124F2 and L124F2 + N79D2, respectively. As it has been found the substitutions appeared in the HA2 of m4G(10) and m4G(6) viruses compensated negative effect of the S145P1 mutation and provided a significant increase in the viral replication ability at the early stage of infection in embryonated chicken eggs as well as in HA thermostability in comparison with m4F11(4) mutant. Phenotypic properties that provide advantages in the process of virus replication can play a role of the positive selection factor in viral population.

[Detection of conservative and variable epitopes of the pandemic influenza virus A(H1N1)pdm09 hemagglutinin using monoclonal antibodies]

The goal of this work was to analyze the antigenic structure of the hemagglutinin (HA) of the pandemic influenza virus A(H1N1)pdm09 using monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) and to develop a sandwich ELISA for identification of pandemic strains. Competitive ELISA demonstrated that 6 MAbs against HA of the pandemic influenza A/ IIV-Moscow/01/2009 (H1N1)pdm09 virus identified six epitopes. Binding of MAbs with 22 strains circulating in Russian Federation during 2009-2012 was analyzed in the hemagglutination-inhibition test (HI). The MAbs differed considerably in their ability to decrease the HI activity of these strains. MAb 5F7 identified all examined strains; MAbs 3A3 and 10G2 reacted with the majority of them. A highly sensitive sandwich ELISA was constructed based on these three MAbs that can differentiate the pandemic influenza strains from the seasonal influenza virus. The constancy of the HA epitope that reacts with MAb 5F7 provides its use for identification of the pandemic influenza strains in HI test. MAbs 3D9, 6A3 and 1E7 are directed against the variable HA epitopes, being sensitive to several amino acid changes in Sa, Sb, and Ca2 antigenic sites and in receptor binding site. These MAbs can be used to detect differences in HA structure and to study the antigenic drift of the pandemic influenza virus A(H1N1)pdm09.

[The effect of viral infections on the cytokine profile in pregnant women with obstetric complications and immunotherapy with human alpha2b interferon]

The goal of this work was to examine the effects of infections caused by HSV1/2, CMV, and HPV on the cytokine profile in pregnant women with obstetric complications (OC) and to evaluate the efficacy of the therapy with recombinant human alpha2b interferon. Direct markers of the viruses were identified using PCR and rapid culture method in 85 pregnant women divided into 3 groups: group 1 (n = 21), women with visual HPV-related clinical manifestations; group 2 (n = 48), with detectable markers of viral infections and no clinical manifestations, and group 3 consisting of pregnant women with OC without markers and clinical manifestations of viral infections (n = 16). The rate of HPV DNA detection in pregnant women was higher than that of herpesviruses (HV) CMV and/ or HSV: 37.6% vs. 11.8%. The frequency of mixed HV/HPV infection in group 1 was 2.3-fold higher than in group 2. The cytokine levels of IFNalpha, IFNgamma, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, and TNFalpha in blood plasma and vaginal washings were studied. Statistically significant differences in infected women (groups 1 and 2) in comparison with uninfected women (group 3) were detected: a) blood plasma concentration of IFNgamma increased in clinically manifested HPV infection; b) blood plasma IL-8 concentration increased in clinically manifested HPV and in mixed HV+HPV infections without clinical symptoms of HPV infection; c) blood plasma concentration of TNFalpha increased in women with asymptomatic HPV-infection; d) IL-6 concentration in vaginal washings increased in mixed infection in group 1. The effect of IFN-alpha2b was assessed by analyzing cytokine levels in women on basic therapy with and without Viferon. In infected women, Viferon caused a 2-3-fold decrease in the concentrations of IFNgamma and IL-8 in blood plasma, thus bringing them near those of uninfected women with OC. The analysis of the state of newborns health has shown that for women with OC the risk of giving birth to a child in critical condition is 4.3-fold higher when CMV is detected in the third trimester of pregnancy.

[The development of diagnostics of herpes viral infections]

The representatives of herpesviruses family (Herpesviridae--virus of herpes simplex and human cytomegalovirus) are largely widespread in human population. These herpesviruses bring on severe disorders of embryonic development up to fetal death, newborn diseases, neurologic disturbances, deafness, and blindness and in transplantation patients the severe internal organs affections and transplanted organs rejection. Both herpesviruses are able to affect the central nervous system and result in encephalitis with lethal outcome. The particular attention deserve the asymptomatic forms in case of which virus is excretee and can be transmitted both by horizontal line (sexual way included) and by vertical line (in the process of itrauterine development offtetus). The lacking of clear djfefrentiating clinical symtoms frequentyv observed under manifestations of herpesviruses infections brings another danger The comparison is made of fouur methods of detection of herpes simplex in urethra scrapes: the immunocytochemical method of detection of herpes simplex antigen in smears: the rapid cultural method; the immune-enzyme method of detection of herpes simplex antigen; the polymerase chain reaction. The results demonstrated that the rapid cultural method detected herpes simplex in infected samples on all stages of disease and in even more quantity at the stage of exacerbtion as compared with the polymerase chain reaction. The presented data testify the actuality of development of of laboratory diagnostics of herpesviruses injection to relevant diagnosis, determination of form and stage of disease, timely initiation of treatment and monitoring of therapy.

[Effect of herpes simplex virus on spermatogenesis]

To investigate the effect of Herpes Simplex virus (HSV) on spermatogenesis, HSV in ejaculate was detected by a rapid cultural method in 268 infertile males and 47 healthy ones. The number of mobile spermatozoa in HSV infected samples was less than in non-infected samples (21 mln/mlversus 40 mln/ml, p = 0.0001). The relative number of morphologically normal gametes was 13% versus 19% (p = 0.002), respectively. The quantitative karyological test discovered that males with HSV-infected ejaculate have more degenerating sex cells while in high virus contamination (more than 10 virus particles in 1 ml) the number of spermatides and spermatocytes of the 1 order at diploten stage is low. Organic testicular culture was used for more detailed study of pathogenetic mechanisms of HSV impact on spermatogenesis. Testicular explants infection was associated with reduction in the number of spermatogones, spermatocytes and spermatides on culturing week 2. The above findings reveal some pathogenetic mechanisms underling fertility disorders in males with HSV infection: a gametotoxic effect of the virus reducing populations of spermatogones, spermatocytes and spermatide; affected mobility and morphological characteristics of spermatozoa. Detection of the mechanisms of HSV action on spermatogenesis opens a perspective of antivirus drug administration in combined treatment of male infertility.

[Impact of herpesvirus infections on the level of proinflammatory cytokines in premature neonatal infants]

The aim of this study was to estimate the frequency of HSV and/or CMV among the pathogens causing intrauterine infections (IUI) and to investigate their impact on the level of proinflammatory cytokines in premature neonatal infants. Examinations were performed in 3 neonatal groups: 1) premature neonates with clinical manifestations of IUI; 2) those without IUI; 3) full-term newborns. In group 1, viral (HSV and/or CMV) and bacterial infections were detectable with the same frequency. Quantitative analysis of plasma IL-6 and IL-8 levels and the induced production of these cytokines by blood cells in vitro showed that in Group 1 neonates, IL-6 and IL-8 concentrations were substantially higher and the induced production of these cytokines was lowerthan those in Group 3. The detection of HSV and/or CMV markers in premature newborn infants was attended by a statistically significant rise in plasma IL-6 levels; the identification of the opportunistic bacterial microflora correlated with the higher concentration of IL-8. In Group 1, wiferon produced an immunomodulatory effect, by lowering IL-8 concentrations to the level observed in Group 3.

Detection of human cytomegalovirus in motile spermatozoa and spermatogenic cells in testis organotypic culture

Background

The presence of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in male genital tract suggests its vertical transmission with spermatozoa and the development of a potentially dangerous fetal infection. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the possibility of intracellular HCMV localization in male germ cells and to examine the effect of the virus on human spermatogenesis.

Methods

Semen samples from 91 infertile and 47 fertile men were analyzed. HCMV was detected by real time PCR, rapid culture method and PCR in situ. Human testis organotypic culture and quantitative karyological analysis were used to investigate viral effects on spermatogenesis. Localization of HCMV in immature germ cells and spermatozoa was studied by immunostaining with monoclonal antibodies and ultrastructural analysis of infected organotypic culture.

Results

Viral DNA was detected in 12.3% samples of motile spermatozoa, while infectious activity only in 2.9% infertile and fertile men without statistically significant intergroup difference. According to PCR in situ, the mean percentage of infected cell in both groups was 1.5% (0.25%-15%), which can serve as a criterion for evaluating the risk of HCMV transmission. In HCMV-infected organotypic culture viral antigens were identified in spermatides on day 4, in spermatogonia and spermatocytes on day 8, and in spermatozoa on day 14. Empty and full capsides and virions were visualized in germ cells by electron microscopy. The number of cells before introduction in culture was taken for 100%. On day 14 infected culture contained 36.8% spermatogonia, 18.7% spermatocytes, 27.6% round spermatides and 42.5% elongated spermatides; in comparison with 82.2%, 51.5%, 70.4% and 65.7% in uninfected culture, respectively (all p < 0.05). There were no changes in the number and viability of spermatozoa.

Conclusions

HCMV was detected in male germ cells, both in sperm samples and in testis organotypic culture. The virus may infect immature germ cells which develop to mature HCMV-carrying spermatozoa. A considerable decrease in the number of immature germ cells indicates that HCMV produces a direct gametotoxic effect and can contribute to male infertility.

Development of monoclonal antibodies to highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus and their application to diagnostics, prophylaxis, and therapy

A panel of 17 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) A/Duck/Novosibirsk/56/05 A/H5N1 (subclade 2.2) isolated in Russian Federation was developed. Immunoblot analysis showed that 12 MAbs were specific for the hemagglutinin (HA) and 5 MAbs for nucleoprotein (NP). All anti-HA MAbs were reactive in ELISA and immunofluorescence (IF) test and 10 of them were reactive in hemagglutination-inhibition (HI) and neutralization tests. Quantitative competitive ELISA revealed that anti-HA MAbs recognized at least 4 non-overlapping antigenic determinants and anti-NP MAbs recognized at least 3 non-overlapping antigenic determinants. Four sandwich ELISA procedures were developed using the obtained MAbs. These procedures are useful for 1) identification of avian, human, and swine influenza A viruses, 2) differentiation of avian influenza virus (AIV) from human and swine influenza viruses, 3) differentiation of AIV H5 from other AIV subtypes, and 4) differentiation between 2.2 and 2.3.2 subclades of H5N1 influenza viruses. Prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of anti-HA MAbs with high neutralization activity was tested in BALB/c mice. A complete protection was achieved by single injection of MAbs (20 mg/kg) 24 hrs before challenge with 10 LD50 of HPAIV H5N1. Therapeutic efficacy was 90% that was similar to those of Rimantadine and Tamiflu.

[Monoclonal antibodies with high virus-neutralizing activity against pandemic influenza virus A/llV-Moscow/01/2009 (H1N1)swl]

The authors have obtained a panel of 7 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against pandemic influenza virus A/IIV-Moscow/01/2009 (HIN1)swl isolated in Russia. One MAb is directed to a NP protein linear epitope and interacts with all the influenza A viruses under study. Six other MAbs are directed to H1 hemagglutinin conformation-dependent determinants and detect homologous virus in the hemagglutination-inhibition test, enzyme immunoassay, immunofluorescence and virus neutralization tests. MAbs differentiate pandemic influenza viruses A(H1N1)swl from seasonal influenza A(H1N1), A(H3N2), and B viruses. The high neutralizing activity of MAbs permits their use to study the fine antigen structure of influenza virus hemagglutinin and to differentiate the A(H1N1) pandemic influenza viruses and offers promise for obtaining humanized antibodies in order to make specific prevention and treatment of influenza.

Antigenic epitopes in the hemagglutinin of Qinghai-type influenza H5N1 virus

The highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 viruses have become widespread and evolved into several clades. In our previous studies, the antigenic sites of the H5 hemagglutinin (HA) were characterized by selection and sequencing of escape mutants. In the present studies we analyzed the antigenic epitopes recognized by monoclonal antibodies against avian influenza A/Duck/Novosibirsk/56/05 (H5N1) virus isolated in western Siberia and belonging to subclade 2.2 of the H5N1 viruses. The analysis revealed several antigenically relevant positions of amino acid residues in the globular head of the HA not encountered earlier in the escape mutants of the H5 subtype. The newly recognized positions (113, 117, 118, 120, and 123, mature H5 numbering) are concentrated in an area adjacent to the region described in earlier studies as corresponding to site B in H3 HA, but extending far beyond this area. The amino acid positions recognized by the monoclonal antibodies against A/Duck/Novosibirsk/56/05 (H5N1) virus differ from the positions recognized by the monoclonal antibodies against H5N2 influenza viruses. The data suggest that the evolution of the HA of H5 avian influenza viruses is associated not only with the changes of antigenic epitopes recognized by antibodies, but also with a change in the dominance of the immunogenicity of different sites in the HA.

[Herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus in male ejaculate: herpes simplex virus is more frequently encountered in idiopathic infertility and correlates with the reduction in sperm parameters]

The present investigation was undertaken to study the detection rate of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) in the ejaculates of males with infertility and to evaluate the impact of virus infection on the major parameters of sperm. Ejaculates from 808 patients were studied. As compared with apparently healthy individuals, the coupled males with primary infertility were found to have HSV more frequently in both the whole ejaculate (31% versus 17%; p = 0.049) and the fraction of actively motile spermatozoa (30% versus 8%; p = 0.016). Ejaculate HSV detection directly correlated with the reduced amount of actively motile spermatozoa (p = 0.0001) and the smaller proportion of morphologically normal forms of germ cells (p = 0.002). CMV was found to have no impact on the motility and morphology of spermatozoids in the ejaculate. Both HSV and CMV in the male ejaculate were significantly more frequently detectable in winter months. The findings lead to the conclusion that HSV is one of the factors for male infertility and can negatively affect the results of assisted reproductive technologies.

[Effect of Panavir on Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 proteins synthesis in cell culture]

The effect of Panavir on the synthesis of ultraearly (alpha), early (beta) and late (gamma) proteins of Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 in the culture of Vero cells was studied. It was shown that the level of the proteins suppression depended on the infection multiplicity and the time of the Panavir addition to the culture.

[Monoclonal antibodies to highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) strain isolated in the Russian Federation: development and properties]

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus subtype H5N1 has recently caused extensive epizootics in different regions of the world and presents a serious threat to man. Since 2005, HPAI virus subtype H5N1 strains have been circulating in Russia, which differ from the earlier isolated Southern Asia strains. A panel from 15 monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) to HPAI virus A/duck/Novosibirsk/56/05 (H5N1) was developed. Eleven Mabs interacted with the hemagglutinin molecule (HA), 4 with influenza A virus nucleoprotein (NP) in the Western blot assay. The bulk of the obtained Mabs interacted with homologous virus in ELISA and showed an antigen in the infected cells in the indirect immunofluorescence assay. Nine Mabs were active in the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay and 8 of them were capable to neutralize viral activity. The comparative analysis of the properties of Mabs in the HI assay using various influenza A strains showed that Mabs 2C6, 6F3, 4G10, 3G9, and 7B3 inhibited hemagglutination of study avian influenza viruses subtype H5, Mab 6F3 being most active. Mab 3B5 reacted only with the viruses isolated in the Russian Federation in 2005-2007 and failed to interact with the other study influenza A viruses subtype H5. The obtained panel of Mabs can be used to study the fine antigenic structure of hemagglutinin and to make a differential diagnosis of avian influenza viruses subtype A/H5N1. The high neutralizing activity of Mabs creates a prospect for preparing humanized antibodies for specific prevention and treatment.

[Investigation of antiviral properties of new formulations of Panavir in the treatment of experimental herpes virus infection in mice]

Protective action of Panavir was studied in the treatment of experimental herpes virus infection on albino mice. It was shown, that intravenous and rectal Panavir formulations were able to increase survival of the experimental animals (decreased lethality) infected by HSV-1.

[Analysis of germ cell populations in ejaculate of men infected with herpes simplex virus]

Cytological and molecular genetics methods were used to study sperm from patients with sperm infected with herpes simplex virus (HSV) as indicated by virological and immunocytochemical tests. The following methods were used: (1) sperm analysis to evaluate the morphology and functional properties of sperm; (2) fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with DNA probes specific for chromosomes 1, X, and Y to evaluate nondisjunction frequencies of these chromosomes in sperm; and (3) quantitative analysis of immature germ cells in the ejaculate to identify spermatogenic abnormalities. The total sperm count and the count of sperm with normal motility proved similar to the norm. FISH analysis demonstrated no difference in the nondisjunction frequency of chromosomes 1, X, and Y between infertile patients with HSV-infected sperm and fertile donors. Comparative quantitative analysis of immature germ cells from the ejaculate has demonstrated a significant and considerable (threefold) increase in the number of spermatocytes I at the prepachytene stages of prophase I (preleptotene, leptotene, and zygotene) in HSV patients compared to normal donors. At the same time, HSV patients demonstrated a significant decrease in the number of spermatocytes I, a decrease in the proportion of spermatocytes II and spermatids, and a twofold increase in the number of unidentifiable immature germ cells. The data obtained indicate a partial spermatogenic arrest at the early stages of meiotic prophase I in HSV patients, which prompts further research into the cellular mechanisms of abnormal spermatogenesis after viral infection in humans.

[Herpetic infection of spermatozoa in failure of reproductive technologies and spontaneous abortion]

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) was studied in ejaculate of 36 men whose wives had the history of spontaneous abortions, or failure of artificial insemination (AI), or extracorporeal fertilization (ECF). The control group consisted of 222 patients examined prophylactically after urogenital inflammation or for primary infertility. HSV was detected with immunofluorescence (IF) reaction with monoclonal antibodies to HSV antigens, rapid culture method (RCM) and transmission electronic microscopy. HSV antigens were detected in fraction of mobile spermatozoa in 13 (65%) of 20 samples from patients of the study group. HSV detectability in the study group was significantly higher than in the controls (p = 0.003). Intragametic capsides of HSV were detected at ultrastructural investigation in 13 of 19 (68%) ejaculate samples from patients of the study group in whom IF and/ or RCM results were positive. The study of 6 ejaculate samples of this group in which HSV was not detected by IF or RCM and 24 control samples HSV capsides were not detected. The following conclusions can be made: mobile spermatozoa of normal morphology can be infected with HSV; as shown morphologically, samples of ejaculate from men whose wives had spontaneous abortions contained intragametic HSV capsides; intragametic HSV infection of spermatozoa had a negative effect on the course of pregnancy and/or embryon vitality.

[Asymptomatic genital herpes infection and infertility in males]

Incidence of Herpes simplex virus (HSV) was studied in ejaculates of 100 men. The examinees had neither history nor clinical symptoms of HSV genital infection. HSV was detected by a rapid cultural method in the ejaculate of 20 out of 100 examinees (20%). Of 67 males with infertility HSV was detected in 25%, in 19 males examined prophylactically and 14 patients with varicocele (a comparison group) it was found in 10.5 and 7% cases, respectively. Oligozoospermia was two times more frequent in HSV-containing ejaculates than in HSV-negative one. Mean values of the majority of sperm parameters in HSV-positive and HSV-negative groups did not differ statistically. However, it was revealed that such damage of the spermatozoa structure as microhead (consequence of the defective acrosome or reduced genome) and cytoplasm drops on the neck (a sign of immature forms) occurred more often in HSV-infected patients than in persons with HSV-negative ejaculate. Thus, asymptomatic HSV infection has a negative effect on male fertility.

Comparative study of macrophage response in mice after DNA immunization and infection with herpes simplex virus type 1

Functional activity of macrophages and intensity of T cell immune response in mice were studied after intravaginal and intraperitoneal infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 and DNA vaccination in combination with adjuvant treatment (recombinant granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and glucosaminylmuramyl dipeptide). DNA vaccination induced a virus-specific T cell immune response with no macrophagic inflammatory reaction. Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 was accompanied by sustained inflammation, but not by the T cell immune response.

[Detection of the markers of herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus in newborns and infants]

A total of 111 children suspected for herpesvirus infection were examined. In blood and urine samples the infectious activity of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) was detected by the rapid culture method (RCM) and the presence of virus DNA--by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). HSV and/or CMV were detected by two laboratory methods in 57 examined children (51%). Of these, in 18 children (16.2%) both HSV and CMV were detected. The coincidence of the results of the detection of HSV and CMV by these two methods was observed in 72.4% and 75.2% of cases respectively. The comparative analysis of the detection of anti-CMV IgG and IgM was made with the use of commercial test systems produced bythe following manufacturers: "Vector-Best" and "Bioservice" (Russia), "HUMAN" and "Boehringer" (Germany). The effective detection of both anti-CMV (IgG and IgM) was ensured by the test systems "Boehringer". The test system "Vector-Best" for anti-CMV IgG proved to be not inferior as regards sensitivity and specificity. The German test systems demonstrated the highest specificity in the detection of low-avid antibodies. The data obtained in this study indicate that the detection rate of HSV and CMV markers in newborns and infants suspected for herpesvirus infection was, on the average, 20 - 40%. Reliable diagnostics in newborns and infants is possible only in the presence of the combination of at least 2 serological tests (the determination of antivirus IgM and IgG avidity) and 2 methods for the detection of direct herpesvirus markers (PCR and RCM).

[Comparison of adjuvant activities of glucosaminyl-muramyl dipeptide and of the gene coding for granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in DNA immunization against herpes simplex virus]

Adjuvant activities of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and synthetic glucosaminyl-muramyl dipeptide (GMDP) were studied in immunization against type 1 herpes simplex virus (HSV1). Gene encoding the gD HSV1 protein (pDNAgD) was used as an immunogen. Gene encoding GM-CSF in pDNAGM-CSF plasmid, which was developed for eukaryotic expression, and GM-DP were used as immune response modulators. GMDP and plasmid DNA with inserted GM-CSF gene enhanced T-cell immune response to HSV1 after a single injection (pDNAGM-CSF) or 24 h before (GMDP) immunization with the gD HSV1 gene. Both adjuvants increased protective effect of DNA-immunization by a virus gene with 63 up to 100% after injection of two genes and up to 96% after the viral gene was inoculated 24 h after GMDP. These high effects indicate that further investigation of anti-HSV1 DNA-based vaccines used with genetic and peptide adjuvant is prospective.

[Effect of tumor necrosis factor DNA on immune response to DNA immunization against herpes simplex virus]

A study was made of the adjuvant effect of the mouse tumor necrosis factor alpha (mTNF alpha) on DNA immunization against the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1). The HSV1 gD gene (pDNAgD) served as an immunogen; mTNF alpha or its gene cloned in an eukaryotic expression vector (pDNAmTNF) were used to modulate the immune response. Double immunization with pDNAgD led to a sixfold increase in the in vitro T-cell response, a high (1:2000) titer of anti-HSV1 antibodies (including virus-neutralizing antibodies), an increase in IgG2a/IgG1 (suggesting a shift of the immune response to the Th1 type), and no change in CD4/CD8 T-cell ratio. A single injection of mTNF alpha along with inactivated HSV1 allowed a twice higher antibody titer and a fourfold higher T-cell response as compared with immunization with HSV1 alone. Double immunization with both pDNAgD and pDNAmTNF increased the titer of anti-HSV1 antibodies and the T-cell response by factors of 8 and 1.5, respectively, as compared with immunization with pDNAgD alone. However, the protective effect was significantly lower with the two plasmids than with pDNAgD (73 vs. 100%). Thus, DNA immunization with pDNAgD induced both B- and T-cell responses and completely protected mice from a lethal doze of HSV1. The adjuvant properties of mTNF alpha and pDNAmTNF need further investigation.

[The detection of the herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 antigens in clinical specimens by using monoclonal antibodies]

The possibility of using monoclonal antibodies (McAb), obtained earlier, for the detection of herpes simplex virus (HSV) in clinical specimens taken from sick and infected persons was studied. The examination of 90 persons revealed that the mixture of McAb 4A and 2C could effectively detect the presence of HSV antigen in the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) directly in cells contained in cytological preparations (smears, scrapes, impressions) obtained from different organs of patients. The search of optimum combinations of McAb for the detection of HSV antigens by the method of the solid-phase enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was carried out. This study, made on purified HSV used as an experimental model, revealed that the maximum sensitivity could be achieved with the use of two McAb (4f6 and 7c4) out of three McAb (4f6, 7c4 and 3d10). The approbation of both variants of EIA on clinical specimens taken from 99 patients (blood clots, seminal fluid, scrapes of cervical canal cells, peripheral blood lymphocytes) showed that the addition of McAb 3d10 made it possible to detect 8 more positive specimens. 754 specimens from 337 patients were studied with the use of McAb-based EIA, and in 204 of these patients (61%) HSV antigen was detected. The results obtained with the use of our McAb were compared with the data obtained with certified commercial test systems. The coincidence of the EIA data with those obtained with the use of the Murex Wellcozyme HSV test system (UK) was registered in 75% of cases (in 15 out of 20 cases). The coincidence of the IFA data with those obtained with the use of the Sanofi test system (France) was observed in all 19 cases (100%).

[Monoclonal antibodies in the diagnosis of infections caused by the herpes simplex virus]

A series of hybridomas producing monoclonal antibodies (McAb), specifically interacting with Herpes simplex virus (HSV) proteins, types 1 and 2, has been obtained. McAb 7c4 and 4f6 have been shown to be highly active in the solid-phase enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and to produce no reaction with HSV antigen in the indirect immunofluorescent assay (IIFA). McAb 2b6, 3e5, 4A, 2C effectively detect McAb in IIFA, but not EIA, while McAb 3d 10 exhibit activity in both biochemical assays. Moreover, as established in this investigation, McAb 4A are active against the protein of HSV capsid, McAb 3d10 and 2b6 detect two individual epitopes on the molecule of ribonucleohydreductase, McAb 2C are specific with respect to surface glycoprotein gB, McAb 7c4 and 416 recognize one or two overlapping epitopes of protein gD. McAb 2C are capable of completely neutralizing the infectious activity of HSV in the in vitro cell system. As determined by IIFA, McAb 4A and 4e5 stain specific inclusions in the nucleus of HSV-infected cells, while McAb 2C stain HSV protein, localized in the cytoplasm. All above-mentioned McAb are active against two common antigenic determinants of HSV 1 and HSV 2. The data obtained in this investigation suggest that the series of McAb under study may serve as the basis for the development of diagnostic test systems for the detection of HSV, types 1 and 2, by EIA and IIFA techniques.