Sexual harassment and appearance-based peer victimization: Unique associations with emotional adjustment by gender and age

INTRODUCTION

We examined sexual harassment, alongside other forms of peer victimization, as correlates of self-worth, depression, and anxiety (emotional adjustment). In addition, we investigated joint moderating effects of gender and age in the relationship between sexual harassment and emotional adjustment.

METHODS

Participants were 277 high school and 492 university students (12-24 years, 60% female) residing in Australia. All completed a survey to report sexual harassment experiences, as well as in-person and online/social media appearance-related peer victimization, global self-worth, and social anxiety and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Age was positively associated with sexual harassment, as well as with general and social media victimization; males and females did not differ. Participants who reported more sexual harassment reported poorer adjustment, but only the association with depressive symptoms remained significant after controlling for other forms of peer victimization. When gender and age were tested as moderators, the positive association between sexual harassment and depression was significant for all groups but younger males and there was a positive association between harassment and anxiety among only younger females and older males.

CONCLUSION

Sexual harassment was commonly reported, but rather weakly and intermittently associated with emotional health, after controlling for appearance-related peer victimization. Future research should examine when and why youth seem fairly resilient to negative emotional effects that could follow sexual harassment. It is possible that messages about the cause of sexual harassment are being heard and this aids youth to avoid self-blame and emotional maladjustment.

Risky Interactions: Relational and Developmental Moderators of Substance Use and Dating Aggression

Physical dating aggression is a prevalent and costly public health concern. A theoretical moderator model of substance use and dating aggression posits that associations between them are moderated by relational risk factors. To test these theoretical expectations, the current study examined seven waves of longitudinal data on a community-based sample of 100 male and 100 female participants in a Western U.S. city (M age Wave 1 = 15.83; 69.5% White non-Hispanic, 12.5% Hispanic, 11.5% African Americans, & 12.5% Hispanics). Multilevel models examined how links between substance use and dating aggression varied by relational risk and how these patterns changed developmentally. Main effects of relational risk and substance use emerged, particularly in adolescence. In young adulthood significant three-way interactions emerged such that substance use was more strongly associated with physical aggression when conflict and jealousy were higher. Thus, relational risk factors are integral to models of dating aggression, but their role changes developmentally.

Experimental investigation and Monte Carlo simulations of radionuclide production inside the Uranium spallation target QUINTA irradiated with a 660-MeV proton beam

The accelerator-Driven-System (ADS) is very important to study the neutron field and radionuclide production inside simple-geometry uranium subcritical setups irradiated with high energy particle beams. A subcritical setup QUINTA was irradiated with the 660-MeV proton beam from Phasotron accelerator at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR). The radionuclide production in the region along the beam axis was investigated by the activation technique. The aim was to compare (n,x) with (p,x) reactions using activation detectors of 59Co and natPb, and compare experimental results with the calculated results using Monte Carlo simulation code MCNPX 2.7.

^{7}Be(n,p)^{7}Li Reaction and the Cosmological Lithium Problem: Measurement of the Cross Section in a Wide Energy Range at n_TOF at CERN

We report on the measurement of the ^{7}Be(n,p)^{7}Li cross section from thermal to approximately 325 keV neutron energy, performed in the high-flux experimental area (EAR2) of the n_TOF facility at CERN. This reaction plays a key role in the lithium yield of the big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) for standard cosmology. The only two previous time-of-flight measurements performed on this reaction did not cover the energy window of interest for BBN, and they showed a large discrepancy between each other. The measurement was performed with a Si telescope and a high-purity sample produced by implantation of a ^{7}Be ion beam at the ISOLDE facility at CERN. While a significantly higher cross section is found at low energy, relative to current evaluations, in the region of BBN interest, the present results are consistent with the values inferred from the time-reversal ^{7}Li(p,n)^{7}Be reaction, thus yielding only a relatively minor improvement on the so-called cosmological lithium problem. The relevance of these results on the near-threshold neutron production in the p+^{7}Li reaction is also discussed.

A Moderator Model of Alcohol Use and Dating Aggression among Young Adults

Dating aggression has been identified as a priority public health concern. Although alcohol use is a known robust risk factor for dating aggression involvement, such usage is neither necessary nor sufficient for dating aggression involvement. As such, a growing topic of interest is a better understanding of when, and for whom, alcohol use increases risk. A theoretical moderator model posits that associations between alcohol use and dating aggression involvement vary depending on both background (e.g., psychopathology) and situational (e.g., relationship characteristics) risk factors. Alcohol use is thought to be more strongly associated with dating aggression in the context of these other risk factors. Using an intensive longitudinal design, we collected six waves of data spanning 6 months from 120 participants (60 females; M age W1 = 22.44). Alcohol use and relationship risk were both associated with increases in dating aggression involvement. Consistent with a moderator model, interactions emerged between alcohol use and relationship risk for subsequent dating aggression involvement. The findings underscore the importance of alcohol use and relationship risk for the development of intervention and prevention programs.

The Past Is Present: Representations of Parents, Friends, and Romantic Partners Predict Subsequent Romantic Representations

This study examined how representations of parent-child relationships, friendships, and past romantic relationships are related to subsequent romantic representations. Two-hundred 10th graders (100 female; Mage  = 15.87 years) from diverse neighborhoods in a Western U.S. city were administered questionnaires and were interviewed to assess avoidant and anxious representations of their relationships with parents, friends, and romantic partners. Participants then completed similar questionnaires and interviews about their romantic representations six more times over the next 7.5 years. Growth curve analyses revealed that representations of relationships with parents, friends, and romantic partners each uniquely predicted subsequent romantic representations across development. Consistent with attachment and behavioral systems theory, representations of romantic relationships are revised by representations and experiences in other relationships.

Romantic relationship development: The interplay between age and relationship length

The present study explored how romantic relationship qualities develop with age and relationship length. Eight waves of data on romantic relationships were collected over 10.5 years during adolescence and early adulthood from a community-based sample in a Western U.S. city (100 males, 100 females; M age Wave 1 = 15.83). Measures of support, negative interactions, control, and jealousy were derived from interviews and questionnaire measures. Using multilevel modeling, main effects of age were found for jealousy, and main effects of relationship length were found for each quality. However, main effects were qualified by significant age by length interactions for each and every relationship quality. Short relationships increased in support with age. In comparison, long-term adolescent relationships were notable in that they were both supportive and turbulent, with elevated levels of support, negative interactions, control, and jealousy. With age, long-term relationships continued to have high levels of support, but decreased in negative interactions, control, and jealousy. Present findings highlight how the interplay between age and relationship length is key for understanding the development of romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record

"Stay or Leave": Predictors of Relationship Dissolution in Emerging Adulthood

Traditionally, studies of romantic relationship dissolution in emerging adulthood have only examined predictors of relationship dissolution within the next few months to a year. The present study explored contextual-, relationship-, and individual-level predictors of breakups over a total of 6 years, both in the short-term (1 year after data collection) and in the long-term (an additional 5 years). Data were collected from a community-based sample (100 males, 100 females, ages 18–24). With regard, to dissolution in the short-term, lower levels of relationship support and romantic appeal predicted that the relationship dissolved sooner. For relationships that had not dissolved within the next year, these same predictors, as well as life stress, negative interactions, externalizing symptoms, substance use, and age, predicted time to dissolution over the following 5 years. Findings highlight the importance of simultaneously examining contextual, relationship, and individual levels of short- and long-term predictors to better understand relationship dissolution.

^{7}Be(n,α)^{4}He Reaction and the Cosmological Lithium Problem: Measurement of the Cross Section in a Wide Energy Range at n_TOF at CERN

The energy-dependent cross section of the ^{7}Be(n,α)^{4}He reaction, of interest for the so-called cosmological lithium problem in big bang nucleosynthesis, has been measured for the first time from 10 meV to 10 keV neutron energy. The challenges posed by the short half-life of ^{7}Be and by the low reaction cross section have been overcome at n_TOF thanks to an unprecedented combination of the extremely high luminosity and good resolution of the neutron beam in the new experimental area (EAR2) of the n_TOF facility at CERN, the availability of a sufficient amount of chemically pure ^{7}Be, and a specifically designed experimental setup. Coincidences between the two alpha particles have been recorded in two Si-^{7}Be-Si arrays placed directly in the neutron beam. The present results are consistent, at thermal neutron energy, with the only previous measurement performed in the 1960s at a nuclear reactor. The energy dependence reported here clearly indicates the inadequacy of the cross section estimates currently used in BBN calculations. Although new measurements at higher neutron energy may still be needed, the n_TOF results hint at a minor role of this reaction in BBN, leaving the long-standing cosmological lithium problem unsolved.

The risks and rewards of sexual debut

The sex-positive framework of sexual development hypothesizes that healthy sexual experiences can be developmentally appropriate and rewarding for adolescents despite the risks involved. Research has not examined whether risky behaviors and rewarding cognitions actually change with sexual debut at a normative or late age. This study measured the longitudinal impact of sexual debut using 7 waves of data from 88 male and 86 female adolescents from a western U.S. city who were in the 10th grade at the study's onset. We used piecewise growth curve analyses to compare behaviors and cognitions before and after first sexual intercourse for those whose debut was at a normative or late age. These analyses revealed that sexual debut was related to rewards, including increases in romantic appeal and sexual satisfaction. In addition, internalizing symptoms declined over time after sexual debut, and substance use grew at a slower rate after sexual debut. We also examined whether differences existed among those whose debut was at an early, normative, or late age. Linear growth curve analyses revealed early sexual debut was related to risks, such as greater substance use, more internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and lower global self-worth. Rewards associated with an early debut included greater romantic appeal, dating satisfaction (males only), and sexual satisfaction (males only). Although there are some inherent risks with sexual activity, the results suggest that sexual debut at a normative or late age is also associated with a decrease in some risks and an increase in rewards. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Emerging Field of Adolescent Romantic Relationships

Romantic relationships are central in adolescents' lives. They have the potential to affect development positively, but also place adolescents at risk for problems. Romantic experiences change substantially over the course of adolescence; the peer context plays a critical role as heterosexual adolescents initially interact with the other sex in a group context, then begin group dating, and finally have dyadic romantic relationships. Adolescents' expectations and experiences in romantic relationships are related to their relationships with their peers as well as their parents. Although research on adolescents' romantic relationships has blossomed in the past decade, further work is needed to identify the causes and consequences of romantic experiences, examine the diversity of romantic experiences, and integrate the field with work on sexuality and adult romantic relationships.

The Relationship Context for Sexual Activity and its Associations with Romantic Cognitions among Emerging Adults

Few studies have examined the associations of sexual activity with romantic cognitions, particularly longitudinally. We used a multi-analytic approach to examine the longitudinal, between-person, and within-person associations between sexual activity and romantic cognitions. We distinguished among sexual activity with four different types of partners-romantic partners, friends, acquaintances, and friends with benefits. An ethnically/racially representative sample of 185 participants (94 males & 91 females) completed questionnaires when they were 2.5, 4, and 5.5 years out of high school. Frequent sexual activity with a romantic partner was associated with positive romantic cognitions, including less avoidant and anxious relational styles, greater romantic life satisfaction, and romantic appeal. Frequent sexual activity with various nonromantic partners was often associated with more negative romantic cognitions, including avoidant styles, lower romantic life satisfaction, and lower romantic appeal. Few longitudinal effects were found. Findings contribute to a developmental task theory concepualization of sexual behavior.

Quality Counts: Developmental Shifts in Associations Between Romantic Relationship Qualities and Psychosocial Adjustment

The present study assessed a developmental task theory of romantic relationships by examining associations between romantic relationship qualities and adjustment across 9 years using a community-based sample of 100 male and 100 female participants (Mage Wave 1 = 15.83) in a Western U.S. city. Using multilevel modeling, the study examined the moderating effect of age on links between romantic relationship qualities and adjustment. Consistent with developmental task theory, high romantic quality was more negatively associated with internalizing symptoms and dating satisfaction during young adulthood than adolescence. Romantic relationship qualities were also associated with externalizing symptoms and substance use, but the degree of association was consistent across ages. The findings underscore the significance of romantic relationship qualities across development.

Positive Interactions and Avoidant and Anxious Representations in Relationships with Parents, Friends, and Romantic Partners

We examined associations between positive interactions and avoidant and anxious representations in relationships with parents, friends, and romantic partners. Two hundred adolescents completed questionnaires, observations, and attachment interviews. From a between-person perspective, those adolescents with more positive interactions overall had less avoidant representations. Within persons, more positive interactions were relative to one's own average level in relationships, the less avoidant representations were for that type of relationship. Adolescents were less anxious about a particular type of relationship if they have positive interactions in their other types of relationships. Finally, representations were primarily predicted by interactions in the same type of relationship; interactions in other relationships contributed little. The findings underscore the importance of examining representations of particular types of relationships.

Sexual activity with romantic and nonromantic partners and psychosocial adjustment in young adults

The present study examined whether positive or negative links occur between psychosocial adjustment and sexual activity with four types of partners-romantic partners, friends, acquaintances, and friends with benefits. We examined longitudinal associations and concurrent between-person and within-person associations. A representative sample of 185 participants (93 males, 92 females), their friends, and mothers completed questionnaires when the participants were 2.5, 4, and 5.5 years out of high school. Regardless of the type of partner, more frequent sexual activity relative to the sexual activity of other young adults was associated with more substance use and risky sexual behavior (i.e., between-person effects). Similarly, for all types of nonromantic partners, more frequrent sexual activity relative to one's own typical sexual activity was associated with more substance use and risky sexual behavior (i.e., within-person effects). Differences in frequency of sexual activity with friends and acquaintances were associated with greater internalizing and externalizing symptoms as well as lower self-esteem. Follow-up analyses revealed the associations were particularly strong for friends with benefits. Women's sexual activity frequency with a nonromantic partner was more commonly associated with poorer psychosocial adjustment than such activity by men. More frequent sexual activity with a romantic partner was associated with higher self-esteem and lower internalizing symptoms. Few long-term effects were found for any type of sexual activity. The findings underscore the importance of examining relationship context and illustrate the value of using multiple analytic strategies for identifying the precise nature of associations.

Impact of sexual coercion on romantic experiences of adolescents and young adults

Little is known about the effect of sexual coercion on romantic relationship quality and dating experiences. The current study aimed to address this dearth in the literature and test the hypothesis that sexual coercion has a negative impact on victims' subsequent romantic experiences. Using a sample of 94 youth (44 males and 50 females), the current study addressed the impact of sexual coercion on romantic relationship quality and dating experiences. Tracking youth for 8.5 years (M age at Wave 1 = 15.10 years, SD = .49), the current study used piecewise growth curve modeling to account for shifts in the intercept and slope of romantic experiences following sexual coercion. Negative interactions immediately increased following coercion and continued to have an accelerated rate of growth (i.e., a slope change). Jealousy in romantic relationships increased in slope. Serious dating decelerated following the coercive incident. Results were largely consistent across gender and severity of the coercive incident. Contrary to hypotheses, relational support, relationship satisfaction, and casual dating did not significantly change following sexual coercion. Consistent with hypotheses, sexual coercion had a negative impact on romantic experiences. These findings have clinical implications for both prevention and intervention around sexual violence. In addition, the consistency of findings across gender and severity suggests that increased focus should be directed toward both male sexual coercion and less severe sexual coercion.

Predicting commitment in young adults' physically aggressive and sexually coercive dating relationships

Intimate partner violence often begins during the courtship stage of romantic relationships. Although some relationships dissolve as a result of aggression, other relationships remain intact, increasing the risk for escalated violence. The present study identified factors predictive of individual differences in emerging adults' commitment to physically aggressive or sexually coercive dating relationships. Specifically, Rusbult's Investment Model of romantic relationships (e.g., investment, satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and commitment) was applied to a longitudinal sample of 148 young adult women who reported experiencing aggression or coercion from their current partners. To further explain commitment within aggressive or coercive dating relationships, rejection sensitivity and anxious and avoidant romantic relational styles were included as predictors of the Investment Model variables. A more avoidant romantic style indirectly predicted commitment through relationship satisfaction and investment. Both commitment and rejection sensitivity significantly predicted continuing an aggressive or coercive relationship 6 months later. The present study improves our understanding of the processes involved in relationship commitment. Continuing to understand these processes will inform interventions that seek to help women who have decided to end aggressive or coercive dating relationships.

Buffering Effect of Parental Monitoring Knowledge and Parent-Adolescent Relationships on Consequences of Adolescent Substance Use

When adolescents begin using substances, negative consequences are not always directly proportional to the amount used; heavy users may have few consequences whereas light users may have numerous consequences. This study examined how parental monitoring knowledge and parent-child relationship quality may serve as buffers against negative consequences when adolescents use substances. Self-report questionnaires were administered to a community sample of 200 healthy adolescents and their parents at two time points, one year apart. Results suggest that both parental monitoring knowledge and parent-child relationship quality serve as buffers against negative consequences of substance use - but only when adolescents report high levels of monitoring knowledge or strong parent-child relationship quality. Results suggests adolescent perceived parental monitoring knowledge and parent-child relationship quality each act independently to buffer adolescents against negative consequences of substance use over a one-year period.

Changes in adolescents' risk factors following peer sexual coercion: evidence for a feedback loop

Investigators have identified a number of factors that increase the risk for experiencing sexual coercion, but as yet little is known about how sexual coercion in turn affects these risk factors. Using a sample of 110 adolescents, the current study examined the hypothesis that, after an incident of sexual coercion, adolescents would exhibit increases in several behaviors known to increase risk for victimization. As predicted, after experiencing sexual coercion, adolescents reported increased externalizing symptoms, more frequent sexual intercourse and a greater total number of intercourse partners. Finally, alcohol use, drug use, and problems related to substance use increased. These findings suggest the presence of a feedback loop, in which the experience of sexual coercion leads to an intensification of the factors that initially contributed risk for coercion.

Romantic partners, friends, friends with benefits, and casual acquaintances as sexual partners

The purpose of this study was to provide a detailed examination of sexual behavior with different types of partners. A sample of 163 young adults reported on their light nongenital, heavy nongenital, and genital sexual activity with romantic partners, friends, and casual acquaintances. They described their sexual activity with "friends with benefits," as well as with friends in general. Young adults were most likely to engage in sexual behavior with romantic partners, but sexual behavior also often occurred with some type of nonromantic partner. More young adults engaged in some form of sexual behavior with casual acquaintances than with friends with benefits. The frequencies of sexual behavior, however, were greater with friends with benefits than with friends or casual acquaintances. Interview and questionnaire data revealed that friends with benefits were typically friends, but not necessarily. Nonsexual activities were also less common with friends with benefits than other friends. Taken together, the findings illustrate the value of differentiating among different types of nonromantic partners and different levels of sexual behavior.

Depressive symptoms and romantic relationship qualities from adolescence through emerging adulthood: a longitudinal examination of influences

Research has consistently demonstrated the negative consequences of depression on adolescents' functioning in peer and family relationships, but little work has examined how depressive symptoms affect the quality of adolescents' and emerging adults' romantic relationships. Five waves of data on depressive symptoms, romantic relationship conflict, and use of positive problem solving were collected from 188 boys and girls during middle adolescence to emerging adulthood. Latent growth curve models indicated that having more depressive symptoms when 15 years old was associated with both more increase in relationship conflict and less increase in positive problem solving as compared to adolescents with fewer depressive symptoms. These results suggest that depression in middle adolescence may impair subsequent romantic relationship qualities into late adolescence and emerging adulthood.

Representations of Romantic Relationships, Romantic Experience and Sexual Behavior in Adolescence

Associations between romantic views and sexual behavior were examined in a community sample of 200 high school adolescents. This study incorporated interview and self‐report measures of romantic views, assessed multiple facets of sexual behavior (frequency, rapidity, onset, and risky behavior), and examined light nongenital, heavy nongenital, and genital sexual behaviors. Avoidant romantic views were related to later onset of genital sexual behavior and less frequent sexual behavior, particularly light and heavy nongenital behaviors. Anxious views were related to more frequent sexual behavior and more risky behavior. Direct effects were found between avoidant views and light and heavy nongenital sexual frequency, and indirect effects were found between avoidant views and genital frequency, onset of heavy nongenital and genital sexual behavior.

The Influence of Parents and Friends on Adolescent Substance Use: A Multidimensional Approach

The current study examined longitudinal associations between friend's substance use, friendship quality, parent-adolescent relationship quality and subsequent substance use. Participants were 166 adolescents, their parents and their close same-sex friends. Measures of relationship characteristics in the 10(th) grade were used to predict concurrent substance use and changes in substance use over a one-year period. The most consistent predictor of the use of different substances and changes in substance use over time was the friend's substance using behavior. Negative interactions with a friend were related only to tobacco use, and friendship support neither contributed to nor protected against substance use. Mother-adolescent relationship support was associated with lower levels of concurrent substance use, as well as lower levels of hard drug use over time. Findings highlight the need to examine parents and peers simultaneously and the importance of parental relationships and peer behavior on adolescent substance use. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Predicting romantic involvement, relationship cognitions, and relationship qualities from physical appearance, perceived norms, and relational styles regarding friends and parents

Using a sample of 199 adolescents, the present study examined Furman and Wehner's (1999) hypothesis that the predictors of the degree of romantic involvement and the predictors of romantic relationship cognitions and qualities differ. As hypothesized, physical appearance and friends' normative romantic involvement were related to the degree of casual and serious romantic involvement, whereas relational styles regarding friends and parents were unrelated in almost all cases. On the other hand, relational styles regarding friends and parents were related to supportive and negative romantic interactions and romantic styles. In contrast, physical appearance and friends' normative romantic involvement were generally unrelated to interactions and romantic styles. Physical appearance was also related to romantic appeal and satisfaction.

A prospective investigation of interpersonal influences on the pursuit of muscularity in late adolescent boys and girls

This project examined whether interpersonal pressure to be muscular predicted late adolescents' pursuit of muscularity. Participants were 199 adolescents (16-19 years), mothers (n = 175), and friends (n = 159), assessed at two annual times. Pressure to be muscular was assessed with adolescents', mothers', and friends' reports of their relationships. Adolescents reported pressure from fathers and romantic partners, appearance satisfaction, disordered eating, and pursuit of muscularity. Adolescents', mothers', and friends' reports of pressure related to pursuit of muscularity at both times. Adolescents' perceptions and mothers' reports prospectively predicted pursuit of muscularity. Findings highlight the relevance of relationships to pursuit of muscularity in late adolescents.

Interparental Conflict and Adolescents' Romantic Relationship Conflict

This study examined associations between interparental conflict and adolescents' romantic relationship conflict. High school seniors (N=183) who lived with married parents completed questionnaires about their parents' marriage and their own romantic relationships. A subset of 88 adolescents was also observed interacting with their romantic partners. Adolescents' perceptions and appraisals of interparental conflict were related to the amount of conflict in romantic relationship and adolescents' conflict styles. Adolescents' appraisals of interparental conflict (i.e., self-blame, perceived threat) moderated many of the associations between interparental conflict and conflict behavior with romantic partners. The patterns of moderated effects differed by gender. These findings suggest that the meanings boys and girls ascribe to interparental conflict are important for understanding how family experiences contribute to the development of romantic relationships.

The Network of Relationships Inventory: Behavioral Systems Version

This paper describes an alternative version of the Network of Relationships Inventory, which was designed to assess how frequently different relationships were used to fulfill the functions of three behavioral systems-attachment, caregiving, and affiliation. Psychometric and validational evidence is presented including: a) high internal consistency for all scales and composites, b) a second order factor structure of support and negative interactions for each relationship, c) moderately high stability over a one year period, d) moderate convergence among different reporters, e) theoretically meaningful differences among different relationships, f) moderate associations among different relationships, g) associations with the original Network of Relationships Inventory, and h) relations with observed interactions with mothers and friends.

The influence of representations of attachment, maternal-adolescent relationship quality, and maternal monitoring on adolescent substance use: a 2-year longitudinal examination

The present study examined the hypotheses that more secure representations of attachments to parents are associated with less adolescent substance use over time and that this link is mediated through relationship quality and monitoring. A sample of 200 adolescents (M = 14-16 years), their mothers, and close friends were assessed over 2 years. Higher levels of security in attachment styles, but not states of mind, were predictive of higher levels of monitoring and support and lower levels of negative interactions. Higher levels of security in attachment styles had an indirect effect on changes in substance use over time, mediated by maternal monitoring. These findings highlight the roles of representations of attachments, mother-adolescent relationship qualities, and monitoring in the development of adolescent substance use.

Parent-Adolescent Relationship Qualities, Internal Working Models, and Styles as Predictors of Adolescents' Observed Interactions with Friends

This study examined how current parent-adolescent relationship qualities and adolescents' representations of relationships with parents were related to friendship interactions in 200 adolescent-close friend dyads. Adolescents and friends were observed discussing problems during a series of structured tasks. Negative interactions with mothers were significantly related to adolescents' greater conflict with friends, poorer focus on tasks, and poorer communication skills. Security of working models (as assessed by interview) was significantly associated with qualities of friendship interactions, whereas security of attachment styles (as assessed by questionnaire) was not. More dismissing (vs. secure) working models were associated with poorer focus on problem discussions and weaker communication skills with friends, even after accounting for gender differences and current parent-adolescent relationship qualities. We discuss possible mechanisms for the observed links between dimensions of parent-adolescent relationships and friendships. We also consider methodological and conceptual differences between working model and style measures of attachment representations.

Interpersonal influences on late adolescent girls' and boys' disordered eating

Perceived socio-cultural pressure to be thin has an important impact on disordered eating during early and middle adolescence, but less is known about late adolescence. Most prospective studies included only girls, and less is known about the influence on boys. This study investigated interpersonal influences on changes in late adolescent boys' and girls' symptoms of disordered eating over one year. Participants were a community sample of late adolescents 16-19 years of age (N=199; 49.75% girls), their mothers, and friends. Structural equation modeling revealed that interpersonal pressure to be thin and criticism about appearance predicted increases in disordered eating over time. Late adolescents', mothers' and friends' reports of pressure were associated with disordered eating at Time 1 and Time 2. Further, adolescents' perceptions and friends' reports of pressure to be thin predicted changes in disordered eating over time. Findings underscore the significance of interpersonal relationships for disordered eating during late adolescence in both girls and boys.

Adolescent romantic relationships

In this article, we review theoretical and empirical advances in research on romantic relationships between age 10 and the early twenties. First, we describe key themes in this area of research. Next, we briefly characterize the most influential theoretical formulations and distinctive methodological issues. We then describe research findings regarding pertinent social and developmental processes. We summarize the extensive findings on relationships with parents and peers as a context for romantic relationships. Finally, we characterize the growing evidence that adolescent romantic relationships are significant for individual adjustment and development, and we note promising directions for further research.

Patterns of interaction in adolescent romantic relationships: Distinct features and links to other close relationships

This study examined the similarities and differences between adolescents' interactions with romantic partners and those with friends and mothers. Thirty-two adolescents were observed interacting with a romantic partner, a close friend, and their mother. Adolescents and romantic partners engaged in more conflict than adolescents and friends. Adolescents' affective responsiveness was less positive with romantic partners than with their friends. Additionally, the dyadic positivity was lower in romantic relationships than in friendships. More off-task behavior occurred in romantic relationships than in mother-adolescent relationships. Romantic partners were also less skillful communicators and had lower levels of affective responsiveness than mothers. Adolescents perceived more support and fewer negative interactions in romantic relationships than in relationships with mothers. Consistent with expectations, adolescents' interactions with romantic partners were associated with those with friends and mothers. Thus, romantic relationships are characterized by distinct patterns of interaction, yet also are associated with other close relationships.

Actor and partner effects of adolescents' romantic working models and styles on interactions with romantic partners

The present study examined how adolescents' and their romantic partners' romantic working models and relational styles were related to their interactions with each other. Sixty-five couples (M age = 18.1 years) were observed interacting. Romantic working models were assessed in interviews about their romantic experiences; romantic styles were assessed by self-report. Data were analyzed using the Actor Partner Interdependence Model. Working models of romantic relationships, especially girls' models, were predictive of their behavior, the partners' behavior, and the dyads' behavior. Fewer links were found between relational styles and observed behavior. The present study extends past work by showing that representations of romantic relationships influence or are influenced by romantic interactions, even as these representations and relationships are just developing.

Concordance in attachment states of mind and styles with respect to fathers and mothers

It is believed that by adulthood, independent attachments to the mother and the father coalesce into a single state of mind with respect to attachment. If true, states of mind with respect to mothers and fathers should be concordant. Fifty-six young adults were administered two versions of the Adult Attachment Interview, each of which asked about their relationship with one parent. State of mind with respect to the father was significantly related to state of mind with respect to the mother, as were attachment styles regarding the two parents. Perceptions of attachment styles were not very related to corresponding states of mind but were related to inferred loving from a parent.