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McLean RM, Wang NX, Cameron C, Skeaff S. Measuring Sodium from Discretionary Salt: Comparison of Methods. Nutrients 2023; 15:5076. [PMID: 38140335 PMCID: PMC10745414 DOI: 10.3390/nu15245076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The best method to assess discretionary salt intake in population surveys has not been established. (2) Methods: This secondary analysis compared three different methods of measuring sodium intake from discretionary salt in a convenience sample of 109 adults in New Zealand. Participants replaced their household salt with lithium-tagged salt provided by researchers over eight days. Baseline 24 h urine was collected, and two further 24 h urine and 24 h dietary recalls were collected between days six and eight. Discretionary salt was estimated from the lithium-tagged salt, focused questions in the 24 h dietary recall, and the 'subtraction method' (a combination of 24 h urine and 24 h dietary recall measures). (3) Results: Around one-third of estimates from the 'subtraction method' were negative and therefore unrealistic. The mean difference between 24 h dietary recall and lithium-tagged salt estimates for sodium from discretionary salt mean were 457 mg sodium/day and 65 mg/day for mean and median, respectively. (4) Conclusions: It is possible to obtain a reasonable estimate of discretionary salt intake from careful questioning regarding salt used in cooking, in recipes, and at the table during a 24 h recall process to inform population salt reduction strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael Mira McLean
- Department of Preventive & Social Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Nan Xin Wang
- Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand; (N.X.W.); (S.S.)
| | - Claire Cameron
- Biostatistics Centre, Division of Health Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand;
| | - Sheila Skeaff
- Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand; (N.X.W.); (S.S.)
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Suh SH, Oh TR, Choi HS, Kim CS, Bae EH, Ma SK, Oh KH, Hyun YY, Sung S, Kim SW. Urinary Phosphorus Excretion and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Pre-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease: The KNOW-CKD Study. Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15102267. [PMID: 37242150 DOI: 10.3390/nu15102267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The relationship between 24-h urinary phosphorus excretion (24 h UPE) and cardiovascular disease in patients with pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD) has rarely been studied, despite the fact that the relationship between serum phosphorus level and the risk of a cardiovascular event is well established. A total of 1701 patients with pre-dialysis CKD were finally included for the analyses and were divided into tertiles by 24 h UPE (first tertile (T1, 349.557 (mean) ± 88.413 (standard deviation)), second tertile (T2, 557.530 ± 50.738), and third tertile (T3, 851.695 ± 171.593). The study outcome was a six-point major adverse cardiac event (MACE). The median follow-up duration was 7.992 years. Kaplan-Meier curve analysis visualized that the cumulative incidences of a six-point MACE (p = 0.029) significantly differed from 24 h UPE levels, as the incidence rate of the study outcomes was highest in T1 and lowest in T3. Cox proportional hazard models unveiled that, compared to T1, the risk of a six-point MACE was significantly decreased in T3 (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 0.376, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.207 to 0.683). The restricted cubic spline curve analysis visualized an inverted S-shaped association between 24 h UPE level and the risk of a six-point MACE, indicating a significantly increased risk of a six-point MACE in patients with a low 24 h UPE level. In conclusion, low 24 h UPE is associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with CKD. Our finding emphasizes that low 24 h UPE should not be a reliable marker for dietary restriction of phosphorus that essentially leads to better outcomes in patients with CKD.
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Grants
- 2011E3300300, 2012E3301100, 2013E3301600, 2013E3301601, 2013E3301602, 2016E3300200, 2016E3300201, 2016E3300202, 2019E320100, 2019E320101, 2019E320102 and 2022-11-007 the Research Program funded by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency
- NRF-2019R1A2C2086276 the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Korea government (MSIT)
- BCRI22079, BCRI22042 Chonnam National University Hospital Biomedical Research Institute
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Heon Suh
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Ryom Oh
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Sang Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Seong Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Hui Bae
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Kwon Ma
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Kook-Hwan Oh
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Youl Hyun
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 03181, Republic of Korea
| | - Suah Sung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Eulji Medical Center, Eulji University, Seoul 01830, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Wan Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju 61469, Republic of Korea
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Vulin M, Magušić L, Metzger AM, Muller A, Drenjančević I, Jukić I, Šijanović S, Lukić M, Stanojević L, Davidović Cvetko E, Stupin A. Sodium-to-Potassium Ratio as an Indicator of Diet Quality in Healthy Pregnant Women. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14235052. [PMID: 36501082 PMCID: PMC9737568 DOI: 10.3390/nu14235052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate diet quality in healthy pregnant women based on the Na-to-K ratio from 24 h urine sample and food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), to compare dietary micro- and macronutrient intake with current nutritional recommendations (RDA), and to investigate whether gestational weight gain (GWG) is associated with Na-to-K ratio and diet quality during pregnancy in general. Sixty-four healthy pregnant women between 37 and 40 weeks of gestation participated in the study. Participants' GWG, body composition, molar 24 h urine Na-to-K ratio, and FFQ data on average daily total energy, food groups, and micro-/macronutrient intake were obtained. A Na-to-K ratio of 2.68 (1.11-5.24) does not meet nutrition quality and is higher than the WHO recommendations due to excessive sodium and insufficient potassium intake. FFQ Na-to-K ratio was associated with a higher daily intake of soups, sauces, cereals, fats, and oils and a low intake of fruit and non-alcoholic beverages. A total of 49% of pregnant women exhibited excessive GWG, which was attributed to the increase in adipose tissue mass. GWG was not associated with total energy but may be the result of insufficient physical activity during pregnancy. Daily intake of vitamin D, vitamin E, folate, niacin, riboflavin, calcium, iron, and zinc was suboptimal compared to RDA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Vulin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Lucija Magušić
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Ana-Maria Metzger
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Andrijana Muller
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Ines Drenjančević
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Scientific Center of Excellence for Personalized Health Care, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Ivana Jukić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Scientific Center of Excellence for Personalized Health Care, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Siniša Šijanović
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Matea Lukić
- Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Lorena Stanojević
- Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | | | - Ana Stupin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Scientific Center of Excellence for Personalized Health Care, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
- Correspondence:
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Yamori Y, Sagara M, Mori H, Mori M. Stroke-Prone SHR as Experimental Models for Cardiovascular Disease Risk Reduction in Humans. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10112974. [PMID: 36428542 PMCID: PMC9687971 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10112974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Since stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP) develop hypertension and stroke without exception, the prevention or reduction of risk by various nutrients was tested on blood pressure and the mortality caused by stroke and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). In addition to sodium (Na) accelerating hypertension and stroke and potassium (K) counteracting the adverse effect of Na, taurine (Tau), rich in seafood, and magnesium (Mg) contained in soy, nuts, grains, etc., were proven to reduce stroke and CVD and improve survival. Therefore, the Cardiovascular Diseases and Alimentary Comparison Study was started in 1985 to explore the association of biomarkers of diet in 24 h urine (24U) with CVD risks, and about 100 males and 100 females aged 48-56 in each of 50 populations were studied until 1995. Linear regression analysis indicated that the 24U Tau/creatinine and Mg/creatinine ratios were inversely associated with body mass index, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and total cholesterol. In comparison with six Euro-Western regions, 24U Tau and Mg collected from six regions, respectively, in Japan and the Mediterranean countries were significantly higher and were significantly associated with lower CVD risks. Diets rich in Tau and Mg were concluded to be contributory to the prevention of CVD in SHRSP and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukio Yamori
- Institute for World Health Development, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8143, Japan
- Correspondence:
| | - Miki Sagara
- Institute for World Health Development, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8143, Japan
| | - Hideki Mori
- Institute for World Health Development, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8143, Japan
| | - Mari Mori
- Department of Health Management, School of Health Study Tokai University, Hiratsuka 259-1292, Japan
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Penczynski KJ, Remer T, Menzel J, Abraham K, Weikert C. Urinary Potential Renal Acid Load (uPRAL) among Vegans Versus Omnivores and Its Association with Bone Health in the Cross-Sectional Risks and Benefits of a Vegan Diet Study. Nutrients 2022; 14. [PMID: 36364731 DOI: 10.3390/nu14214468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Both veganism and high dietary acid load are linked to unfavorable bone health. However, the specific role of dietary alkali or acid load for the bone health of vegans is so far unknown. Thus, the renal biomarker for dietary acid or alkali load, i.e., urinary potential renal acid load (uPRAL), was measured in 24 h urine samples of 34 vegans and 35 omnivores (50.7% males). Bone health was assessed via calcaneal quantitative ultrasound. Associations between uPRAL and bone health indices were examined using multivariable general linear models. Compared to omnivores, vegans had a significantly lower uPRAL (mean difference = −34.5 mEq/24 h, p < 0.0001), a lower 24 h urinary phosphate excretion (p = 0.0004), a lower 24 h urinary sulfate excretion (p = 0.01), and a higher urine pH value (p < 0.0001). Broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) was lower among vegans versus omnivores (p = 0.037), yet it was not associated with uPRAL irrespective of adjustments. This study confirms different acid-base profiles of vegans and omnivores, with a pronounced alkaline excess among vegans and a rather low acid load among a group of omnivores with moderate protein intake. Within this spectrum of alkaline to low acid load, no association with bone health was found.
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Wu B, Yang H, Ren X, Qi Z, Tang S, Yin X, Huang L, Tian M, Wu Y, Feng X, Li Z. A Method for Estimating 24 h Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion by Spot Urine Specimen in Stroke Patients. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14194105. [PMID: 36235755 PMCID: PMC9573759 DOI: 10.3390/nu14194105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Spot urine specimens have been used to estimate 24 h urinary sodium (Na) excretion (24UNaV) and potassium (K) excretion (24UKV). However, the validity is limited for 24UNaV and unknown for 24UKV in stroke patients, using the existing formulas. Herein, we developed and validated a new formula for 24UNaV and 24UKV by spot urine specimens in stroke patients. Spot and 24 h urine samples were collected from 970 stroke patients. The models of 24UNaV and 24UKV were developed using stepwise multivariate linear regression in 689 patients. The performance of different formulas was internally validated in 281 patients at the population and individual levels. The obtained new formulas were: (1) estimated 24UNaV (mmol/day): -0.191 × Age + 4.349 × BMI + 0.229 × SpotNa + 1.744 × SpotNa/Spot creatinine (Cr) + 41.492 (for male); -1.030 × Age + 2.011 × BMI + 0.143 × SpotNa + 1.035 × SpotNa/SpotCr + 147.159 (for female); and (2) estimated 24UKV (mmol/day): -0.052 × Age + 0.410 × BMI + 0.031 × SpotK + 33.280 × Ln (spotK/spot Cr) - 5.789 × Ln (spotNa/spot Cr) - 1.035 (for male); -0.235 × Age + 0.530 × BMI + 0.040 × SpotK + 30.990 × Ln (spot K/spot Cr) - 7.837 × Ln (spotNa/spotCr) + 4.318 (for female). The new formula obtained the lowest mean bias (5.17 mmol/day for 24UNaV and 0.85 mmol/day for 24UKV) and highest proportion at the cutoff under the ±30% level for the estimation of 24UNaV (59.43%) and 24UKV (70.11%). The new formula provides a meaningful exploration to estimate 24UNaV and 24UKV in stroke patients by using spot urine specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beike Wu
- School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Hongmei Yang
- School of Public Health, Changzhi Medical College, Changzhi 046000, China
| | - Xinyu Ren
- School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Zijing Qi
- School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Shuai Tang
- School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Xuejun Yin
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Newtown, NSW 2042, Australia
| | - Liping Huang
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Newtown, NSW 2042, Australia
| | - Maoyi Tian
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Newtown, NSW 2042, Australia
- School of Public Health, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Yangfeng Wu
- Clinical Research Center, Peking University, Beijing 100088, China
| | - Xiangxian Feng
- School of Public Health, Changzhi Medical College, Changzhi 046000, China
| | - Zhifang Li
- School of Public Health, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
- School of Public Health, Changzhi Medical College, Changzhi 046000, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-18636517556
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Sallsten G, Barregard L. Variability of Urinary Creatinine in Healthy Individuals. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18:ijerph18063166. [PMID: 33808539 PMCID: PMC8003281 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18063166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Many urinary biomarkers are adjusted for dilution using creatinine or specific gravity. The aim was to evaluate the variability of creatinine excretion, in 24 h and spot samples, and to describe an openly available variability biobank. Urine and blood samples were collected from 60 healthy non-smoking adults, 29 men and 31 women. All urine was collected at six time points during two 24 h periods. Blood samples were also collected twice and stored frozen. Analyses of creatinine in urine was performed in fresh urine using an enzymatic method. For creatinine in urine, the intra-class correlation (ICC) was calculated for 24 h urine and spot samples. Diurnal variability was examined, as well as association with urinary flow rate. The creatinine excretion rate was lowest in overnight samples and relatively constant in the other five samples. The creatinine excretion rate in each individual was positively correlated with urinary flow rate. The creatinine concentration was highest in the overnight sample and at 09:30. For 24 h samples the ICC was 0.64, for overnight samples it was 0.5, and for all spot samples, it was much lower. The ICC for urinary creatinine depends on the time of day of sampling. Frozen samples from this variability biobank are open for researchers examining normal variability of their favorite biomarker(s).
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Trautvetter U, Ditscheid B, Jahreis G, Glei M. Habitual Intakes, Food Sources and Excretions of Phosphorus and Calcium in Three German Study Collectives. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10020171. [PMID: 29393923 PMCID: PMC5852747 DOI: 10.3390/nu10020171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphorus intake in Europe is far above recommendations. We present baseline data from three human intervention studies between 2006 and 2014 regarding intake and excretion of phosphorus and calcium. All subjects documented their nutritional habits in weighed dietary records. Fasting blood samples were drawn, and feces and urine were quantitatively collected. Dietary phosphorus intake was estimated based on weighed dietary records and urine phosphorus excretions. Food sources were identified by allocation to defined food product groups. Average phosphorus consumption was 1338 mg/day and did not change from 2006 to 2014, while calcium intake decreased during this period (1150 to 895 mg/day). The main sources for phosphorus intake were bread/cereal products, milk/milk products and meat/meat products/sausage products and the main sources of calcium intake included milk/milk products/cheese, bread/cereal products and beverages. There was no difference between estimated phosphorus intake from the weighed dietary records and urine phosphorus excretion. In conclusion, we demonstrated constant phosphorus intakes far above the recommendations and decreasing calcium intakes below the recommendations in three German collectives from 2006 to 2014. Furthermore, we could show in case of usual intakes that an estimated phosphorus intake from urine phosphorus excretion is similar to the calculated intake from weighed dietary records.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Trautvetter
- Institute of Nutrition, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger Straße 24, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Bianka Ditscheid
- Institute of Nutrition, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger Straße 24, 07743 Jena, Germany.
- Institute of General Practice and Family Medicine, Jena University Hospital, Bachstraße 18, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Gerhard Jahreis
- Institute of Nutrition, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger Straße 24, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Michael Glei
- Institute of Nutrition, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger Straße 24, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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Temme EHM, Hendriksen MAH, Milder IEJ, Toxopeus IB, Westenbrink S, Brants HAM, van der A DL. Salt Reductions in Some Foods in The Netherlands: Monitoring of Food Composition and Salt Intake. Nutrients 2017; 9:E791. [PMID: 28737692 DOI: 10.3390/nu9070791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES High salt intake increases blood pressure and thereby the risk of chronic diseases. Food reformulation (or food product improvement) may lower the dietary intake of salt. This study describes the changes in salt contents of foods in the Dutch market over a five-year period (2011-2016) and differences in estimated salt intake over a 10-year period (2006-2015). METHODS To assess the salt contents of foods; we obtained recent data from chemical analyses and from food labels. Salt content of these foods in 2016 was compared to salt contents in the 2011 version Dutch Food Composition Database (NEVO, version 2011), and statistically tested with General Linear Models. To estimate the daily dietary salt intake in 2006, 2010, and 2015, men and women aged 19 to 70 years were recruited through random population sampling in Doetinchem, a small town located in a rural area in the eastern part of the Netherlands. The characteristics of the study population were in 2006: n = 317, mean age 49 years, 43% men, in 2010: n = 342, mean age 46 years, 45% men, and in 2015: n = 289, mean age 46 years, 47% men. Sodium and potassium excretion was measured in a single 24-h urine sample. All estimates were converted to a common metric: salt intake in grams per day by multiplication of sodium with a factor of 2.54. RESULTS In 2016 compared to 2011, the salt content in certain types of bread was on average 19 percent lower and certain types of sauce, soup, canned vegetables and legumes, and crisps had a 12 to 26 percent lower salt content. Salt content in other types of foods had not changed significantly. Between 2006, 2010 and 2015 the estimated salt intake among adults in Doetinchem remained unchanged. In 2015, the median estimated salt intake was 9.7 g per day for men and 7.4 g per day for women. As in 2006 and 2010, the estimated salt intake in 2015 exceeded the recommended maximum intake of 6 g per day set by the Dutch Health Council. CONCLUSION In the Netherlands, the salt content of bread, certain sauces, soups, potato crisps, and processed legumes and vegetables have been reduced over the period 2011-2016. However, median salt intake in 2006 and 2015 remained well above the recommended intake of 6 g.
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Hendriksen MAH, van Raaij JMA, Geleijnse JM, den Hooven CWV, Ocké MC, van der A DL. Monitoring salt and iodine intakes in Dutch adults between 2006 and 2010 using 24 h urinary sodium and iodine excretions. Public Health Nutr 2014; 17:1431-8. [PMID: 23739290 PMCID: PMC10282408 DOI: 10.1017/s1368980013001481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To monitor the effectiveness of salt-reduction initiatives in processed foods and changes in Dutch iodine policy on Na and iodine intakes in Dutch adults between 2006 and 2010. DESIGN Two cross-sectional studies among adults, conducted in 2006 and 2010, using identical protocols. Participants collected single 24 h urine samples and completed two short questionnaires on food consumption and urine collection procedures. Daily intakes of salt, iodine, K and Na:K were estimated, based on the analysis of Na, K and iodine excreted in urine. SETTING Doetinchem, the Netherlands. SUBJECTS Men and women aged 19 to 70 years were recruited through random sampling of the Doetinchem population and among participants of the Doetinchem Cohort Study (2006: n 317, mean age 48·9 years, 43 % men; 2010: n 342, mean age 46·2 years, 45 % men). RESULTS While median iodine intake was lower in 2010 (179 μg/d) compared with 2006 (257 μg/d; P < 0·0001), no difference in median salt intake was observed (8·7 g/d in 2006 v. 8·5 g/d in 2010, P = 0·70). In 2006, median K intake was 2·6 g/d v. 2·8 g/d in 2010 (P < 0·01). In this 4-year period, median Na:K improved from 2·4 in 2006 to 2·2 in 2010 (P < 0·001). CONCLUSIONS Despite initiatives to lower salt in processed foods, dietary salt intake in this population remains well above the recommended intake of 6 g/d. Iodine intake is still adequate, although a decline was observed between 2006 and 2010. This reduction is probably due to changes in iodine policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke AH Hendriksen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Joop MA van Raaij
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna M Geleijnse
- Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marga C Ocké
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Daphne L van der A
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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