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Abstract
End-stage liver disease is characterized by massive hepatocyte death resulting in clinical decompensation and organ failures. Clinical consequences in cirrhosis are the results of the loss of functional hepatocytes and excessive scarring. The only curative therapy in advanced cirrhosis is orthotropic liver transplantation, but the clinical demand outweighs the availability of acceptable donor organs. Moreover, this also necessitates lifelong immunosuppression and carries associated risks. The liver has a huge capability for regeneration. Self-replication of quiescent differentiated hepatocytes and cholangiocytes occurs in patients with acute liver injury. Due to limited hepatocyte self-renewal capacity in advanced cirrhosis, great interest has therefore been shown in characterizing the possible role of hepatic progenitor cells and bone marrow-derived stem cells to therapeutically aid this process. Transplantation of cells from various sources that can be properly differentiated into functional liver cells or use of growth factors for ex-vivo expansion of progenitor cells is needed at utmost priority. Multiple researches over the last two decades have aided researchers in refining proliferation, differentiation, and storage techniques and understand the functionality of these cells for use in clinical practice. However, these cell-based therapies are still experimental and have to be used in trial settings.
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Key Words
- Ang2, angiopoietin 2
- BM, Bone marrow
- BM-MNCs, bone marrow mononuclear cells
- BMSC, bone marrow stem cells
- DAMPs, Damage associated molecular patterns
- EPCs, endothelial progenitor cells
- ESRP2, epithelial splicing regulatory protein 2
- GCSF
- HGF, hepatocyte growth factor
- HPC, Hepatocyte progenitor cells
- HSCs, hematopoietic stem cells
- Hh, Hedgehog
- HybHP, hybrid periportal hepatocytes
- MMP, matrix metalloprotease
- MSCs, mesenchymal stromal cells
- OLT, Orthotropic liver transplantation
- PAMPs, Pathogen associated molecular patterns
- SAH, severe alcoholic hepatitis
- SDF1, stromal-derived factor 1
- TNFSF12, tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 12
- Terthigh, high Telomerase reverse transcriptase
- [Hnf4a], Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4 Alpha
- [Mfsd2a], Major Facilitator Superfamily Domain containing 2A
- acute liver failure
- chronic liver diseases
- hepatocyte transplant
- liver regeneration
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Yoneda T, Hiasa M, Okui T, Hata K. Sensory nerves: A driver of the vicious cycle in bone metastasis? J Bone Oncol 2021; 30:100387. [PMID: 34504741 PMCID: PMC8411232 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbo.2021.100387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone is one of the preferential target organs of cancer metastasis. Bone metastasis is associated with various complications, of which bone pain is most common and debilitating. The cancer-associated bone pain (CABP) is induced as a consequence of increased neurogenesis, reprogramming and axonogenesis of sensory nerves (SNs) in harmony with sensitization and excitation of SNs in response to the tumor microenvironment created in bone. Importantly, CABP is associated with increased mortality, of which precise cellular and molecular mechanism remains poorly understood. Bone is densely innervated by autonomic nerves (ANs) (sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves) and SNs. Recent studies have shown that the nerves innervating the tumor microenvironment establish intimate communications with tumors, producing various stimuli for tumors to progress and disseminate. In this review, our current understanding of the role of SNs innervating bone in the pathophysiology of CABP will be overviewed. Then the hypothesis that SNs facilitate cancer progression in bone will be discussed in conjunction with our recent findings that SNs play an important role not only in the induction of CABP but also the progression of bone metastasis using a preclinical model of CABP. It is suggested that SNs are a critical component of the bone microenvironment that drives the vicious cycle between bone and cancer to progress bone metastasis. Suppression of the activity of bone-innervating SNs may have potential therapeutic effects on the progression of bone metastasis and induction of CABP.
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Key Words
- AN, autonomic nerve
- BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor
- BMP, bone morphogenetic protein
- BMSC, bone marrow stromal cells
- Bone microenvironment
- CABP, cancer-associated bone pain
- CALCRL, calcitonin receptor-like receptor
- CAP, cancer-associated pain
- CCL2, C–C motif chemokine 2
- CGRP, calcitonin gene-related peptide
- CNS, central nervous system
- COX, cyclooxygenase
- CREB, cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein
- CRPC, castration-resistant prostate cancer
- CXCL1, C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 1
- CXCL2, C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2
- Cancer-associated bone pain
- DRG, dorsal root ganglion
- ERK1/2, extracellular receptor kinase ½
- G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
- GDNF, glial-derived neurotrophic factor
- HGF, hepatocyte growth factor
- HIF-1α, hypoxia-inducible transcription factor-1α
- HMGB-1, high mobility group box-1
- HSCs, hematopoietic stem cells
- HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cells
- IL-1β, interleukin 1β
- MM, multiple myeloma
- MOR, mu-opioid receptor
- NE, norepinephrine
- NGF, nerve growth factor
- NI, nerve invasion
- NPY, neuropeptide Y
- NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
- Nociceptors
- OA, osteoarthritis
- OPG, osteoprotegerin
- PACAP, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide
- PD-1, programmed cell death-1
- PD-L1, programmed death-ligand 1
- PDAC, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma
- PGE2, prostaglandin E2
- PNI, perineural invasion
- PanIN, pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia
- Perineural invasion
- RAGE, receptor for advanced glycation end products
- RAMP1, receptor activity modifying protein 1
- RANKL, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand
- RTX, resiniferatoxin
- SN, sensory nerves
- SP, substance P
- SRE, skeletal-related event
- Sensory nerves
- TGFβ, transforming growth factor β
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α
- TRPV1
- TrkA, tyrosine kinase receptor type 1
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide
- a3V-H+-ATPase, a3 isoform vacuolar proton pump
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Yoneda
- Department of Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Hiasa
- Department of Biomaterials and Bioengineerings, University of Tokushima Graduate School of Dentistry, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Okui
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Biopathology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Okayama, Japan
| | - Kenji Hata
- Department of Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Osaka, Japan
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Boddul SV, Sharma RK, Dubnovitsky A, Raposo B, Gerstner C, Shen Y, Iyer VS, Kasza Z, Kwok WW, Winkler AR, Klareskog L, Malmström V, Bettini M, Wermeling F. In vitro and ex vitro functional characterization of human HLA-DRB1∗04 restricted T cell receptors. J Transl Autoimmun 2021; 4:100087. [PMID: 33768201 PMCID: PMC7980064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtauto.2021.100087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in single-cell sequencing technologies enable the generation of large-scale data sets of paired TCR sequences from patients with autoimmune disease. Methods to validate and characterize patient-derived TCR data are needed, as well as relevant model systems that can support the development of antigen-specific tolerance inducing drugs. We have generated a pipeline to allow streamlined generation of 'artificial' T cells in a robust and reasonably high throughput manner for in vitro and in vivo studies of antigen-specific and patient-derived immune responses. Hereby chimeric (mouse-human) TCR alpha and beta constructs are re-expressed in three different formats for further studies: (i) transiently in HEK cells for peptide-HLA tetramer validation experiments, (ii) stably in the TCR-negative 58 T cell line for functional readouts such as IL-2 production and NFAT-signaling, and lastly (iii) in human HLA-transgenic mice for studies of autoimmune disease and therapeutic interventions. As a proof of concept, we have used human HLA-DRB1∗04:01 restricted TCR sequences specific for a type I diabetes-associated GAD peptide, and an influenza-derived HA peptide. We show that the same chimeric TCR constructs can be used in each of the described assays facilitating sequential validation and prioritization steps leading to humanized animal models.
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Key Words
- APC, antigen presenting cells
- BM, bone marrow
- Ca2+, calcium
- Cell lines
- GAD, glutamic acid decarboxylase
- GFP, green fluorescent protein
- GWAS, Genome-wide association studies
- HA, Influenza hemagglutinin
- HLA
- HLA, Human leukocyte antigen
- HSCs, hematopoietic stem cells
- Humanized animal models
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- NFAT, Nuclear factor of activated T-cells
- RA, Rheumatoid arthritis
- RAG, Recombination-activating genes
- T1D, Type-1 diabetes
- TCR
- TCR, T cell receptor
- TCRa, TCR alpha
- TCRb, TCR beta
- TMR, HLA tetramer
- Tolerance
- hCD4, human CD4
- hTCR, human TCR
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjaykumar V Boddul
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ravi Kumar Sharma
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anatoly Dubnovitsky
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bruno Raposo
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christina Gerstner
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yunbing Shen
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Vaishnavi Srinivasan Iyer
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Zsolt Kasza
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - William W Kwok
- Translational Research Program, BRI at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Aaron R Winkler
- Department of Inflammation and Immunology, Pfizer Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lars Klareskog
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Vivianne Malmström
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Bettini
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Fredrik Wermeling
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Everts PA, Malanga GA, Paul RV, Rothenberg JB, Stephens N, Mautner KR. Assessing clinical implications and perspectives of the pathophysiological effects of erythrocytes and plasma free hemoglobin in autologous biologics for use in musculoskeletal regenerative medicine therapies. A review. Regen Ther 2019; 11:56-64. [PMID: 31193111 PMCID: PMC6517793 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autologous biologics, defined as platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMC), are cell-based therapy treatment options in regenerative medicine practices, and have been increasingly used in orthopedics, sports medicine, and spinal disorders. These biological products are produced at point-of-care; thereby, avoiding expensive and cumbersome culturing and expansion techniques. Numerous commercial PRP and BMC systems are available but reports and knowledge of bio-cellular formulations produced by these systems are limited. This limited information hinders evaluating clinical and research outcomes and thus making conclusions about their biological effectiveness. Some of their important cellular and protein properties have not been characterized, which is critical for understanding the mechanisms of actions involved in tissue regenerative processes. The presence and role of red blood cells (RBCs) in any biologic has not been addressed extensively. Furthermore, some of the pathophysiological effects and phenomena related to RBCs have not been studied. A lack of a complete understanding of all of the biological components and their functional consequences hampers the development of clinical standards for any biological preparation. This paper aims to review the clinical implications and pathophysiological effects of RBCs in PRP and BMC; emphasizes hemolysis, eryptosis, and the release of macrophage inhibitory factor; and explains several effects on the microenvironment, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, vasoconstriction, and impaired cell metabolism. Different biological formulations optimize disease specific regenerative treatment protocols. Disintegrated RBC's release harmful components to regenerative therapy treatment vials. The effectiveness of MSC injection depends on the quality of the bone marrow aspiration procedure. PRP and BMC should contain minimal to no erythrocytes.
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Key Words
- BM-MSCs, bone marrow-mesenchymal cells
- BMA, bone marrow aspiration
- BMC, bone marrow concentrate
- Bone marrow mesenchymal cells
- Eryptosis
- HSCs, hematopoietic stem cells
- Hb, hemoglobin
- Hp, haptoglobin
- Hx, hemopexin
- Inflammation
- MIF, Macrophage migration inhibitory factor
- MNCs, mononucleated cells
- Macrophage migration inhibitor factor
- NO, nitric oxide
- OA, osteoarthritis
- Oxidative stress
- PAF, platelet activating factor
- PFH, plasma free hemoglobin
- PRP, platelet-rich plasma
- PS, phosphatidylserine
- Plasma free hemoglobin
- Platelet-rich plasma
- RBC, red blood cell
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A. Everts
- Gulf Coast Biologics, Scientific and Research Department, Fort Myers, FL, USA
- Corresponding author. Gulf Coast Biologics, 6900 Daniels Pkwy, Suite #29-282, Fort Myers, FL 33912, USA.
| | - Gerard A. Malanga
- New Jersey Regenerative Institute LLC, Cedar Knolls, NJ, USA
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Rowan V. Paul
- California Pacific Orthopedics, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Joshua B. Rothenberg
- Boca Raton Regional Hospital, Regenerative Medicine and Orthopedics Biologic Department, Boca Raton, FL, USA
- BocaCare Orthopedics, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | | | - Kenneth R. Mautner
- Emory University, Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Atlanta GA, USA
- Emory University, Department of Orthopedics, Atlanta GA, USA
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Matsuzaki Y, Umemoto T, Tanaka Y, Okano T, Yamato M. β2-Microglobulin is an appropriate reference gene for RT-PCR-based gene expression analysis of hematopoietic stem cells. Regen Ther 2015; 1:91-7. [PMID: 31245448 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is regarded as one of the most useful and powerful tools for characterizing hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), because samples of extremely small cell numbers can be analyzed. The expression levels determined by RT-PCR are based on relative quantification; therefore, the selection of an appropriate reference gene with a relatively stable expression level under most conditions is crucial. Here, we determined that beta2-microglobulin (B2m) is an appropriate reference gene for analyzing mouse HSCs by a novel method using single-cell RT-PCR. Clonally sorted HSCs were subjected to RT reactions with exogenous RNA fragments and then to real-time PCR. Next, the relative gene expression levels of 4 well-known housekeeping genes were quantified in each single cell sample based on the threshold cycle of exogenous RNA. The analysis revealed that B2m expression was reproducibly detected in almost all HSCs and that B2m had the most stable expression level among the compared genes, even after the cells had been cultured under various conditions. Thus, our results indicate that B2m can reliably be used as a reference gene for the relative quantification of expression levels in HSCs across various conditions. Furthermore, our work proposes a novel method for the selection of appropriate reference genes.
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Key Words
- Actb, beta-actin
- B2m, beta2-microglobulin
- Beta2-microglobulin
- Ct, threshold cycles
- ERCC, External RNA Controls Consortium
- Gapdh, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- HKGs, housekeeping genes
- HSCs, hematopoietic stem cells
- Hematopoietic stem cells
- Hprt, hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- MPPs, multi-potential progenitors
- RT-PCR, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction
- Reference gene
- SCF, stem cell factor
- Single-cell RT-PCR
- TPO, Thrombopoietin
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Fang J, Chen X, Wang S, Xie T, Du X, Liu H, Wang S, Li X, Chen J, Zhang B, Liang H, Yang Y, Zhang W. The expression of P2X₇ receptors in EPCs and their potential role in the targeting of EPCs to brain gliomas. Cancer Biol Ther 2015; 16:498-510. [PMID: 25839324 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2015.1016663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to use endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) as a therapeutic and imaging probe to overcome antiangiogenic resistance for gliomas, how to enhance proliferation and targeting ability of transplanted EPCs is a high priority. Here, we confirmed, for the first time, the expression of P2X7 receptors in rat spleen-derived EPCs. Activation of P2X7 receptors in EPCs by BzATP promoted cells proliferation and migration, rather than apoptosis. In vivo, the homing of transplanted EPCs after long-term suppression of P2X7 receptors by persistent BBG stimulation was evaluated by MRI, immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. Compared to the group without BBG treatment, less transplanted EPCs homed to gliomas in the group with BBG treatment, especially integrated into the vessels containing tumor-derived endothelial cells in gliomas. Moreover, western blot showed that CXCL1 expression was downregulated in gliomas with BBG treatment, which meant P2X7 receptors suppression inhibited the homing of EPCs to gliomas through down-regulation of CXCLl expression. Further, effects of P2X7 receptors on C6 glioma cells or gliomas were evaluated at the same dose of BzATP or BBG used in EPCs experiments in vitro and in vivo. MTT assay and MRI revealed that P2X7 receptors exerted no significant promoting effect on C6 glioma cells proliferation, gliomas growth and angiogenesis. Taken together, our findings imply the possibility of promoting proliferation and targeting ability of transplanted EPCs to brain gliomas in vivo through P2X7 receptors, which may provide new perspectives on application of EPCs as a therapeutic and imaging probe to overcome antiangiogenic resistance for gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingqin Fang
- a Department of Radiology; Institute of Surgery Research; Daping Hospital; Third Military Medical University ; Chongqing , China
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Draghiciu O, Lubbers J, Nijman HW, Daemen T. Myeloid derived suppressor cells-An overview of combat strategies to increase immunotherapy efficacy. Oncoimmunology 2015; 4:e954829. [PMID: 25949858 PMCID: PMC4368153 DOI: 10.4161/21624011.2014.954829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) contribute to tumor-mediated immune escape and negatively correlate with overall survival of cancer patients. Nowadays, a variety of methods to target MDSCs are being investigated. Based on the intervention stage of MDSCs, namely development, expansion and activation, function and turnover, these methods can be divided into: (I) prevention or differentiation to mature cells, (II) blockade of MDSC expansion and activation, (III) inhibition of MDSC suppressive activity or (IV) depletion of intratumoral MDSCs. This review describes effective mono- or multimodal-therapies that target MDSCs for the benefit of cancer treatment.
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Key Words
- 5-FU, 5-fluorouracil
- 5-Fluorouracil
- ADAM17, metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 17
- APCs, antigen presenting cells
- ARG1, arginase-1
- ATRA, all-trans retinoic acid
- CCL2, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2
- CD62L, L-selectin
- CDDO-Me, bardoxolone methyl
- COX2, cyclooxygenase 2
- CTLs, cytotoxic T lymphocytes
- CXCL12, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 12
- CXCL15, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 15
- DCs, dendritic cells
- ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinases
- Flt3, Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3
- FoxP3, forkhead box P3
- GITR, anti-glucocorticoid tumor necrosis factor receptor
- GM-CSF/CSF2, granulocyte monocyte colony stimulating factor
- GSH, glutathione
- HIF-1α, hypoxia inducible factor 1α
- HLA, human leukocyte antigen
- HNSCC, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma
- HPV-16, human papillomavirus 16
- HSCs, hematopoietic stem cells
- ICT, 3, 5, 7-trihydroxy-4′-emthoxy-8-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-flavone
- IFNγ, interferon γ
- IL-10, interleukin 10
- IL-13, interleukin 13
- IL-1β, interleukin 1 β
- IL-4, interleukin 4
- IL-6, interleukin 6
- IMCs, immature myeloid cells
- JAK2, Janus kinase 2
- MDSCs, myeloid-derived suppressor cells
- MMPs, metalloproteinases (e.g., MMP9)
- Myd88, myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88
- NAC, N-acetyl cysteine
- NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase NK cells, natural killer cells
- NO, nitric oxide
- NOHA, N-hydroxy-L-Arginine
- NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
- ODN, oligodeoxynucleotides
- PDE-5, phosphodiesterase type 5
- PGE2, prostaglandin E2
- RNS, reactive nitrogen species
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SCF, stem cell factor
- STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3
- TAMs, tumor-associated macrophages
- TCR, T cell receptor
- TGFβ, transforming growth factor β
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α
- Tregs, regulatory T cells
- VEGFR, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor
- WA, withaferin A
- WRE, Withaferin somnifera
- all-trans retinoic acid
- bisphosphonates
- c-kit, Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor
- gemcitabine
- iNOS2, inducible nitric oxid synthase 2
- immune suppressive mechanisms
- mRCC, metastatic renal cell carcinoma
- myeloid-derived suppressor cells
- sunitinib therapeutic vaccination
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana Draghiciu
- Department of Medical Microbiology; Tumor Virology and Cancer Immunotherapy; University of Groningen; University Medical Center Groningen ; Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joyce Lubbers
- Department of Medical Microbiology; Tumor Virology and Cancer Immunotherapy; University of Groningen; University Medical Center Groningen ; Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hans W Nijman
- Department of Gynecology; University of Groningen; University Medical Center Groningen ; Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Toos Daemen
- Department of Medical Microbiology; Tumor Virology and Cancer Immunotherapy; University of Groningen; University Medical Center Groningen ; Groningen, The Netherlands
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