1
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Shin Y, Jeon S. MQTree: Secure OTA Protocol Using MQTT and MerkleTree. Sensors (Basel) 2024; 24:1447. [PMID: 38474983 DOI: 10.3390/s24051447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
The escalating advancement in Software-Defined Vehicles (SDVs) necessitates a formidable strategy for firmware updates, where traditional methods often fall short of guaranteeing absolute integrity. Although decentralization has been explored in studies for firmware integrity verification using blockchain technology, it lacks comprehensive validation in the context of automotive over-the-air (OTA) updates. By recognizing the limitations of current practices and the partial validation of decentralized approaches, such as blockchain, in the automotive sector, our study introduces a novel mechanism for firmware over-the-air (FOTA) updates. This mechanism is grounded in the widely adopted message queuing telemetry transport (MQTT) protocol, integral to the Internet of Things (IoT) domain, and leverages Merkle tree-based blockchain verification to fortify the fidelity and efficiency of firmware updates. Our proposed solution not only prioritizes the stability crucial to automotive OTA updates but also ensures that performance is not compromised. This dual focus on reliability and efficiency represents a significant stride forward in the development of secure, scalable SDV firmware update protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunje Shin
- Department of Software, Kookmin University, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanghoon Jeon
- Department of Automobile and IT Convergence, Kookmin University, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea
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2
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Abdullah MFA, Yogarayan S, Abdul Razak SF, Azman A, Muhamad Amin AH, Salleh M. Edge computing for Vehicle to Everything: a short review. F1000Res 2023; 10:1104. [PMID: 38595984 PMCID: PMC11002521 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.73269.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Vehicle to Everything (V2X) communications and services have sparked considerable interest as a potential component of future Intelligent Transportation Systems. V2X serves to organise communication and interaction between vehicle to vehicle (V2V), vehicle to infrastructure (V2I), vehicle to pedestrians (V2P), and vehicle to networks (V2N). However, having multiple communication channels can generate a vast amount of data for processing and distribution. In addition, V2X services may be subject to performance requirements relating to dynamic handover and low latency communication channels. Good throughput, lower delay, and reliable packet delivery are the core requirements for V2X services. Edge Computing (EC) may be a feasible option to address the challenge of dynamic handover and low latency to allow V2X information to be transmitted across vehicles. Currently, existing comparative studies do not cover the applicability of EC for V2X. This review explores EC approaches to determine the relevance for V2X communication and services. EC allows devices to carry out part or all of the data processing at the point where data is collected. The emphasis of this review is on several methods identified in the literature for implementing effective EC. We describe each method individually and compare them according to their applicability. The findings of this work indicate that most methods can simulate the EC positioning under predefined scenarios. These include the use of Mobile Edge Computing, Cloudlet, and Fog Computing. However, since most studies are carried out using simulation tools, there is a potential limitation in that crucial data in the search for EC positioning may be overlooked and ignored for bandwidth reduction. The EC approaches considered in this work are limited to the literature on the successful implementation of V2X communication and services. The outcome of this work could considerably help other researchers better characterise EC applicability for V2X communications and services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd. Fikri Azli Abdullah
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Multimedia University, Ayer Keroh, Melaka, 75450, Malaysia
| | - Sumendra Yogarayan
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Multimedia University, Ayer Keroh, Melaka, 75450, Malaysia
| | - Siti Fatimah Abdul Razak
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Multimedia University, Ayer Keroh, Melaka, 75450, Malaysia
| | - Afizan Azman
- Faculty of Innovation & Technology, School of Computer Science, Taylors University, Subang, Java, 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
- Research and Innovation, Kolej Universiti Islam Melaka, Melaka, 78200, Malaysia
| | - Anang Hudaya Muhamad Amin
- Faculty of Computer, Information Science and Applied Media, Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mazrah Salleh
- Civil Aero Data and Information, Rolls-Royce, Derby, England, UK
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3
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Ali AM, Ngadi MA, Al Barazanchi II, JosephNg PS. Intelligent Traffic Model for Unmanned Ground Vehicles Based on DSDV-AODV Protocol. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:6426. [PMID: 37514720 PMCID: PMC10383356 DOI: 10.3390/s23146426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Traffic systems have been built as a result of recent technological advancements. In application, dependable communication technology is essential to link any system needs. VANET technology is used to communicate data about intelligent traffic lights, which are focused on infrastructure during traffic accidents and mechanisms to reduce traffic congestion. To ensure reliable data transfer in VANET, appropriate routing protocols must be used. This research aims to improve data transmission in VANETs implemented in intelligent traffic lights. This study investigates the capability of combining the DSDV routing protocol with the routing protocol AODV to boost AODV on an OMNET++ simulator utilizing the 802.11p wireless standard. According to the simulation results obtained by analyzing the delay parameters, network QoS, and throughput on each protocol, the DSDV-AODV routing protocol performs better in three scenarios compared to QoS, delay, and throughput parameters in every scenario that uses network topology adapted to the conditions on the road intersections. The topology with 50 fixed + 50 mobile nodes yields the best results, with 0.00062 s delay parameters, a network QoS of 640 bits/s, and a throughput of 629.437 bits/s. Aside from the poor results on the network QoS parameters, the addition of mobile nodes to the topology influences both the results of delay and throughput metrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali M Ali
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computing, University Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia
| | - Md Asri Ngadi
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computing, University Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia
| | - Israa Ibraheem Al Barazanchi
- Computer Engineering Techniques Department, Baghdad College of Economic Sciences University, Baghdad 10, Iraq
- College of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala 65001, Iraq
| | - Poh Soon JosephNg
- Faculty of Data Science & Information Technology, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN, Nilai 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
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4
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Fu Y, Shen T, Dou J. Mutual Coupling Reduction of a Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna Using an Absorber Wall and a Combline Filter for V2X Communication. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:6355. [PMID: 37514649 PMCID: PMC10384035 DOI: 10.3390/s23146355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents an MIMO antenna for vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication, which adopts two ways of combline filters and absorption wall decoupling. A combline filter and an absorption wall are used, respectively, for internal and external decoupling. The combline filter is incorporated between the ground of the two adjacent antennas, which reduces the mutual coupling between them. Additionally, the mutual coupling of radiation between adjacent antennas is significantly reduced by the absorber wall. These combline filters and absorber walls use the method of electromagnetic field distribution to explain the reduction in the mutual coupling between the adjacent antennas. The transmission coefficient and surface current distribution explain the effectiveness of the decoupling structure. When the frequency is between 3.8 and 4.8 GHz, the simulation and measurement results show that S11 is less than -10 dB, the bandwidth is 25% and the peak gain is 7.8 dBi. In addition, the proposed MIMO antenna has a high isolation between antenna units (>37 dB), and the envelop correlation coefficient (ECC) is less than 0.005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxu Fu
- Faculty of Information Engineering and Automation, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Tao Shen
- Faculty of Information Engineering and Automation, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Jiangling Dou
- Faculty of Information Engineering and Automation, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650032, China
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5
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Roudiere S, Martinez V, Maréchal P, Delahaye D. Metaheuristic for Optimal Dynamic K-Coloring Application on Band Sharing for Automotive Radars. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:5765. [PMID: 37420929 DOI: 10.3390/s23125765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
The number of vehicles equipped with radars on the road has been increasing for years and is expected to reach 50% of cars by 2030. This rapid rise in radars will likely increase the risk of harmful interference, especially since radar specifications from standardization bodies (e.g., ETSI) provide requirements in terms of maximum transmit power but do no mandate specific radar waveform parameters nor channel access scheme policies. Techniques for interference mitigation are thus becoming very important to ensure the long-term correct operation of radars and upper-layer ADAS systems that depend on them in this complex environment. In our previous work, we have shown that organizing the radar band into time-frequency resources that do not interfere with each other vastly reduces the amount of interference by facilitating band sharing. In this paper, a metaheuristic is presented to find the optimal resource sharing between radars, knowing their relative positions and thereby the line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight interference risks during a realistic scenario. The metaheuristic aims at optimally minimizing interference while minimizing the number of resource changes that radars have to make. It is a centralized approach where everything about the system is known (e.g., the past and future positions of the vehicles). This and the high computational load induce that this algorithm is not meant to be used in real-time. However, the metaheuristic approach can be extremely useful for finding near optimal solutions in simulations, allowing for the extraction of efficient patterns, or as data generation for machine learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Roudiere
- Artificial and Natural Intelligence Toulouse Institute, Université Fédérale Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, 31000 Toulouse, France
| | | | | | - Daniel Delahaye
- École Nationale de l'Aviation Civile, 31400 Toulouse, France
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6
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Benini M, Parazzini M, Bonato M, Gallucci S, Chiaramello E, Fiocchi S, Tognola G. Assessment of Children's Exposure to Intelligent Transport System 5.9 GHz Vehicular Connectivity Using Numerical Dosimetry. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:s23115170. [PMID: 37299897 DOI: 10.3390/s23115170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the radio-frequency electromagnetic field exposure (RF-EMF) levels in pedestrians generated by vehicular communication technology. We specifically investigated exposure levels in children of different ages and both genders. This study also compares the children's exposure levels generated by such technology with those of an adult investigated in our previous study. The exposure scenario consisted of a 3D-CAD model of a vehicle equipped with two vehicular antennas operating at 5.9 GHz, each fed with 1 W power. Four child models were analyzed near the front and back of the car. The RF-EMF exposure levels were expressed as the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) calculated over the whole body and 10 g mass (SAR10g) of the skin and 1 g mass (SAR1g) of the eyes. The maximum SAR10g value of 9 mW/kg was found in the skin of the head of the tallest child. The maximum whole-body SAR was 0.18 mW/kg and was found in the tallest child. As a general result, it was found that children's exposure levels are lower than those of adults. All the SAR values are well below the limits recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Benini
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Marta Parazzini
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Marta Bonato
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Gallucci
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Emma Chiaramello
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Serena Fiocchi
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Gabriella Tognola
- Cnr-Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
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7
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Chatzoglou E, Goudos SK. Beam-Selection for 5G/B5G Networks Using Machine Learning: A Comparative Study. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:2967. [PMID: 36991678 PMCID: PMC10058871 DOI: 10.3390/s23062967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
A challenging problem in millimeter wave (mmWave) communications for the fifth generation of cellular communications and beyond (5G/B5G) is the beam selection problem. This is due to severe attenuation and penetration losses that are inherent in the mmWave band. Thus, the beam selection problem for mmWave links in a vehicular scenario can be solved as an exhaustive search among all candidate beam pairs. However, this approach cannot be assuredly completed within short contact times. On the other hand, machine learning (ML) has the potential to significantly advance 5G/B5G technology, as evidenced by the growing complexity of constructing cellular networks. In this work, we perform a comparative study of using different ML methods to solve the beam selection problem. We use a common dataset for this scenario found in the literature. We increase the accuracy of these results by approximately 30%. Moreover, we extend the given dataset by producing additional synthetic data. We apply ensemble learning techniques and obtain results with about 94% accuracy. The novelty of our work lies in the fact that we improve the existing dataset by adding more synthetic data and by designing a custom ensemble learning method for the problem at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efstratios Chatzoglou
- Department of Computer Science, Hellenic Open University, Aristotelous 18, 26335 Patra, Greece
| | - Sotirios K. Goudos
- ELEDIA@AUTH, Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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8
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Lazaro A, Lazaro M, Villarino R, Girbau D. Smart Spread Spectrum Modulated Tags for Detection of Vulnerable Road Users with Automotive Radar. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:2730. [PMID: 36904937 PMCID: PMC10007204 DOI: 10.3390/s23052730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of collisions between vehicles and vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, cyclists, road workers and more recently scooter riders, especially in urban streets. This work studies the feasibility of enhancing the detection of these users by means of CW radars because they have a low radar cross section. Since the speed of these users is usually low, they can be confused with clutter due to the presence of large objects. To this end, this paper proposes, for the first time, a method based on a spread spectrum radio communication between vulnerable road users and the automotive radar consisting of modulating a backscatter tag, placed on the user. In addition, it is compatible with low-cost radars that use different waveforms such as CW, FSK or FMCW, and hardware modifications are not required. The prototype that has been developed is based on a commercial monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) amplifier connected between two antennas, which is modulated by switching its bias. Experimental results with a scooter, under static and moving conditions, using a low-power Doppler radar at a 24 GHz band compatible with blind spot radars, are provided.
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9
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Chatzoulis D, Chaikalis C, Kosmanos D, Anagnostou KE, Karetsos GT. 5G V2X Performance Comparison for Different Channel Coding Schemes and Propagation Models. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:2436. [PMID: 36904638 PMCID: PMC10007615 DOI: 10.3390/s23052436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Channel coding is a fundamental procedure in wireless telecommunication systems and has a strong impact on the data transmission quality. This effect becomes more important when the transmission must be characterised by low latency and low bit error rate, as in the case of vehicle-to-everything (V2X) services. Thus, V2X services must use powerful and efficient coding schemes. In this paper, we thoroughly examine the performance of the most important channel coding schemes in V2X services. More specifically, the impact of use of 4th-Generation Long-Term Evolution (4G-LTE) turbo codes, 5th-Generation New Radio (5G-NR) polar codes and low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) in V2X communication systems is researched. For this purpose, we employ stochastic propagation models that simulate the cases of line of sight (LOS), non-line of sight (NLOS) and line of sight with vehicle blockage (NLOSv) communication. Different communication scenarios are investigated in urban and highway environments using the 3rd-Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) parameters for the stochastic models. Based on these propagation models, we investigate the performance of the communication channels in terms of bit error rate (BER) and frame error rate (FER) performance for different levels of signal to noise ratio (SNR) for all the aforementioned coding schemes and three small V2X-compatible data frames. Our analysis shows that turbo-based coding schemes have superior BER and FER performance than 5G coding schemes for the vast majority of the considered simulation scenarios. This fact, combined with the low-complexity requirements of turbo schemes for small data frames, makes them more suitable for small-frame 5G V2X services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Chatzoulis
- Department of Digital Systems, School of Technology, University of Thessaly, Geopolis Campus, 41500 Larissa, Greece
| | - Costas Chaikalis
- Department of Digital Systems, School of Technology, University of Thessaly, Geopolis Campus, 41500 Larissa, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Kosmanos
- Department of Digital Systems, School of Technology, University of Thessaly, Geopolis Campus, 41500 Larissa, Greece
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Thessaly, 38221 Volos, Greece
| | - Kostas E. Anagnostou
- Department of Informatics & Telecommunications, University of Thessaly, 35100 Lamia, Greece
| | - George T. Karetsos
- Department of Digital Systems, School of Technology, University of Thessaly, Geopolis Campus, 41500 Larissa, Greece
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10
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Khan MJ, Khan MA, Malik S, Kulkarni P, Alkaabi N, Ullah O, El-Sayed H, Ahmed A, Turaev S. Advancing C- V2X for Level 5 Autonomous Driving from the Perspective of 3GPP Standards. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:2261. [PMID: 36850858 PMCID: PMC9967342 DOI: 10.3390/s23042261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cellular vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X) is one of the enabling vehicular communication technologies gaining momentum from the standardization bodies, industry, and researchers aiming to realize fully autonomous driving and intelligent transportation systems. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) standardization body has actively been developing the standards evolving from 4G-V2X to 5G-V2X providing ultra-reliable low-latency communications and higher throughput to deliver the solutions for advanced C-V2X services. In this survey, we analyze the 3GPP standard documents relevant to V2X communication to present the complete vision of 3GPP-enabled C-V2X. To better equip the readers with knowledge of the topic, we describe the underlying concepts and an overview of the evolution of 3GPP C-V2X standardization. Furthermore, we provide the details of the enabling concepts for V2X support by 3GPP. In this connection, we carry out an exhaustive study of the 3GPP standard documents and provide a logical taxonomy of C-V2X related 3GPP standard documents divided into three categories: 4G, 4G & 5G, and 5G based V2X services. We provide a detailed analysis of these categories discussing the system architecture, network support, key issues, and potential solution approaches supported by the 3GPP. We also highlight the gap and the need for intelligence in the execution of different operations to enable the use-case scenarios of Level-5 autonomous driving. We believe, the paper will equip readers to comprehend the technological standards for the delivery of different ITS services of the higher level of autonomous driving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Jalal Khan
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Emirates Center for Mobility Research (ECMR), United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Manzoor Ahmed Khan
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Emirates Center for Mobility Research (ECMR), United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sumbal Malik
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Emirates Center for Mobility Research (ECMR), United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Parag Kulkarni
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Najla Alkaabi
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Obaid Ullah
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hesham El-Sayed
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Emirates Center for Mobility Research (ECMR), United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Amir Ahmed
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sherzod Turaev
- College of Information Technology, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi 15551, United Arab Emirates
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11
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Ashutosh A, Gerl A, Wagner S, Brunie L, Kosch H. XACML for Mobility (XACML4M)-An Access Control Framework for Connected Vehicles. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:1763. [PMID: 36850360 PMCID: PMC9959851 DOI: 10.3390/s23041763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The automotive industry is experiencing a transformation with the rapid integration of software-based systems inside vehicles, which are complex systems with multiple sensors. The use of vehicle sensor data has enabled vehicles to communicate with other entities in the connected vehicle ecosystem, such as the cloud, road infrastructure, other vehicles, pedestrians, and smart grids, using either cellular or wireless networks. This vehicle data are distributed, private, and vulnerable, which can compromise the safety and security of vehicles and their passengers. It is therefore necessary to design an access control mechanism around the vehicle data's unique attributes and distributed nature. Since connected vehicles operate in a highly dynamic environment, it is important to consider context information such as location, time, and frequency when designing a fine-grained access control mechanism. This leads to our research question: How can Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC) fulfill connected vehicle requirements of Signal Access Control (SAC), Time-Based Access Control (TBAC), Location-Based Access Control (LBAC), and Frequency-Based Access Control (FBAC)? To address the issue, we propose a data flow model based on Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC) called eXtensible Access Control Markup Language for Mobility (XACML4M). XACML4M adds additional components to the standard eXtensible Access Control Markup Language (XACML) to satisfy the identified requirements of SAC, TBAC, LBAC, and FBAC in connected vehicles. Specifically, these are: Vehicle Data Environment (VDE) integrated with Policy Enforcement Point (PEP), Time Extensions, GeoLocation Provider, Polling Frequency Provider, and Access Log Service. We implement a prototype based on these four requirements on a Raspberry Pi 4 and present a proof-of-concept for a real-world use case. We then perform a functional evaluation based on the authorization policies to validate the XACML4M data flow model. Finally, we conclude that our proposed XACML4M data flow model can fulfill all four of our identified requirements for connected vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Ashutosh
- INSA Lyon, CNRS, LIRIS UMR 5205, 69100 Lyon, France
- Chair of Distributed Information Systems, Faculty of Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Passau, 94032 Passau, Germany
| | - Armin Gerl
- Chair of Distributed Information Systems, Faculty of Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Passau, 94032 Passau, Germany
| | - Simon Wagner
- Chair of Distributed Information Systems, Faculty of Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Passau, 94032 Passau, Germany
| | | | - Harald Kosch
- Chair of Distributed Information Systems, Faculty of Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Passau, 94032 Passau, Germany
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12
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Ali AM, Ngadi MA, Sham R, Al_Barazanchi II. Enhanced QoS Routing Protocol for an Unmanned Ground Vehicle, Based on the ACO Approach. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:1431. [PMID: 36772471 PMCID: PMC9919061 DOI: 10.3390/s23031431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Improving models for managing the networks of firefighting unmanned ground vehicles in crowded areas, as a recommendation system (RS), represented a difficult challenge. This challenge comes from the peculiarities of these types of networks. These networks are distinguished by the network coverage area size, frequent network connection failures, and quick network structure changes. The research aims to improve the communication network of self-driving firefighting unmanned ground vehicles by determining the best routing track to the desired fire area. The suggested new model intends to improve the RS regarding the optimum tracking route for firefighting unmanned ground vehicles by employing the ant colony optimization technique. This optimization method represents one of the swarm theories utilized in vehicles ad-hoc networks and social networks. According to the results, the proposed model can enhance the navigation of self-driving firefighting unmanned ground vehicles towards the fire region, allowing firefighting unmanned ground vehicles to take the shortest routes possible, while avoiding closed roads and traffic accidents. This study aids in the control and management of ad-hoc vehicle networks, vehicles of everything, and the internet of things.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali M. Ali
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computing, University Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia
| | - Md Asri Ngadi
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computing, University Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia
| | - Rohana Sham
- School of Business, Asia Pacific University of Technology, and Innovation, Jalan Innovasi 6, Technology Park Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Israa Ibraheem Al_Barazanchi
- Computer Engineering Techniques Department, Baghdad College of Economic Sciences University, Baghdad 10, Iraq
- College of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala 56001, Iraq
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13
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Tan H, Zhao F, Zhang W, Liu Z. An Evaluation of the Safety Effectiveness and Cost of Autonomous Vehicles Based on Multivariable Coupling. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:1321. [PMID: 36772361 PMCID: PMC9920947 DOI: 10.3390/s23031321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for in-depth studies of autonomous vehicle safety that evaluate the effectiveness of safety functions and different "atomic" technology combinations for vehicles and roads. In this paper, we provide a crash avoidance effectiveness evaluation model for autonomous vehicles enabled with different sensor combinations based on multiple variables of 14 different "atomic" sensing technologies on the vehicle side and road side, 52 safety functions, and 14 accident types. Meanwhile, a cost-sharing model is developed based on the traveled distance during the life cycle of vehicles and based on the traffic flow over the life cycle of roads to evaluate the unit cost per km of different "atomic" technology combinations. The results clearly show that the cost increases with the addition of "atomic" sensing technologies on the vehicle side, while an increase in crash avoidance effectiveness decreases. It is necessary to switch to V2X and to introduce roadside "atomic" technology combinations to realize better safety effectiveness at a lower cost for vehicles. In addition, a map that covers the safety effectiveness and cost per kilometer of all "atomic" technology combinations is calculated for decision-makers to select combinations under the preconditions of cost and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Tsinghua Automotive Strategy Research Institute, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Fuquan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Tsinghua Automotive Strategy Research Institute, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Tsinghua Automotive Strategy Research Institute, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zongwei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Tsinghua Automotive Strategy Research Institute, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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14
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Mason B, Lakshmanan S, McAuslan P, Waung M, Jia B. Lighting a Path for Autonomous Vehicle Communication: The Effect of Light Projection on the Detection of Reversing Vehicles by Older Adult Pedestrians. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19:14700. [PMID: 36429416 PMCID: PMC9690076 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192214700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Pedestrian understanding of driver intent is key to pedestrian safety on the road and in parking lots. With the development of autonomous vehicles (AVs), the human driver will be removed, and with it, the exchange that occurs between drivers and pedestrians (e.g., head nods, hand gestures). One possible solution for augmenting that communication is an array of high-intensity light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to project vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) messages on the ground plane behind a reversing vehicle. This would be particularly beneficial to elderly pedestrians, who are at particular risk of being struck by reversing cars in parking lots. Their downward gaze and slower reaction time make them particularly vulnerable. A survey was conducted to generate designs, and a simulator experiment was conducted to measure detection and reaction times. The study found that elderly pedestrians are significantly more likely to detect an additional projected message on the ground than detect the existing brake light alone when walking in a parking lot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Mason
- College of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
| | - Sridhar Lakshmanan
- College of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
| | - Pam McAuslan
- College of Arts, Sciences, and Letters, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
| | - Marie Waung
- College of Arts, Sciences, and Letters, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
| | - Bochen Jia
- College of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
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15
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Benini M, Parazzini M, Bonato M, Gallucci S, Chiaramello E, Fiocchi S, Tognola G. Road User Exposure from ITS-5.9 GHz Vehicular Connectivity. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22186986. [PMID: 36146331 PMCID: PMC9500951 DOI: 10.3390/s22186986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study addressed an important but not yet thoroughly investigated topic regarding human exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) generated by vehicular connectivity. In particular, the study assessed, by means of computational dosimetry, the RF-EMF exposure in road users near a car equipped with vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication antennas. The exposure scenario consisted of a 3D numerical model of a car with two V2V antennas, each fed with 1 W, operating at 5.9 GHz and an adult human model to simulate the road user near the car. The RF-EMF dose absorbed by the human model was calculated as the specific absorption rate (SAR), that is, the RF-EMF power absorbed per unit of mass. The highest SAR was observed in the skin of the head (34.7 mW/kg) and in the eyes (15 mW/kg); the SAR at the torso (including the genitals) and limbs was negligible or much lower than in the head and eyes. The SAR over the whole body was 0.19 mW/kg. The SAR was always well below the limits of human exposure in the 100 kHz-6 GHz band established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The proposed approach can be generalized to assess RF-EMF exposure in different conditions by varying the montage/number of V2V antennas and considering human models of different ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Benini
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Marta Parazzini
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Marta Bonato
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Gallucci
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Emma Chiaramello
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Serena Fiocchi
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Gabriella Tognola
- Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy
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16
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Tahir MN, Leviäkangas P, Katz M. Connected Vehicles: V2V and V2I Road Weather and Traffic Communication Using Cellular Technologies. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:1142. [PMID: 35161886 DOI: 10.3390/s22031142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
There is a continuous need to design and develop wireless technologies to meet the increasing demands for high-speed wireless data transfer to incorporate advanced intelligent transport systems. Different wireless technologies are continuously evolving including short-range and long-range (WiMAX, LTE, and 5G) cellular standards. These emerging technologies can considerably enhance the operational performance of communication between vehicles and road-side infrastructure. This paper analyzes the performance of cellular-based long-term evolution (LTE) and 5GTN (5G Test Network) in pilot field measurements (i.e., vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure) when delivering road weather and traffic information in real-time environments. Measurements were conducted on a test track operated and owned by the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI), Finland. The results showed that 5GTN outperformed LTE when exchanging road weather and traffic data messages in V2V and V2I scenarios. This comparison was made by mainly considering bandwidth, throughput, packet loss, and latency. The safety critical messages were transmitted at a transmission frequency of 10 Hz. The performance of both compared technologies (i.e., LTE and 5GTN) fulfilled the minimum requirements of the ITS-Assisted Road weather and traffic platform to offer reliable communication for enhanced road traffic safety. The field measurement results also illustrate the advantage of cellular networks (LTE and 5GTN) with a clear potential to use it heterogeneously in future field tests with short-range protocols, e.g., IEEE 802.11p.
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17
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Khalid Khan S, Shiwakoti N, Stasinopoulos P. A conceptual system dynamics model for cybersecurity assessment of connected and autonomous vehicles. Accid Anal Prev 2022; 165:106515. [PMID: 34890922 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2021.106515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Emerging Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) technology have a ubiquitous communication framework. It poses security challenges in the form of cyber-attacks, prompting rigorous cybersecurity measures. There is a lack of knowledge on the anticipated cause-effect relationships and mechanisms of CAVs cybersecurity and the possible system behaviour, especially the unintended consequences. Therefore, this study aims to develop a conceptual System Dynamics (SD) model to analyse cybersecurity in the complex, uncertain deployment of CAVs. Specifically, the SD model integrates six critical avenues and maps their respective parameters that either trigger or mitigate cyber-attacks in the operation of CAVs using a systematic theoretical approach. These six avenues are: i) CAVs communication framework, ii) secured physical access, iii) human factors, iv) CAVs penetration, v) regulatory laws and policy framework, and iv) trust-across the CAVs-industry and among the public. Based on the conceptual model, various system archetypes are analysed. "Fixes that Fail", in which the upsurge in hacker capability is the unintended natural result of technology maturity, requires continuous efforts to combat it. The primary mitigation steps are human behaviour analysis, knowledge of motivations and characteristics of CAVs cyber-attackers, CAVs users and Original Equipment Manufacturers education. "Shifting the burden", where policymakers counter the perceived cyber threats of hackers by updating legislation that also reduces CAVs adaptation by imitations, indicated the need for calculated regulatory and policy intervention. The "limits to success" triggered by CAVs penetration increase the defended hacks to establish regulatory laws, improve trust, and develop more human analysis. However, it may also open up caveats for cyber-crimes and alert that CAVs deployment to be alignment with the intended goals for enhancing cybersecurity. The proposed model can support decision-making and training and stimulate the roadmap towards an optimized, self-regulating, and resilient cyber-safe CAV system.
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18
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Abdelkader G, Elgazzar K, Khamis A. Connected Vehicles: Technology Review, State of the Art, Challenges and Opportunities. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:7712. [PMID: 34833782 DOI: 10.3390/s21227712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In an effort to reach accident-free milestones or drastically reduce/eliminate road fatalities rates and traffic congestion and to create disruptive, transformational mobility systems and services, different parties (e.g., automakers, universities, governments, and road traffic regulators) have collaborated to research, develop, and test connected vehicle (CV) technologies. CVs create new data-rich environments and are considered key enablers for many applications and services that will make our roads safer, less congested, and more eco-friendly. A deeper understanding of the CV technologies will pave the way to avoid setbacks and will help in developing more innovative applications and breakthroughs. In the CV paradigm, vehicles become smarter by communicating with nearby vehicles, connected infrastructure, and the surroundings. This connectivity will be substantial to support different features and systems, such as adaptive routing, real-time navigation, and slow and near real-time infrastructure. Further examples include environmental sensing, advanced driver-assistance systems, automated driving systems, mobility on demand, and mobility as a service. This article provides a comprehensive review on CV technologies including fundamental challenges, state-of-the-art enabling technologies, innovative applications, and potential opportunities that can benefit automakers, customers, and businesses. The current standardization efforts of the forefront enabling technologies, such as Wi-Fi 6 and 5G-cellular technologies are also reviewed. Different challenges in terms of cooperative computation, privacy/security, and over-the-air updates are discussed. Safety and non-safety applications are described and possible future opportunities that CV technology brings to our life are also highlighted.
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19
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Kang S, Choi S. A Novel Procedure of Enhancing the Throughput of a Mode-2 Sidelink Based on Partial Sensing. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:6128. [PMID: 34577334 DOI: 10.3390/s21186128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Partial sensing is used to reduce the power consumption of pedestrian user equipment (P-UE) that operates in the signal environment of a mode-2 sidelink. However, because the data trans-mission is allowed only for the window duration of each corresponding P-UE, the throughput of the P-UE decreases by the ratio between the width of the window and the entire data period. This paper presents a novel method for enhancing the throughput of the P-UE that operates with partial sensing in the mode-2 sidelink. The proposed technique employs an additional UE, denoted the roadside unit (RSU), to collect the sensing results from each P-UE that operates with partial sensing. The proposed RSU sequentially aligns all of the partial sensing windows, such that the combination of each partial sensing window can eventually provide an almost complete sensing result. In this study, extensive computer simulations were performed. The results reveal that the proposed method enhances the throughput of each P-UE operating with partial sensing almost to that of full sensing without increasing the required power consumption.
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20
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Lazaro A, Lazaro M, Villarino R, Girbau D, de Paco P. Car2Car Communication Using a Modulated Backscatter and Automotive FMCW Radar. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:3656. [PMID: 34073982 PMCID: PMC8197406 DOI: 10.3390/s21113656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This work proposes the use of a modulated tag for direct communication between two vehicles using as a carrier the wave emitted by an FMCW radar installed in the vehicle for advanced driver assistance. The system allows for real-time signals detection and classification, such as stop signal, turn signals and emergency lights, adding redundancy to computer video sensors and without incorporating additional communication systems. A proof-of-concept tag has been designed at the microwave frequency of 24 GHz, consisting of an amplifier connected between receiving and transmitting antennas. The modulation is performed by switching the power supply of the amplifier. The tag is installed on the rear of the car and it answers when it is illuminated by the radar by modulating the backscattered field. The information is encoded in the modulation switching rate used. Simulated and experimental results are given showing the feasibility of the proposed solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Lazaro
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (M.L.); (R.V.); (D.G.)
| | - Marc Lazaro
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (M.L.); (R.V.); (D.G.)
| | - Ramon Villarino
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (M.L.); (R.V.); (D.G.)
| | - David Girbau
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (M.L.); (R.V.); (D.G.)
| | - Pedro de Paco
- Telecommunications and Systems Engineering Department, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain;
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21
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Hetzer D, Muehleisen M, Kousaridas A, Barmpounakis S, Wendt S, Eckert K, Schimpe A, Löfhede J, Alonso-Zarate J. 5G connected and automated driving: use cases, technologies and trials in cross-border environments. EURASIP J Wirel Commun Netw 2021; 2021:97. [PMID: 33897773 PMCID: PMC8051829 DOI: 10.1186/s13638-021-01976-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cooperative, connected and automated mobility (CCAM) across Europe requires harmonized solutions to support cross-border seamless operation. The possibility of providing CCAM services across European countries has an enormous innovative business potential. However, the seamless provision of connectivity and the uninterrupted delivery of real-time services pose technical challenges which 5G technologies aim to solve. The situation is particularly challenging given the multi-country, multi-operator, multi-telco-vendor, multi-car-manufacturer and cross-network-generation scenario of any cross-border scenario. Motivated by this, the 5GCroCo project, with a total budget of 17 million Euro and partially funded by the European Commission, aims at validating 5G technologies in the Metz-Merzig-Luxembourg cross-border 5G corridor considering the borders between France, Germany and Luxembourg. The activities of 5GCroCo are organized around three use cases: (1) Tele-operated Driving, (2) high-definition map generation and distribution for automated vehicles and (3) Anticipated Cooperative Collision Avoidance (ACCA). The results of the project help contribute to a true European transnational CCAM. This paper describes the overall objectives of the project, motivated by the discussed challenges of cross-border operation, the use cases along with their requirements, the technical 5G features that will be validated and provides a description of the planned trials within 5GCroCo together with some initial results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Hetzer
- Deutsche Telekom AG/T-Systems, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Sokratis Barmpounakis
- Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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22
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Wang F, Zhuang W, Yin G, Liu S, Liu Y, Dong H. Robust Inter-Vehicle Distance Measurement Using Cooperative Vehicle Localization. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:2048. [PMID: 33799464 DOI: 10.3390/s21062048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Precise localization is critical to safety for connected and automated vehicles (CAV). The global navigation satellite system is the most common vehicle positioning method and has been widely studied to improve localization accuracy. In addition to single-vehicle localization, some recently developed CAV applications require accurate measurement of the inter-vehicle distance (IVD). Thus, this paper proposes a cooperative localization framework that shares the absolute position or pseudorange by using V2X communication devices to estimate the IVD. Four IVD estimation methods are presented: Absolute Position Differencing (APD), Pseudorange Differencing (PD), Single Differencing (SD) and Double Differencing (DD). Several static and dynamic experiments are conducted to evaluate and compare their measurement accuracy. The results show that the proposed methods may have different performances under different conditions. The DD shows the superior performance among the four methods if the uncorrelated errors are small or negligible (static experiment or dynamic experiment with open-sky conditions). When multi-path errors emerge due to the blocked GPS signal, the PD method using the original pseudorange is more effective because the uncorrelated errors cannot be eliminated by the differential technique.
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23
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Godoy J, Jiménez V, Artuñedo A, Villagra J. A Grid-Based Framework for Collective Perception in Autonomous Vehicles. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:744. [PMID: 33499331 DOI: 10.3390/s21030744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Today, perception solutions for Automated Vehicles rely on sensors on board the vehicle, which are limited by the line of sight and occlusions caused by any other elements on the road. As an alternative, Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communications allow vehicles to cooperate and enhance their perception capabilities. Besides announcing its own presence and intentions, services such as Collective Perception (CPS) aim to share information about perceived objects as a high-level description. This work proposes a perception framework for fusing information from on-board sensors and data received via CPS messages (CPM). To that end, the environment is modeled using an occupancy grid where occupied, and free and uncertain space is considered. For each sensor, including V2X, independent grids are calculated from sensor measurements and uncertainties and then fused in terms of both occupancy and confidence. Moreover, the implementation of a Particle Filter allows the evolution of cell occupancy from one step to the next, allowing for object tracking. The proposed framework was validated on a set of experiments using real vehicles and infrastructure sensors for sensing static and dynamic objects. Results showed a good performance even under important uncertainties and delays, hence validating the viability of the proposed framework for Collective Perception.
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24
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Ahangar MN, Ahmed QZ, Khan FA, Hafeez M. A Survey of Autonomous Vehicles: Enabling Communication Technologies and Challenges. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21030706. [PMID: 33494191 PMCID: PMC7864337 DOI: 10.3390/s21030706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Department of Transport in the United Kingdom recorded 25,080 motor vehicle fatalities in 2019. This situation stresses the need for an intelligent transport system (ITS) that improves road safety and security by avoiding human errors with the use of autonomous vehicles (AVs). Therefore, this survey discusses the current development of two main components of an ITS: (1) gathering of AVs surrounding data using sensors; and (2) enabling vehicular communication technologies. First, the paper discusses various sensors and their role in AVs. Then, various communication technologies for AVs to facilitate vehicle to everything (V2X) communication are discussed. Based on the transmission range, these technologies are grouped into three main categories: long-range, medium-range and short-range. The short-range group presents the development of Bluetooth, ZigBee and ultra-wide band communication for AVs. The medium-range examines the properties of dedicated short-range communications (DSRC). Finally, the long-range group presents the cellular-vehicle to everything (C-V2X) and 5G-new radio (5G-NR). An important characteristic which differentiates each category and its suitable application is latency. This research presents a comprehensive study of AV technologies and identifies the main advantages, disadvantages, and challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nadeem Ahangar
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK; (M.N.A.); (M.H.)
| | - Qasim Z. Ahmed
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK; (M.N.A.); (M.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Fahd A. Khan
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan;
| | - Maryam Hafeez
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK; (M.N.A.); (M.H.)
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25
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Szalay Z, Ficzere D, Tihanyi V, Magyar F, Soós G, Varga P. 5G-Enabled Autonomous Driving Demonstration with a V2X Scenario-in-the-Loop Approach. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:s20247344. [PMID: 33371383 PMCID: PMC7767350 DOI: 10.3390/s20247344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Autonomous vehicles are at the forefront of interest due to the expectations of changing transportation for the better. In order to make better decisions on the road, vehicles use information from various sources: their own sensors, messages arriving from surrounding vehicles and objects, as well as from centralized entities-including their own Digital Twin. Certain decisions require the information to arrive with low latency and some of this information (such as video) requires broadband communication. Furthermore, the vehicles can populate an area, so they can represent mass communication endpoints that still need low latency and massive broadband. The mobility of the vehicles obviously requires the complete coverage of the roads with reliable wireless communication technologies fulfilling the previously mentioned needs. The fifth generation of cellular mobile technologies, 5G, addresses these requirements. The current paper presents real-life scenarios-on the M86 highway and the ZalaZONE proving ground in Hungary-for the demonstration of vehicular communication with 5G support, where the cars exchange sensor and control information with each other, their environment, and their Digital Twins. The demonstrations were carried out through the Scenario-in-the-Loop (SciL) methodology, where some of the actionable triggers were not physically present around the vehicles, but sensed or simulated around their Digital Twin. The measurements around the demonstrations aim to reveal the feasibility of the 5G Non-Standalone Architecture for certain communication scenarios, and they mainly aim to reveal the current latency and throughput limitations under real-life conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Szalay
- Department of Automotive Technologies, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 6, Stoczek utca, 1111 Budapest, Hungary;
- ZalaZONE Automotive Proving Ground, 1, ZalaZONE tér, 8900 Zalaegerszeg, Hungary
- Correspondence: (Z.S.); (P.V.)
| | - Dániel Ficzere
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 2, Magyar Tudosok krt., 1117 Budapest, Hungary; (D.F.); (G.S.)
| | - Viktor Tihanyi
- Department of Automotive Technologies, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 6, Stoczek utca, 1111 Budapest, Hungary;
- ZalaZONE Automotive Proving Ground, 1, ZalaZONE tér, 8900 Zalaegerszeg, Hungary
| | - Ferenc Magyar
- Ericcson Hungary, 11, Magyar Tudosok krt., 1117 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Gábor Soós
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 2, Magyar Tudosok krt., 1117 Budapest, Hungary; (D.F.); (G.S.)
| | - Pál Varga
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 2, Magyar Tudosok krt., 1117 Budapest, Hungary; (D.F.); (G.S.)
- Correspondence: (Z.S.); (P.V.)
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Velez G, Martín Á, Pastor G, Mutafungwa E. 5G Beyond 3GPP Release 15 for Connected Automated Mobility in Cross-Border Contexts. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:s20226622. [PMID: 33228020 PMCID: PMC7699328 DOI: 10.3390/s20226622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fifth-generation (5G) mobile networks aim to be qualified as the core connectivity infrastructures to address connected automated mobility (CAM), both from a technological and from a business perspective, for the higher automation levels defined by the automotive industry. Specifically, in some territories such as the European Union the cross-border corridors have relevance, as they are the cohesive paths for terrestrial transport. Therefore, 5G for CAM applications is planned to be deployed there first. However, cross-border contexts imply paramount communication challenges, such as seamless roaming, not addressed by current technology. This paper identifies relevant future 5G enhancements, specifically those specified by Third-Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) releases beyond Release 15, and outlines how they will support the ambitions of highly automated driving in cross-border corridors. In order to conduct this study, a set of representative use cases and the related communication requirements were identified. Then, for each use case, the most relevant 5G features were proposed. Some open issues are described at the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gorka Velez
- Vicomtech Foundation, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi 57, 20009 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-943-309230
| | - Ángel Martín
- Vicomtech Foundation, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi 57, 20009 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain;
| | - Giancarlo Pastor
- Department of Communications & Networking, Aalto University School of Electrical Engineering, P.O. Box 15600, FI-02150 Aalto, Finland; (G.P.); (E.M.)
| | - Edward Mutafungwa
- Department of Communications & Networking, Aalto University School of Electrical Engineering, P.O. Box 15600, FI-02150 Aalto, Finland; (G.P.); (E.M.)
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Tsukada M, Oi T, Kitazawa M, Esaki H. Networked Roadside Perception Units for Autonomous Driving. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:s20185320. [PMID: 32957554 PMCID: PMC7571128 DOI: 10.3390/s20185320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication enhances the capability of autonomous driving through better safety, efficiency, and comfort. In particular, sensor data sharing, known as cooperative perception, is a crucial technique to accommodate vulnerable road users in a cooperative intelligent transport system (ITS). In this paper, we describe a roadside perception unit (RSPU) that combines sensors and roadside units (RSUs) for infrastructure-based cooperative perception. We propose a software called AutoC2X that we designed to realize cooperative perception for RSPUs and vehicles. We also propose the concept of networked RSPUs, which is the inter-connection of RSPUs along a road over a wired network, and helps realize broader cooperative perception. We evaluated the RSPU system and the networked RSPUs through a field test, numerical analysis, and simulation experiments. Field evaluation showed that, even in the worst case, our RSPU system can deliver messages to an autonomous vehicle within 100 ms. The simulation result shows that the proposed priority algorithm achieves a wide perception range with a high delivery ratio and low latency, especially under heavy road traffic conditions.
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Arshad S, Sualeh M, Kim D, Nam DV, Kim GW. Clothoid: An Integrated Hierarchical Framework for Autonomous Driving in a Dynamic Urban Environment. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:s20185053. [PMID: 32899543 PMCID: PMC7570716 DOI: 10.3390/s20185053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, research and development of autonomous driving technology have gained much interest. Many autonomous driving frameworks have been developed in the past. However, building a safely operating fully functional autonomous driving framework is still a challenge. Several accidents have been occurred with autonomous vehicles, including Tesla and Volvo XC90, resulting in serious personal injuries and death. One of the major reasons is the increase in urbanization and mobility demands. The autonomous vehicle is expected to increase road safety while reducing road accidents that occur due to human errors. The accurate sensing of the environment and safe driving under various scenarios must be ensured to achieve the highest level of autonomy. This research presents Clothoid, a unified framework for fully autonomous vehicles, that integrates the modules of HD mapping, localization, environmental perception, path planning, and control while considering the safety, comfort, and scalability in the real traffic environment. The proposed framework enables obstacle avoidance, pedestrian safety, object detection, road blockage avoidance, path planning for single-lane and multi-lane routes, and safe driving of vehicles throughout the journey. The performance of each module has been validated in K-City under multiple scenarios where Clothoid has been driven safely from the starting point to the goal point. The vehicle was one of the top five to successfully finish the autonomous vehicle challenge (AVC) in the Hyundai AVC.
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Slamnik-Kriještorac N, Silva EBE, Municio E, Resende HCC, Hadiwardoyo SA, Marquez-Barja JM. Network Service and Resource Orchestration: A Feature and Performance Analysis within the MEC-Enhanced Vehicular Network Context. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:E3852. [PMID: 32664251 DOI: 10.3390/s20143852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
By providing storage and computational resources at the network edge, which enables hosting applications closer to the mobile users, Multi-Access Edge Computing (MEC) uses the mobile backhaul, and the network core more efficiently, thereby reducing the overall latency. Fostering the synergy between 5G and MEC brings ultra-reliable low-latency in data transmission, and paves the way towards numerous latency-sensitive automotive use cases, with the ultimate goal of enabling autonomous driving. Despite the benefits of significant latency reduction, bringing MEC platforms into 5G-based vehicular networks imposes severe challenges towards poorly scalable network management, as MEC platforms usually represent a highly heterogeneous environment. Therefore, there is a strong need to perform network management and orchestration in an automated way, which, being supported by Software Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV), will further decrease the latency. With recent advances in SDN, along with NFV, which aim to facilitate management automation for tackling delay issues in vehicular communications, we study the closed-loop life-cycle management of network services, and map such cycle to the Management and Orchestration (MANO) systems, such as ETSI NFV MANO. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of existing MANO solutions, studying their most important features to enable network service and resource orchestration in MEC-enhanced vehicular networks. Finally, using a real testbed setup, we conduct and present an extensive performance analysis of Open Baton and Open Source MANO that are, due to their lightweight resource footprint, and compliance to ETSI standards, suitable solutions for resource and service management and orchestration within the network edge.
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Brambilla M, Combi L, Matera A, Tagliaferri D, Nicoli M, Spagnolini U. Sensor-Aided V2X Beam Tracking for Connected Automated Driving: Distributed Architecture and Processing Algorithms. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:s20123573. [PMID: 32599825 PMCID: PMC7349712 DOI: 10.3390/s20123573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
This paper focuses on ultra-reliable low-latency Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X) communications able to meet the extreme requirements of high Levels of Automation (LoA) use cases. We introduce a system architecture and processing algorithms for the alignment of highly collimated V2X beams based either on millimeter-Wave (mmW) or Free-Space Optics (FSO). Beam-based V2X communications mainly suffer from blockage and pointing misalignment issues. This work focuses on the latter case, which is addressed by proposing a V2X architecture that enables a sensor-aided beam-tracking strategy to counteract the detrimental effect of vibrations and tilting dynamics. A parallel low-rate, low-latency, and reliable control link, in fact, is used to exchange data on vehicle kinematics (i.e., position and orientation) that assists the beam-pointing along the line-of-sight between V2X transceivers (i.e., the dominant multipath component for mmW, or the direct link for FSO). This link can be based on sub-6 GHz V2X communication, as in 5G frequency range 1 (FR1). Performance assessments are carried out to validate the robustness of the proposed methodology in coping with misalignment induced by vehicle dynamics. Numerical results show that highly directional mmW and/or FSO communications are promising candidates for massive data-rate vehicular communications even in high mobility scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Brambilla
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.); (D.T.); (U.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Lorenzo Combi
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.); (D.T.); (U.S.)
| | - Andrea Matera
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.); (D.T.); (U.S.)
| | - Dario Tagliaferri
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.); (D.T.); (U.S.)
| | - Monica Nicoli
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Gestionale, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy;
| | - Umberto Spagnolini
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.); (D.T.); (U.S.)
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Toh CK, Sanguesa JA, Cano JC, Martinez FJ. Advances in smart roads for future smart cities. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2020; 476:20190439. [PMID: 32082053 DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2019.0439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Various countries throughout the world have started their efforts in designing and implementing smart cities. China alone has over 300 smart city projects, with strong participation by industries and government offices. India too have allocated trillions in budget to build over 100 smart cities. An essential part of a smart city is transport. In this paper, we will discuss the current state, developments, and some of the emerging advances in transportation technologies and how these advances in smart roads will prepare the society towards the realization of future smart cities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chai K Toh
- GLG Group, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Department of Computer Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Julio A Sanguesa
- Department of Computer Science, Centro Universitario de la Defensa, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Juan C Cano
- Department of Computer Engineering (DISCA), Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Francisco J Martinez
- Computer Science and System Engineering Department, University of Zaragoza, Teruel, Spain
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Schwarzbach P, Michler A, Tauscher P, Michler O. An Empirical Study on V2X Enhanced Low-Cost GNSS Cooperative Positioning in Urban Environments. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:E5201. [PMID: 31783645 DOI: 10.3390/s19235201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
High-precision and lane selective position estimation is of fundamental importance for prospective advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving functions, as well as for traffic information and management processes in intelligent transportation systems (ITS). User and vehicle positioning is usually based on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), which, as stand-alone positioning, does not meet the necessary requirements in terms of accuracy. Furthermore, the rise of connected driving offers various possibilities to enhance GNSS positioning by applying cooperative positioning (CP) methods. Utilizing only low-cost sensors, especially in urban environments, GNSS CP faces several demanding challenges. Therefore, this contribution presents an empirical study on how Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) technologies can aid GNSS position estimation in urban environments, with the focus being solely on positioning performance instead of multi-sensor data fusion. The performance of CP utilizing common positioning approaches as well as CP integration in state-of-the-art Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANET) is displayed and discussed. Additionally, a measurement campaign, providing a representational foundation for validating multiple CP methods using only consumer level and low-cost GNSS receivers, as well as commercially available IEEE 802.11p V2X communication modules in a typical urban environment is presented. Evaluating the algorithm’s performance, it is shown that CP approaches are less accurate compared to single positioning in the given environment. In order to investigate error influences, a skyview modelling seeking to identify non-line-of-sight (NLoS) effects using a 3D building model was performed. We found the position estimates to be less accurate in areas which are affected by NLoS effects such as multipath reception. Due to covariance propagation, the accuracy of CP approaches is decreased, calling for strategies for multipath detection and mitigation. In summary, this contribution will provide insights on integration, implementation strategies and accuracy performances, as well as drawbacks for local area, low-cost GNSS CP in urban environments.
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Tassi A, Mavromatis I, Piechocki RJR. A dataset of full-stack ITS-G5 DSRC communications over licensed and unlicensed bands using a large-scale urban testbed. Data Brief 2019; 25:104368. [PMID: 31516927 PMCID: PMC6727192 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2019.104368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A dataset of measurements of ETSI ITS-G5 Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) is presented. Our dataset consists of network interactions happening between two On-Board Units (OBUs) and four Road Side Units (RSUs). Each OBU was fitted onto a vehicle driven across the FLOURISH Test Track in Bristol, UK. Each RSU and OBU was equipped with two transceivers operating at different frequencies. During our experiments, each transceiver broadcasts Cooperative Awareness Messages (CAMs) over the licensed DSRC band, and over the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical radio (ISM) bands 2.4 GHz-2.5 GHz and 5.725 GHz-5.875 GHz. Each transmitted and received CAM is logged along with its Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) value and accurate positioning information. The Media Access Control layer (MAC) layer Packet Delivery Rates (PDRs) and RSSI values are also empirically calculated across the whole length of the track for any transceiver. The dataset can be used to derive realistic approximations of the PDR as a function of RSSI values under urban environments and for both the DSRC and ISM bands – thus, the dataset is suitable to calibrate (simplified) physical layers of full-stack vehicular simulators where the MAC layer PDR is a direct function of the RSSI. The dataset is not intended to be used for signal propagation modelling. The dataset can be found at https://doi.org/10.5523/bris.eupowp7h3jl525yxhm3521f57, and it has been analyzed in the following paper: I. Mavromatis, A. Tassi, and R. J. Piechocki, “Operating ITS-G5 DSRC over Unlicensed Bands: A City-Scale Performance Evaluation,” IEEE PIMRC 2019. [Online]. Available: https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.00464.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Tassi
- Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
- Corresponding author.
| | - Ioannis Mavromatis
- Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Robert J. Robert Piechocki
- Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
- The Alan Turing Institute, London, NW1 2DB, UK
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Storck CR, Duarte-Figueiredo F. A 5G V2X Ecosystem Providing Internet of Vehicles. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:s19030550. [PMID: 30699926 PMCID: PMC6386933 DOI: 10.3390/s19030550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Fifth Generation (5G) cellular network can be considered the way to the ubiquitous Internet and pervasive paradigm.The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) uses the network infrastructure to allow cars to be connected to new radio technologies, and can be supported by 5G networks. In this way, the Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) integration needs 5G connections unavoidably. This paper presents a 5G V2X ecosystem to provide IoV. The proposed ecosystem is based on the Software-Defined Networking (SDN) concept. Considering vehicles as entertainment consumer points, the network infrastructure must be huge enough to guarantee delivery and quality. For this purpose, this paper evaluates vehicular Internet-based video services traffic and Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communications in urban and rural scenarios. Simulations were performed through the Network Simulator ns-3, employing millimeter Wave (mmWave) communications. Three metrics, data transfer rate, transmission delay, and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), were analyzed and compared for rural and urban IoV scenarios. The results have shown satisfactory performance to the IoV communications requirements when adopting the 5G network with V2X communications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Renato Storck
- Department of Electro-Electronics and Computing, Federal Center for Technological Education of Minas Gerais, Contagem 32146-054, Brazil.
| | - Fátima Duarte-Figueiredo
- Department of Computer Science, Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 30535-610, Brazil.
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Sewalkar P, Seitz J. Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Communication for Vulnerable Road Users: Survey, Design Considerations, and Challenges. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:E358. [PMID: 30658392 DOI: 10.3390/s19020358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the last few years, increasing attention has been provided to research Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P) communication systems. These V2P systems serve different purposes (safety or convenience) and cater to different Vulnerable Road User (VRU) groups. Also, these V2P systems employ different communication technologies, and use different mechanisms to interact with the users. An effective V2P system also needs to consider varying characteristics of different VRUs. These various elements may be considered as design parameters of the V2P system. In this paper, we discuss such elements and propose a design framework for the V2P system based on them. We also provide an extensive survey of existing V2P efforts for safety and convenience applications and their design considerations. We perform a case study that compares the different approaches of V2P safety system for different VRU groups under different pre-crash scenarios. Finally, we discuss a few technological challenges in integration of VRUs into V2X systems.
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Wang J, Shao Y, Ge Y, Yu R. A Survey of Vehicle to Everything ( V2X) Testing. Sensors 2019; 19:334. [PMID: 30650658 PMCID: PMC6359058 DOI: 10.3390/s19020334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 01/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Vehicle to everything (V2X) is a new generation of information and communication technologies that connect vehicles to everything. It not only creates a more comfortable and safer transportation environment, but also has much significance for improving traffic efficiency, and reducing pollution and accident rates. At present, the technology is still in the exploratory stage, and the problems of traffic safety and information security brought about by V2X applications have not yet been fully evaluated. Prior to marketization, we must ensure the reliability and maturity of the technology, which must be rigorously tested and verified. Therefore, testing is an important part of V2X technology. This article focuses on the V2X application requirements and its challenges, the need of testing. Then we also investigate and summarize the testing methods for V2X in the communication process and describe them in detail from the architectural perspective. In addition, we have proposed an end-to-end testing system combining virtual and real environments which can undertake the test task of the full protocol stack.
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Campolo C, Fontes RDR, Molinaro A, Rothenberg CE, Iera A. Slicing on the Road: Enabling the Automotive Vertical through 5G Network Softwarization. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:E4435. [PMID: 30558223 DOI: 10.3390/s18124435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The demanding requirements of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) applications, such as ultra-low latency, high-bandwidth, highly-reliable communication, intensive computation and near-real time data processing, raise outstanding challenges and opportunities for fifth generation (5G) systems. By allowing an operator to flexibly provide dedicated logical networks with (virtualized) functionalities over a common physical infrastructure, network slicing candidates itself as a prominent solution to support V2X over upcoming programmable and softwarized 5G systems in a business-agile manner. In this paper, a network slicing framework is proposed along with relevant building blocks and mechanisms to support V2X applications by flexibly orchestrating multi-access and edge-dominated 5G network infrastructures, especially with reference to roaming scenarios. Proof of concept experiments using the Mininet emulator showcase the viability and potential benefits of the proposed framework for cooperative driving use cases.
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Zheng X, Zhang D, Gao H, Zhao Z, Huang H, Wang J. A Novel Framework for Road Traffic Risk Assessment with HMM-Based Prediction Model. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:E4313. [PMID: 30544496 DOI: 10.3390/s18124313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decades, there has been significant research effort dedicated to the development of intelligent vehicles and V2X systems. This paper proposes a road traffic risk assessment method for road traffic accident prevention of intelligent vehicles. This method is based on HMM (Hidden Markov Model) and is applied to the prediction of steering angle status to (1) evaluate the probabilities of the steering angle in each independent interval and (2) calculate the road traffic risk in different analysis regions. According to the model, the road traffic risk is quantified and presented directly in a visual form by the time-varying risk map, to ensure the accuracy of assessment and prediction. Experiment results are presented, and the results show the effectiveness of the assessment strategies.
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Nardini G, Virdis A, Campolo C, Molinaro A, Stea G. Cellular- V2X Communications for Platooning: Design and Evaluation. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:E1527. [PMID: 29751690 DOI: 10.3390/s18051527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Platooning is a cooperative driving application where autonomous/semi-autonomous vehicles move on the same lane in a train-like manner, keeping a small constant inter-vehicle distance, in order to reduce fuel consumption and gas emissions and to achieve safe and efficient transport. To this aim, they may exploit multiple on-board sensors (e.g., radars, LiDARs, positioning systems) and direct vehicle-to-vehicle communications to synchronize their manoeuvres. The main objective of this paper is to discuss the design choices and factors that determine the performance of a platooning application, when exploiting the emerging cellular vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X) communication technology and considering the scheduled mode, specified by 3GPP for communications over the sidelink assisted by the eNodeB. Since no resource management algorithm is currently mandated by 3GPP for this new challenging context, we focus on analyzing the feasibility and performance of the dynamic scheduling approach, with platoon members asking for radio resources on a per-packet basis. We consider two ways of implementing dynamic scheduling, currently unspecified by 3GPP: the sequential mode, that is somehow reminiscent of time division multiple access solutions based on IEEE 802.11p—till now the only investigated access technology for platooning—and the simultaneous mode with spatial frequency reuse enabled by the eNodeB. The evaluation conducted through system-level simulations provides helpful insights about the proposed configurations and C-V2X parameter settings that mainly affect the reliability and latency performance of data exchange in platoons, under different load settings. Achieved results show that the proposed simultaneous mode succeeds in reducing the latency in the update cycle in each vehicle’s controller, thus enabling future high-density platooning scenarios.
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Kim JE, Kim JW, Park Y, Kim KD. Color-Space-Based Visual-MIMO for V2X Communication. Sensors (Basel) 2016; 16:E591. [PMID: 27120603 DOI: 10.3390/s16040591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we analyze the applicability of color-space-based, color-independent visual-MIMO for V2X. We aim to achieve a visual-MIMO scheme that can maintain the original color and brightness while performing seamless communication. We consider two scenarios of GCM based visual-MIMO for V2X. One is a multipath transmission using visual-MIMO networking and the other is multi-node V2X communication. In the scenario of multipath transmission, we analyze the channel capacity numerically and we illustrate the significance of networking information such as distance, reference color (symbol), and multiplexing-diversity mode transitions. In addition, in the V2X scenario of multiple access, we may achieve the simultaneous multiple access communication without node interferences by dividing the communication area using image processing. Finally, through numerical simulation, we show the superior SER performance of the visual-MIMO scheme compared with LED-PD communication and show the numerical result of the GCM based visual-MIMO channel capacity versus distance.
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