What explains the high island endemicity of Philippine Rafflesia? A species distribution modeling analysis of three threatened parasitic plant species and their hosts

PREMISE

Rafflesia are rare holoparasitic plants. In the Philippines, all but one species are found only on single islands. This study aimed to better understand the factors contributing to this distributional pattern. Specifically, we sought to determine whether narrow environmental tolerances of host and/or parasite species might explain their island endemicity.

METHODS

We used Maxent species distribution modeling to identify areas with suitable habitat for R. lagascae, R. lobata, and R. speciosa and their Tetrastigma host species. These analyses were carried out for current climate conditions and two future climate change scenarios.

RESULTS

Although species distribution models indicated suitable environmental conditions for the Tetrastigma host species in many parts of the Philippines, considerably fewer areas were inferred to have suitable conditions for the three Rafflesia species. Some of these areas are on islands from which they have not been reported. All three species will face significant threats as a result of climate change.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that limited inter-island dispersibility and/or specific environmental requirements are likely responsible for the current pattern of island endemicity of the three Rafflesia species, rather than environmental requirements of their Tetrastigma host species.

Herbarium specimens reveal century-long trait shifts in poison ivy due to anthropogenic CO2 emissions

PREMISE

Previous experimental studies have shown that poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans; Anacardicaceae) responds to elevated CO2 with increased leaf production, water-use efficiency, and toxicity (allergenic urushiol). However, long-term field data suggest no increase in poison ivy abundance over time. Using herbarium specimens, we examined whether poison ivy and other species shifted leaf traits under natural conditions with increasing atmospheric CO2 (pCO2 ) over the past century.

METHODS

We measured stomatal density, leaf area, leaf N, leaf C:N, leaf carbon isotope discrimination (Δleaf ), and intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) from 327 specimens collected from 1838 to 2020 across Pennsylvania. We compared poison ivy's responses to two evolutionarily related tree species, Toxicodendron vernix and Rhus typhina (Anacardiacae) and one ecological analog, Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Vitaceae), a common co-occurring liana.

RESULTS

Stomatal density significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in poison ivy and the ecologically similar liana P. quinquefolia over the past century, but did not change in the related trees T. vernix and R. typhina. None of these species showed significant trends in changes in leaf N or C:N. Surprisingly, in poison ivy, but not the other species, Δleaf increased with increased pCO2 , corresponding to significant declines in iWUE over time.

CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to the results of short-term experimental studies, iWUE decreased in poison ivy over the last century. Trait responses to pCO2 varied by species. Herbarium specimens suggest that realized long-term plant physiological responses to increased CO2 may not be reflected in short-term experimental growth studies, highlighting the value of collections.

Chromosome-level reference genome of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum (Vitaceae) provides insights into genomic evolution and the biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids and flavonoids

Here, we present a high-quality chromosome-scale genome assembly (2.19 Gb) and annotation of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum, a perennial herbaceous liana native to subtropical China with diverse medicinal applications. Approximately 73% of the genome was comprised of transposable elements (TEs), of which long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs) were a predominant group (69% of the genome). The genome size increase of T. hemsleyanum (relative to Vitis species) was mostly due to the proliferation of LTR-RTs. Of the different modes of gene duplication identified, transposed duplication (TRD) and dispersed duplication (DSD) were the predominant ones. Genes, particularly those involved in the phenylpropanoid-flavonoid (PF) pathway and those associated with therapeutic properties and environmental stress resistance, were significantly amplified through recent tandem duplications. We dated the divergence of two intraspecific lineages in Southwest (SW) versus Central-South-East (CSE) China to the late Miocene (approximately 5.2 million years ago). Of those, the former showed more upregulated genes and metabolites. Based on resequencing data of 38 individuals representing both lineages, we identified various candidate genes related to 'response to stimulus' and 'biosynthetic process', including ThFLS11, which is putatively involved in flavonoid accumulation. Overall, this study provides abundant genomic resources for future evolutionary, ecological, and functional genomics studies in T. hemsleyanum and related species.

Ethanol preservation and pretreatments facilitate quality DNA extractions in recalcitrant plant species

PREMISE

The preservation of plant tissues in ethanol is conventionally viewed as problematic. Here, we show that leaf preservation in ethanol combined with proteinase digestion can provide high-quality DNA extracts. Additionally, as a pretreatment, ethanol can facilitate DNA extraction for recalcitrant samples.

METHODS

DNA was isolated from leaves preserved with 96% ethanol or from silica-desiccated leaf samples and herbarium fragments that were pretreated with ethanol. DNA was extracted from herbarium tissues using a special ethanol pretreatment protocol, and these extracts were compared with those obtained using the standard cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method.

RESULTS

DNA extracted from tissue preserved in, or pretreated with, ethanol was less fragmented than DNA from tissues without pretreatment. Adding proteinase digestion to the lysis step increased the amount of DNA obtained from the ethanol-pretreated tissues. The combination of the ethanol pretreatment with liquid nitrogen freezing and a sorbitol wash prior to cell lysis greatly improved the quality and yield of DNA from the herbarium tissue samples.

DISCUSSION

This study critically reevaluates the consequences of ethanol for plant tissue preservation and expands the utility of pretreatment methods for molecular and phylogenomic studies.

A New Ceramide from Cissus Aralioides Baker (Vitaceae) and its Antimicrobial Activity

Purification through repeated column chromatography over silica gel and Sephadex LH-20 of the ethanol extract of the stems of Cissus aralioides (Baker) Planch. resulted in the isolation of a new ceramide, aralioidamide A (1), along with five known compounds (2-6). Their structures were determined by the extensive analyses of their spectroscopic (1D and 2D NMR) and spectrometric data, and comparison with those reported in the literature. Aralioidamide A (1) displayed weak antibacterial activity (MIC=256 μg/mL) against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella flexneri and was inactive (MIC>256 μg/mL) against the tested fungi.

Detecting signals of adaptive evolution in grape plastomes with a focus on the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K/Pg) transition

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Although plastid genes are widely used in phylogenetic studies, signals of positive selection have been scarcely investigated in the grape family. The plastomes from 91 accessions of Vitaceae were examined to understand the extent to which positive selection is present and to identify which genes are involved. Moreover, the changes through time of genes under episodic positive selection were investigated and the hypothesis of an adaptive process following the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K/Pg) transition about 66 million years ago was tested.

METHODS

Different codon-substitution models were used to assess pervasive and episodic positive selection events on 70 candidate plastid genes. Divergence times between lineages were estimated and stochastic character mapping analysis was used to simulate variation over time of the genes found to be under episodic positive selection.

KEY RESULTS

A total of 20 plastid genes (29 %) showed positive selection. Among them, 14 genes showed pervasive signatures of positive selection and nine genes showed episodic signatures of positive selection. In particular, four of the nine genes (psbK, rpl20, rpoB, rps11) exhibited a similar pattern showing an increase in the rate of variation close to the K/Pg transition.

CONCLUSION

Multiple analyses have shown that the grape family has experienced ancient and recent positive selection events and that the targeted genes are involved in essential functions such as photosynthesis, self-replication and metabolism. Our results are consistent with the idea that the K/Pg transition has favoured an increased rate of change in some genes. Intense environmental perturbations have influenced the rapid diversification of certain lineages, and new mutations arising on some plastid genes may have been fixed by natural selection over the course of many generations.

Tannin phenotyping of the Vitaceae reveals a phylogenetic linkage of epigallocatechin in berries and leaves

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Condensed tannins, responsible for berry and wine astringency, may have been selected during grapevine domestication. This work examines the phylogenetic distribution of condensed tannins throughout the Vitaceae phylogenetic tree.

METHODS

Green berries and mature leaves of representative true-to-type members of the Vitaceae were collected before 'véraison', freeze-dried and pulverized, and condensed tannins were measured following depolymerization by nucleophilic addition of 2-mercaptoethanol to the C4 of the flavan-3-ol units in an organic acidic medium. Reaction products were separated and quantified by ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography/diode array detection/mass spectrometry.

KEY RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The original ability to incorporate epigallocatechin (EGC) into grapevine condensed tannins was lost independently in both the American and Eurasian/Asian branches of the Vitaceae, with exceptional cases of reversion to the ancestral EGC phenotype. This is particularly true in the genus Vitis, where we now find two radically distinct groups differing with respect to EGC content. While Vitis species from Asia are void of EGC, 50 % of the New World Vitis harbour EGC. Interestingly, the presence of EGC is tightly coupled with the degree of leaf margin serration. Noticeably, the rare Asian EGC-forming species are phylogenetically close to Vitis vinifera, the only remnant representative of Vitis in Eurasia. Both the wild ancestral V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris as well as the domesticated V. vinifera subsp. sativa can accumulate EGC and activate galloylation biosynthesis that compete for photoassimilates and reductive power.

The effect of Cissus quadrangularis L. on delaying bone loss in postmenopausal women with osteopenia: A randomized placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Osteopenia refers to bone density that is not normal but also not as low as that noted in osteoporosis. Osteopenia leads to osteoporosis and increases the risk of fractures. Current research is focused on agents that will prevent or slow the progression of bone loss. On the basis of published evidence, Cissus quadrangularis (CQ) might potentially provide a novel natural treatment for osteopenia.

PURPOSE

To determine the effect of 24 weeks of consecutive treatment with CQ on delaying bone loss and safety in postmenopausal women (PMW) with osteopenia.

METHODS

This study is a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Here, 134 enrolled PMW with osteopenia (> 40 years and having no period for 1-10 years) received CQ at 1.2 (CQ1.2) or 1.6 g/day (CQ1.6) or placebo. The %change in bone mineral density (BMD) at the lumbar spine (L1-L4), femoral neck, and total hip served as the primary outcome. The %change in bone turnover markers (BTMs), including C-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen (CTX) and procollagen type 1 amino-terminal propeptide (P1NP), was the secondary outcome. These outcomes were compared between the CQ vs. placebo group at weeks 12 and 24. The least significant change (LSC) was used to monitor clinical changes. The adverse events (AE) were monitored.

RESULTS

A total of 108 participants completed this study. The %BMD changes in the CQ-treated groups did not differ at any site after 24 weeks compared to the placebo. Statistically significant differences were detected in CQ1.6 at the lumbar spine (0.011 ± 0.025 g/cm², p = 0.008) and CQ1.2 at the femoral neck (-0.015 ± 0.036 g/cm², p = 0.024) compared to baseline, but these changes did not exceed the LSC. Reduced bone remodeling activity was detected in both CQ-treated groups. Compared to the placebo, the %P1NP change was significantly reduced in CQ1.6 (-2.46 ± 26.05%; p < 0.01) at week 12 and in CQ1.2 (-3.36 ± 29.47%; p < 0.01) and CQ1.6 (-9.95 ± 22.22%; p < 0.01) at week 24. These results correlated with the within-group comparison, which showed a continuously significant increase in both BTMs in the placebo group. However, a stable CTX and a significant reduction in P1NP (p < 0.05) were detected in both CQ-treated groups. This reduction exceeded the LSC of P1NP. The incidence of adverse events did not differ among the three groups.

CONCLUSION

This is the first clinical report that showed a promising effect on delaying bone loss of orally administration of CQ for 24 weeks, as indicated by a slower bone remodeling process via a reduction in BTMs. However, no change in BMD was observed.

Vitisshizishanensis, a new species of the grape genus from Hubei province, China

Vitisshizishanensis (Vitaceae), a new species from Hubei, China, is described and illustrated. It is morphologically similar to V.flexuosa and V.bryoniifolia, but differs in leaf lobing and pubescence. It can be easily distinguished from the two species based on its glabrous or with very sparse arachnoid tomentum on the abaxial mature leaf surface, and its unlobed to 3-7 lobed leaves. A detailed description, along with photographs for the new species, and a table for morphological comparisons with similar Vitis species, are also provided.

The expansion and diversity of the CYP75 gene family in Vitaceae

The CYP75 gene family plays an important role in flavonoid biosynthesis in plants. Little is known about the evolution of the gene family within the grape family. Here, we extracted the CYP75 genes from transcriptome data of 15 grape species and 36 representative genomes from other plants to explore the evolutionary history of the CYP75 gene family in Vitaceae. The structure of the CYP75 protein sequences is highly conserved with the variation mainly occurring in the N terminal and the middle region. The evolutionary analyses suggested classifying the CYP75 gene family into three groups in Vitaceae, namely Vitaceae A1, Vitaceae A2 and Vitaceae B. The Vitaceae A1 and A2 belong to the CYP75A subfamily and the Vitaceae B belongs to the CYP75B subfamily. Within the Vitaceae A1, most Vitaceae taxa present only one copy of the CYP75A protein sequence except for Vitis vinifera with a high number of sequences, which might have originated through recent gene duplications after its split from the other species. Vitaceae A2 contain only CYP75A sequences from Vitaceae sister to one from Camellia sinensis, probably representing a relict lineage. The CYP75B proteins were found to be dominated in Vitaceae and other angiosperms. Our results provide important insights into understanding the evolutionary history of the CYP75 gene family in Vitaceae and other angiosperms.

Review of the Phytochemistry and Biological Activity of Cissus incisa Leaves

BACKGROUND

Cissus incisa is a Vitaceae with pantropical distribution. In northern Mexico its leaves have traditionally been used to treat skin infections, abscesses and tumors. Despite its medicinal uses, few studies are reported.

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the phytochemical and biological studies carried out so far on the leaves of C. incisa, since this part of the plant is the one frequently used, and awaken scientific interest towards the plant.

METHOD

Since C. incisa was an undocumented species, most of the information comes from reports of our research group. Databases, books, and websites were also consulted. The information collected was organized and presented in a synthesized way. Plant name was checked with the database "The Plant List".

RESULTS

171, 260, and 114 metabolites were identified by UHPLC-QFTOF-MS in the hexane, chloroform/methanol, and aqueous extracts, respectively. Fatty acyls, sphingolipids, sterols, glycerolipids, prenol lipids, and terpenes are common metabolites found in these extracts. 2-(2´-hydroxydecanoyl amino)-1,3,4-hexadecanotriol-8-ene, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl tetracosanoate, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-D-glucopyranoside, α-amyrin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside were also isolated and characterized. Extracts, phytocompounds and semi-synthetic derivatives showed antimicrobial activity against multi-drug resistant bacteria, and various cancer cell lines. Results from Perturbation-Theory-Machine Learning-Information-Fusion model (PTMLIF), molecular docking, and vesicular contents assay identified potential targets on cell membrane, suggesting an antibacterial mechanism of action for ceramides from C. incisa leaves.

CONCLUSION

This review reports the efforts of the scientific community in authenticating species used in traditional medicine. Moreover, it gives a compendium of phytochemistry and the biological activities of the components from C. incisa leaves.

Characterization of chemical constituents with their antioxidant and anti-melanogenesis activities from the roots of Ampelopsis japonica

Three glycosylated stilbenes (1-3), two anthraquinones (4, 5), one lignan (6), five tannins (7-11), two amino acids (12, 13), and one auronol (14) were isolated from the root of Ampelopsis japonica. All compounds, except for 4, 6, and 11 were obtained from this species for the first time. Compounds 6-9 could notably inhibit ROS generations in HaCaT keratinocyte cells with IC₅₀ values of 5.28, 4.83, 0.87, and 1.66 μM, respectively. Compounds 8-10 showed potent DPPH free radical scavenging effects with IC₅₀ values of 14.37, 16.08, and 12.11 μM, individually. In anti-melanogenesis assay, only 8 and 9 could decrease 7.93% and 11.66% melanin contents induced by α-MSH in B16F10 melanoma cells at 40 μM and moderately inhibit tyrosinase activities. By far, galloylhamameloses 8 and 9 were found to exhibit both antioxidant and anti-melanogenesis properties that could be further developed as cosmeceutical agents for skin disorders.

Metabolomic Profile and Cytotoxic Activity of Cissus incisa Leaves Extracts

Cissus incisa leaves have been traditionally used in Mexican traditional medicine to treat certain cancerous illness. This study explored the metabolomic profile of this species using untargeted technique. Likewise, it determined the cytotoxic activity and interpreted all data by computational tools. The metabolomic profile was developed through UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS for dereplication purposes. MetaboAnalyst database was used in metabolic pathway analysis and the network topological analysis. Hexane, chloroform/methanol, and aqueous extracts were evaluated on HepG2, Hep3B, HeLa, PC3, A549, and MCF7 cancer cell lines and IHH immortalized hepatic cells, using Cell Titer proliferation assay kit. Hexane extract was the most active against Hep3B (IC50 = 27 ± 3 μg/mL), while CHCl3/MeOH extract was the most selective (SI = 2.77) on the same cell line. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed similar profiles between the extracts, while a Venn diagram revealed 80 coincident metabolites between the bioactive extracts. The sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthesis pathway was the most significant identified. The Network Pharmacology (NP) approach revealed several targets for presqualene diphosphate, phytol, stearic acid, δ-tocopherol, ursolic acid and γ-linolenic acid, involved in cellular processes such as apoptosis. This work highlights the integration of untargeted metabolomic profile and cytotoxic activity to explore plant extracts, and the NP approach to interpreting the experimental results.

Comparative transcriptome analyses between cultivated and wild grapes reveal conservation of expressed genes but extensive rewiring of co-expression networks

The transcriptomes of wild and cultivated grapes consists of similar expressed genes but distinct wiring of co-expressed modules associated with environmental conditions. Grapevine is an important fruit crop worldwide, with high economic value and widespread distribution. Commercial production is based on Vitis vinifera, and, to a lesser extent, on hybrids with American grapes, such as V. labrusca. Wild grape relatives are important sources of resistance against biotic and abiotic factors; however, their global gene expression patterns remain poorly characterized. We associated genome-wide transcript profiling to phenotypic analyses to investigate the responses of cultivated and wild vines to vineyard conditions. The expressed genes in the Vitis reference transcriptome are largely shared by wild grapes, V. labrusca hybrids and vinifera cultivars. In contrast, significant differential regulation between wild and vinifera genotypes represents 80% of gene expression variation, regardless of the environment. In wild grapes, genes associated to regulatory processes are downregulated, whereas those involved in metabolic pathways are upregulated, in comparison to vinifera. Photosynthesis-related ontologies are overrepresented in the induced genes, in agreement with higher contents of chlorophyll in wild grapes. Co-regulated gene network analyses provide evidence of more complex transcriptome organization in vinifera. In wild grapes, genes involved in signaling pathways of stress-related hormones are overrepresented in modules associated with the environment. Consensus network analyses revealed high preservation within co-regulated gene modules between cultivated and wild grapes, but divergent relationships among the expression clusters. In conclusion, the distinct phenotypes of wild and cultivated grapes are underlain by differences in gene expression, but also by distinct higher-order organization of the transcriptome and contrasting association of co-expressed gene clusters with the environment.

Review of the Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Activities of Rhoicissus Species (Vitaceae)

Species within the genus Rhoicissus (Vitaceae) are commonly used in South African traditional medicine. The current review discusses the occurrence, distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of Rhoicissus species covering the period 1981–2020. The data reported were systematically collected, read, and analysed from scientific electronic databases including Scopus, Scifinder, Pubmed, and Google Scholar. Reported evidence indicates that species in this genus are used for the treatment of gastrointestinal complaints, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and infertility, as well as to tone the uterus during pregnancy and to facilitate delivery. Pharmacological studies have further shown that members of the Rhoicissus genus display antidiabetic, uterotonic, ascaricidal, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. They are linked to the presence of bioactive compounds isolated from the genus. Hence, Rhoicissus species can potentially be an alternative therapeutic strategy to treat diseases and develop safer and more potent drugs to combat diseases. Plant species of this genus have valuable medicinal benefits due to their significant pharmacological potential. However, scientific investigation and information of the therapeutic potential of Rhoicissus remain limited as most of the species in the genus have not been fully exploited. Therefore, there is a need for further investigations to exploit the therapeutic potential of the genus Rhoicissus. Future studies should evaluate the phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological activities, as well as the mode of action, of Rhoicissus crude extracts and secondary compounds isolated from the species.

Vein-to-blade ratio is an allometric indicator of leaf size and plasticity

PREMISE

As a leaf expands, its shape dynamically changes. Previously, we documented an allometric relationship between vein and blade area in grapevine leaves. Larger leaves have a smaller ratio of primary and secondary vein area relative to blade area compared to smaller leaves. We sought to use allometry as an indicator of leaf size and plasticity.

METHODS

We measured the ratio of vein-to-blade area from the same 208 vines across four growing seasons (2013, 2015, 2016, and 2017). Matching leaves by vine and node, we analyzed the correlation between the size and shape of grapevine leaves as repeated measures with climate variables across years.

RESULTS

The proportion of leaf area occupied by vein and blade exponentially decreased and increased, respectively, during leaf expansion making their ratio a stronger indicator of leaf size than area itself. Total precipitation and leaf wetness hours of the previous year but not the current showed strong negative correlations with vein-to-blade ratio, whereas maximum air temperature from the previous year was positively correlated.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that vein-to-blade ratio is a strong allometric indicator of leaf size and plasticity in grapevines measured across years. Grapevine leaf primordia are initiated in buds the year before they emerge, and we found that total precipitation and maximum air temperature of the previous growing season exerted the largest statistically significant effects on leaf morphology. Vein-to-blade ratio is a promising allometric indicator of relationships between leaf morphology and climate, the robustness of which should be explored further.

Two new meroterpenoids from the aerial parts of Ampelopsis cantoniensis (Vitaceae)

From EtOAc-soluble fraction of the aerial parts of Ampelopsis cantoniensis (Vitaceae), two new meroterpenoids named ampechromonol A (1) and ampechromonol B (2), together with five known compounds (3-7), were isolated. Their structures were elucidated based on NMR spectroscopic analysis. The plausible biosynthesis pathway for the formation of two new meroterpenoids was proposed. This research is the first isolation of meroterpenoids from Ampelopsis genus. Compounds 1 and 2 showed weak cytotoxicity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

Application and implication of scanning electron microscopy for evaluation of palyno-morphological features of Vitaceae from Pakistan

The present study aimed to investigate the palyno-morphological features of species of family Vitaceae from Pakistan. A total of nine species, belonging to four genera were collected, pressed, identified, and then analyzed microscopically. Both quantitative and qualitative characters of the pollen grains were recorded including polar and equatorial diameter, P/E ratio, number of colpi and pores, exine thickness and shapes of the pollen in both polar and equatorial view, and exine sculpturing using Leica microscope fitted with camera Meiji Infinity 1 and then analyzed statistically using software IBM SPSS Statistics 20. The results of the present study demonstrated the variations in polar and equatorial diameter, exine thickness, P/E ratio, pollen shape, and exine sculpturing of the studied species and highlighted the significance of pollen morphology as an identification tool. The present study may contribute to better understand the classification at genus level, which will support the future phylogenetic characterization of the family.

Phylogenomic relationships and character evolution of the grape family (Vitaceae)

The grape family consists of 16 genera and ca. 950 species. It is best known for the economically important fruit crop - the grape Vitis vinifera. The deep phylogenetic relationships and character evolution of the grape family have attracted the attention of researchers in recent years. We herein reconstruct the phylogenomic relationships within Vitaceae using nuclear and plastid genes based on the Hyb-Seq approach and test the newly proposed classification system of the family. The five tribes of the grape family, including Ampelopsideae, Cayratieae, Cisseae, Parthenocisseae, and Viteae, are each robustly supported by both nuclear and chloroplast genomic data and the backbone relationships are congruent with previous reports. The cupular floral disc (raised above and free from ovary at the upper part) is an ancestral state of Vitaceae, with the inconspicuous floral disc as derived in the tribe Parthenocisseae, and the state of adnate to the ovary as derived in the tribe Viteae. The 5-merous floral pattern was inferred to be the ancestral in Vitaceae, with the 4-merous flowers evolved at least two times in the family. The compound dichasial cyme (cymose with two secondary axes) is ancestral in Vitaceae and the thyrse inflorescence (a combination of racemose and cymose branching) in tribe Viteae is derived. The ribbon-like trichome only evolved once in Vitaceae, as a synapomorphy for the tribe Viteae.

Ecology and Genetics of Natural Populations of North American Vitis Species Used as Rootstocks in European Grapevine Breeding Programs

Three North American Vitis species (V. riparia, V. berlandieri, V. rupestris) became widely used in rootstock breeding programs following the expansion of North American pests and diseases introduced in vineyards of the world during the 19th century. When they escape, they become feral in the most dynamic parts of Mediterranean floodplains. To better understand this ongoing process, we studied the ecology of Vitis species in their native sympatric range. We analyzed in deep 61 plots of 710 m2 containing Vitaceae species along 216 km of the Buffalo River and adjacent plateaus (Arkansas, United States). We investigated the populations structure and genetics of the Vitis complex (i.e., possible hybrids and the Vitis species) and the sharing of habitats with other Vitaceae (Muscadinia rotundifolia and Parthenocissus quinquefolia). Vitaceae share space according to their life strategies and microhabitat along ecological gradients. The plateau niche seems optimal for V. berlandieri and V. aestivalis. V. berlandieri is also found in alluvial zones. The most erosive parts of the river are colonized by V. rupestris, whereas the first terraces include most of the M. rotundifolia populations. Vitis riparia and Parthenocissus live in the largest range of forest habitats, from plateaus to alluvial forests, and from the forest floor to the canopy, with the highest densities along the river. Interestingly, natural hybridization can occur, but establishment success is rare and limited to alluvial forests. In their native range, these populations are controlled by biotic and abiotic conditions. In Europe, the biotic relations among species are different. Our study shows that V. riparia and its hybrids could be the best candidates for a large scale invasion.

Wang (Family: Vitaceae) and its phylogenetic analysis

Ampelopsis grossedentata (Hand.-Mazz.) W. T. Wang is rich in flavonoids and also displays excellent pharmacological activities. The phylogenetic relationship between A. grossedentata and other related Vitaceae family members remains unclear. The chloroplast (cp) genome is a useful model for assessing genome evolution. In this study, we assembled the cp genome of A. grossedentata using the high-throughput Illumina pair-end sequencing data and characterized the genome to providing useful information for future genetic studies. The circular cp genome was 162,147 bp in size, including a large single-copy (LSC) region of 89,244 bp and a small single-copy (SSC) region of 18,439 bp, which were separated by two inverted repeat (IR) regions (27,232 bp each). A total of 135 genes were predicted, including 8 ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), 37 transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and 90 protein-coding genes (PCGs). Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis revealed that A. grossedentata within Ampelopsis genus and formed a different clade from other three congeneric species. This study provides useful information for future genetic study of A. grossedentata.

Nuclear and Chloroplast Sequences Resolve the Enigmatic Origin of the Concord Grape

Despite the commercial importance of the Concord grape, its origin has remained unresolved for over 150 years without a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis. In this study we aimed to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the Concord grape using sequence data from four nuclear markers (AT103, GAI1, PHYA, and SQD1), six plastid markers (matK, psbA-trnH, petN-trnC, ycf1, trnL-F, and trnS-G), and the plastid genome. We sampled extensively the Vitis species native to northeastern North America as well as representative species from Europe and Asia, including the commercially important Vitis vinifera (wine grape), a native European species with hermaphroditic flowers, and its wild progenitor, V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris. We also sequenced the plastid genome of one accession of the Concord grape and compared the plastid genome data to the recently published data set of Vitis plastomes. Phylogenetic analyses of the plastid and nuclear data using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference support the hybrid origin of the Concord grape. The results clearly pinpoint the wine grape, V. vinifera, as the maternal donor and the fox grape, Vitis labrusca, which is common in northeastern North America, as the paternal donor. Moreover, we infer that the breeding history of the Concord grape must have involved the backcrossing of the F1 hybrid with the paternal parent V. labrusca. This backcrossing also explains the higher morphological similarity of the Concord grape to V. labrusca than to V. vinifera. This study provides concrete genetic evidence for the hybrid origin of a widespread Vitis cultivar and is, therefore, promising for similar future studies focused on resolving ambiguous origins of major crops or to create successful hybrid fruit crops.

Introgression Among Cultivated and Wild Grapevine in Tuscany

Wild grapevine, Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris (Gmelin, Hegi) is spontaneous to Europe and common in Tuscany. In this study, wild grapevines were identified in 22 populations from eight locations in Tuscan Maremma (Grosseto and Siena province). The plants were propagated by cuttings, collected in a vineyard, genotyped by nuclear simple sequence repeats (SSRs), chloroplast SSRs and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and compared to locally cultivated varieties (Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sativa) and to non-vinifera and non-vitis genotypes. The identity analysis revealed that some individuals were redundant genotypes, suggesting natural vegetative propagation. In addition, four of the supposed V.v. sylvestris were in fact naturalized V.v. sativa. The majority of putative sylvestris genotypes had chlorotype A, while the remainder had chlorotype D, as the majority of Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa cultivated in Italy. Some of the recovered sylvestris genotypes appeared to be natural crosses with cultivated grapevine varieties in Tuscany, and their chlorotype suggests a higher pollen flow from sativa to the sylvestris genotypes than in the opposite direction. In addition, other genotypes appeared to be crosses within sylvestris, sylvestris-sativa or sylvestris-sylvestris siblings, or equivalent relationships. These relationships suggest a noticeably level of sexual reproductive activities among sylvestris and sylvestris-sativa genotypes. A cluster and structure analysis clearly differentiated the true sylvestris from the sativa, and the non-vinifera or non-vitis genotypes, and also highlighted a possible introgression of sylvestris into some Italian and French cultivated varieties. The results therefore suggest that, in addition to the primary ancient center of domestication from the Near East to Central Asia, the introgression among cultivated and wild grapevine occurred in other centers of diversification along the migration routes, contributing to the domestication processes, and suggesting that these processes are still ongoing despite the reduction in populations of sylvestris. The results also highlight that the GrapeReSeq 18K Vitis genotyping chip are suitable for non-vitis genotyping and that the range of SNPs heterozygosity in sylvestris appears to be up to 6% less and does not overlap the heterozygosity range of sativa genotypes.

Pharmacological evidence for the use of Cissus assamica as a medicinal plant in the management of pain and pyrexia

The existing therapeutic agents for the management of pain and pyrexia are not very efficient and accompanied by numerous side effects. Thus, new effective agents are the most needed. The present study investigates bioactivities and phytochemical screening of different parts of Cissus assamica (Vitaceae), a Bangladeshi tribal medicinal plant. Three plant parts stems, leaves and roots were collected, washed, dried, powdered and then prepared for cold extraction. The methanolic stems and leaves extracts were fractioned with four and two solvents respectively. Different plant extracts were then investigated for in vivo antinociceptive activity and only methanolic leaves extract was investigated for in vivo antipyretic activity. In Swiss-albino mice, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight doses were used for all extracts. In the peripheral antinociceptive activity, the methanolic stem extract and its dichloromethane, chloroform, pet ether fractions and methanolic roots extract at their both doses showed significant antinociceptive responses when compared to standard diclofenac sodium (60.49% inhibition). In the central antinociceptive activity, the response was found significant for methanolic stem and methanolic roots extract in their both doses compared to standard morphine. In antipyretic activity, methanolic leaves extract significantly reduced pyrexia level at 400 and 200 mg/kg body weight doses after two, three and 4 h of administration when compared to standard. So our findings indicate that this plant possesses noteworthy pharmacological activities which may be a basis for further researches to establish a possible mode of action of its different parts.

Dates and rates in grape's plastomes: evolution in slow motion

The family Vitaceae includes the domesticated grapevine (Vitis vinifera), one of the most economically important crops in the world. Despite the importance of Vitaceae, there is still considerable controversy surrounding their phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary timescales. Moreover, variation in rates of molecular evolution among Vitaceae remains mostly unexplored. The present research aims to fill these knowledge gaps through the analysis of plastome sequences. Thirteen newly sequenced grape plastomes are presented and their phylogenetic relationships examined. Divergence times and absolute substitution rates are inferred under different molecular clocks by the analysis of 95 non-coding plastid regions and 43 representative accessions of the major lineages of Vitaceae. Furthermore, the phylogenetic informativeness of non-coding plastid regions is investigated. We find strong evidence in favor of the random local clock model and rate heterogeneity within Vitaceae. Substitution rates decelerate in Ampelocissus, Ampelopsis, Nekemias, Parthenocissus, Rhoicissus, and Vitis, with genus Vitis showing the lowest values up to a minimum of ~ 4.65 × 10^-11 s/s/y. We suggest that liana-like species of Vitaceae evolve slower than erect growth habit plants and we invoke the "rate of mitosis hypothesis" to explain the observed pattern of the substitution rates. We identify a reduced set of 20 non-coding regions able to accurately reconstruct the phylogeny of Vitaceae and we provide a detailed description of all 152 non-coding regions identified in the plastomes of subg. Vitis. These polymorphic regions will find their applications in phylogenetics, phylogeography, and population genetics as well in grapes identification through DNA barcoding techniques.

Chemical Constituents from Ethanoic Extracts of the Aerial Parts of Leea aequata L., a Traditional Folk Medicine of Myanmar

We aimed at reporting the chemical constituents and antimicrobial activities of Leea aequata L., a traditional folk medicine used in Myanmar for the treatment of wounds and skin diseases. A new neolignan, (7S,8R)-9'-O-acetylcedrusin (1), a new lactam, (3S,4S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxypiperidin-2-one (2), along with 21 known compounds, including five lignans (3-7), four flavonoid glycosides (8-11), and others (12-23), were isolated from the ethanoic extract of the aerial parts of L. aequata. The structures of the new compounds were determined by NMR, MS, and ECD spectra. For all the antimicrobial tests of the 23 compounds, only 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid ethyl ester (17) showed weak inhibitory activities against Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica.

Corrigendum: The Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequence of Ampelopsis: Gene Organization, Comparative Analysis, and Phylogenetic Relationships to Other Angiosperms

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00341.].

The Constituents of the Stems of Cissus assamica and Their Bioactivities

Fifty-five compounds were isolated from the fresh stems of Cissus assamica, including 14 benzenoids, 11 triterpenes, nine steroids, five tocopherols, five chlorophylls, four flavonoids, two benzoquinones, two tannins, and three other compounds. Their structures were constructed by 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectral data, and were also identified by a comparison of their spectral data with those reported in the literature. Among these isolates, 1,2-bis-(5--tocopheryl) ethane (51) was reported for the first time from natural sources. Some purified compounds were examined for their anti-inflammatory and anticancer bioactivities. The results indicated that betulinic acid (16) exhibited strong inhibition of superoxide anion generation with IC50 value of 0.2 ± 0.1 μM, while betulinic acid (16) and pheophytin-a (47) inhibited elastase release with IC50 value of 2.7 ± 0.3 and 5.3 ± 1.0 μM, respectively. In addition, betulinic acid (16) and epi-glut-5(6)-en-ol (18) exhibited potential cytotoxicity to non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NCI-H226) and colon cancer (HCT-116) cell lines with IC50 values in the range of 1.6 to 9.1 μM.

Micromorphological investigation of leaf epidermis and seeds of Vitaceae from Pakistan using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy

This present study is the first report on the detailed foliar epidermal anatomy and micromorphology of seeds of five species of Vitaceae from Pakistan using light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The studied species occur at various localities particularly higher altitude. Qualitative and quantitative leaf micromorphological characters investigated here are related to shape and size of epidermal cells, anticlinal wall pattern, stomatal pore, guard cell, stomatal complex, subsidiary cells, and trichomes. Variations in size and shape were observed in the studied species. Irregular, polygonal and elongated epidermal cells with straight or undulate margins, stomata anomocytic type, and trichomes nonglandular, unicellular to multicellular in all the studied plants. Seed micromorphological qualitative characters studied are shape of margins, integument cell, apical notch, chalaza, anticlinal wall thickness, and quantitative characters are number of seeds per berry, length, and width of seed, length to width ratio. The detailed distribution and microscopic characteristics investigated of family Vitaceae has a distinguished role in identification at genus and species level and may provide evidence in the determination of taxonomic rank of the family in the phylogenetic tree. This study possesses potential for plant taxonomists to further evaluate the species for phytochemical studies and physiology. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy was used for the micromorphological investigation of family Vitaceae Qualitative and quantitative characteristics were studied Variation in microscopic features of leaf epidermis and seeds Identification of species based on micromorphological characters.

High-throughput sequencing data clarify evolutionary relationships among North American Vitis species and improve identification in USDA Vitis germplasm collections

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Grapes are one of the most economically important berry crops worldwide, with the vast majority of production derived from the domesticated Eurasian species Vitis vinifera. Expansion of production into new areas, development of new cultivars, and concerns about adapting grapevines for changing climates necessitate the use of wild grapevine species in breeding programs. Diversity within Vitis has long been a topic of study; however, questions remain regarding relationships between species. Furthermore, the identity of some living accessions is unclear.

METHODS

This study generated 11,020 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for more than 300 accessions in the USDA-ARS grape germplasm repository using genotyping-by-sequencing. Resulting data sets were used to reconstruct evolutionary relationships among several North American and Eurasian Vitis species, and to suggest taxonomic labels for previously unidentified and misidentified germplasm accessions based on genetic distance.

KEY RESULTS

Maximum likelihood analyses of SNP data support the monophyly of Vitis, subg. Vitis, a Eurasian subg. Vitis clade, and a North American subg. Vitis clade. Data delineate species groups within North America. In addition, analysis of genetic distance suggested taxonomic identities for 20 previously unidentified Vitis accessions and for 28 putatively misidentified accessions.

CONCLUSIONS

This work advances understanding of Vitis evolutionary relationships and provides the foundation for ongoing germplasm enhancement. It supports conservation and breeding efforts by contributing to a growing genetic framework for identifying novel genetic variation and for incorporating new, unsampled populations into the germplasm repository system.

The genus Gallerucida Motschulsky in Taiwan (Insecta, Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Galerucinae)

Species within the genus Gallerucida Motschulsky recorded in Taiwan are revised. Gallerucidabifasciata Motschulsky 1861 G.lutea Gressitt & Kimoto 1963 G.sauteri Chûjô 1938 and G.shirozui Kimoto 1969 are redescribed. Sphenoraiachujoi Lee 2014 is proposed as a junior synonym of G.flaviventris (Baly 1861). Gallerucidathoracica (Jacoby 1888) is recorded as new for Taiwan and redescribed. Lectotypes are designated for Gallerucidanigrita Chûjô 1935 G.sauteri Chûjô 1938 and Eustethathoracica Jacoby 1888. Biological notes are given on all Taiwanese species of Gallerucida.

Epoxynemanione A, nemanifuranones A-F, and nemanilactones A-C, from Nemania serpens, an endophytic fungus isolated from Riesling grapevines

Ten polyketide specialized metabolites, epoxynemanione A, nemanifuranones A-F, and nemanilactones A-C, were isolated from the culture filtrate of Nemania serpens (Pers.) Grey (1821), an endophytic fungus from a Riesling grapevine (Vitis vinifera) found in Canada's Niagara region. Additionally, four known metabolites 2-(hydroxymethyl)-3-methoxy-benzoic acid, phyllostine, 5-methylmellein and a nordammarane triterpenoid were isolated. A related known metabolite 2,3-dihydro-2-hydroxy-2,4-dimethyl-5-trans-propenylfuran-3-one has also been included for structural and biological comparison to the nemanifuranones. The latter was isolated from the culture filtrates of Mollisia nigrescens, an endophytic fungus from the leaves and stems of lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) found in the Acadian forest of Nova Scotia, Canada. Their structures were elucidated based on 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS measurements, X-ray crystallographic analysis of nemanifuranone A, the nordammarane triterpenoid and 2,3-dihydro-2-hydroxy-2,4-dimethyl-5-trans-propenylfuran-3-one compounds, and comparison of NOE and vicinal ¹H-¹H coupling constants to literature data for relative stereochemical assignments. Nemanifuranone A possesses a rare C2 hemiacetal and was active against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.

Robust Phylogeny of Tetrastigma (Vitaceae) Based on Ten Plastid DNA Regions: Implications for Infrageneric Classification and Seed Character Evolution

Tetrastigma (Miq.) Planch. is one of the most species-rich genera of the economically and agronomically important grape family Vitaceae. It includes ca. 95 species widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia and Australia. Species of Tetrastigma exhibit great diversity in both vegetative and reproductive characters. Here we inferred a well-supported phylogeny of Tetrastigma based on ten chloroplast DNA regions with an expanded taxon sampling of 72 species and two varieties. Our molecular results support six major clades within Tetrastigma and the relationships among these clades were well-resolved. We also documented seed morphology of 44 species covering the six major clades of the genus. Ancestral states of eight characters (seed shape, seed surface rumination pattern, chalaza length/width ratio, chalaza position, ventral infold position, ventral infold divergence, ventral infold depth in cross section, and endosperm shape) were reconstructed in Mesquite and R with four models. Character optimizations suggest that all character states have evolved multiple times except that the irregular-shaped surface rumination has derived only once in Tetrastigma. We evaluated the taxonomic importance of seed morphology and identified potential morphological evidence to support each major clade. Our comprehensive analyses of Tetrastigma shed insights into the infrageneric classification of this morphologically diverse and ecologically important genus in tropical and subtropical Asia.

ABA and GA3 regulate the synthesis of primary and secondary metabolites related to alleviation from biotic and abiotic stresses in grapevine

Plants are able to synthesize a large number of organic compounds. Among them, primary metabolites are known to participate in plant growth and development, whereas secondary metabolites are mostly involved in defense and other facultative processes. In grapevine, one of the major fruit crops in the world, secondary metabolites, mainly polyphenols, are of great interest for the wine industry. Even though there is an extensive literature on the content and profile of those compounds in berries, scarce or no information is available regarding polyphenols in other organs. In addition, little is known about the effect of plant growth regulators (PGRs), ABA and GA₃ (extensively used in table grapes) on the synthesis of primary and secondary metabolites in wine grapes. In table grapes, cultural practices include the use of GA₃ sprays shortly before veraison, to increase berry and bunch size, and sugar content in fruits. Meanwhile, ABA applications to the berries on pre-veraison improve the skin coloring and sugar accumulation, anticipating the onset of veraison. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to assess and characterize primary and secondary metabolites in leaves, berries and roots of grapevine plants cv. Malbec at veraison, and changes in compositions after ABA and GA₃ aerial sprayings. Metabolic profiling was conducted using GC-MS, GC-FID and HPLC-MWD. A large set of metabolites was identified: sugars, alditols, organic acids, amino acids, polyphenols (flavonoids and non-flavonoids) and terpenes (mono-, sesqui-, di- and triterpenes). The obtained results showed that ABA applications elicited synthesis of mono- and sesquiterpenes in all assessed tissues, as well as L-proline, acidic amino acids and anthocyanins in leaves. Additionally, applications with GA₃ elicited synthesis of L-proline in berries, and mono- and sesquiterpenes in all the tissues. However, treatment with GA₃ seemed to block polyphenol synthesis, mainly in berries. In conclusion, ABA and GA₃ applications to grapevine plants cv. Malbec influenced the synthesis of primary and secondary metabolites known to be essential for coping with biotic and abiotic stresses.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis stimulates key genes of the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and stilbenoid production in grapevine leaves in response to downy mildew and grey mould infection

Grapevine (Vitis spp) is susceptible to serious fungal diseases usually controlled by chemical treatments. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are obligate plant symbionts which can stimulate plant defences. We investigated the effect of mycorrhization on grapevine stilbenoid defences. Vitis vinifera cvs Chasselas, Pinot noir and the interspecific hybrid Divico, on the rootstock 41B, were mycorrhized with Rhizophagus irregularis before leaf infection by Plasmopara viticola or Botrytis cinerea. Gene expression analysis showed an up-regulation of PAL, STS, and ROMT, involved in the stilbenoid biosynthesis pathway, in plant leaves, 48 h after pathogen inoculation. This defense response could be potentiated under AMF colonization, with an intensity level depending on the gene, the plant cultivar and/or the pathogen. We also showed that higher amounts of active forms of stilbenoids (i.e trans-form of resveratrol, ε- and δ-viniferins and pterostilbene) were produced in mycorrhized plants of the three genotypes in comparison with non-mycorrhized ones, 10 days post-inoculation with either pathogen. These results support the hypothesis that AMF root colonization enhances defence reactions against a biotrophic and a necrotrophic pathogen, in the aerial parts of grapevine.

Anti-Dermatophyte and Anti-Malassezia Activity of Extracts Rich in Polymeric Flavan-3-ols Obtained from Vitis vinifera Seeds

Several human skin diseases are associated with fungi as dermatophytes and Malassezia. Skin mycoses are increasing and new alternatives to conventional treatments with improved efficacy and/or safety profiles are desirable. For the first time, the anti-dermatophytes and the anti-Malassezia activities of Vitis vinifera seed extracts obtained from different table and wine cultivars have been evaluated. Geometric minimal inhibitory concentration ranged from 20 to 97 µg/mL for dermatophytes and from 32 to 161 µg/mL for Malassezia furfur. Dried grape seed extracts analyzed by HPLC/DAD/ESI/MS showed different quali-quantitative compositions in terms of monomeric and polymeric flavan-3-ols. The minimal inhibitory concentrations for Trichophyton mentagrophytes and for M. furfur were inversely correlated with the amount of the polymeric fraction (r = -0.7639 and r = -0.7228, respectively). Differently, the antifungal activity against T. mentagrophytes was not correlated to the content of flavan-3-ol monomers (r = 0.2920) and only weakly correlated for M. furfur (r = -0.53604). These results suggest that extracts rich in polymeric flavan-3-ols, recovered from V.  vinifera seeds, could be used for the treatment of skin fungal infections. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Ceanothane-type triterpenoids from Cyphostemma adenocaule

Phytochemical investigation of the methanol extract of Cyphostemma adenocaule liana (bark and wood) led to the isolation of two new ceanothane-type triterpenoids, cyphostemmic acid A 1 and cyphostemmic acid B 2, together with the known triterpenoids 3-7, β-sitosterol and its glucoside. The structures of the isolated compounds were established by 1D- and 2D-NMR spectroscopy. Ozonolysis of cyphostemmic acid A 1, epigouanic acid A 3 and betulin 6 yielded semisynthetic derivatives, cyphostemmic acid C 8, cyphostemmic acid D 9, and 3β,28-dihydroxy-30-norlupan-20-one 10 respectively. Compounds 1-4, 6, 8-10 were tested in vitro, for their antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 strain and showed weak activity.

Cissus sicyoides: Pharmacological Mechanisms Involved in the Anti-Inflammatory and Antidiarrheal Activities

The objective of this study was to evaluate the pharmacological mechanisms involved in anti-inflammatory and antidiarrheal actions of hydroalcoholic extract obtained from the leaves of Cissus sicyoides (HECS). The anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by oral administration of HECS against acute model of edema induced by xylene, and the mechanisms of action were analysed by involvement of arachidonic acid (AA) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂). The antidiarrheal effect of HECS was observed and we analyzed the motility and accumulation of intestinal fluid. We also analyzed the antidiarrheal mechanisms of action of HECS by evaluating the role of the opioid receptor, α₂ adrenergic receptor, muscarinic receptor, nitric oxide (NO) and PGE₂. The oral administration of HECS inhibited the edema induced by xylene and AA and was also able to significantly decrease the levels of PGE₂. The extract also exhibited significant anti-diarrheal activity by reducing motility and intestinal fluid accumulation. This extract significantly reduced intestinal transit stimulated by muscarinic agonist and intestinal secretion induced by PGE₂. Our data demonstrate that the mechanism of action involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of HECS is related to PGE₂. The antidiarrheal effect of this extract may be mediated by inhibition of contraction by acting on the intestinal smooth muscle and/or intestinal transit.

On the identity of Blanco's Cissus frutescens and its correct name in Melicope (Rutaceae) with neotypification of Cissus arborea Blanco

The names Cissus frutescens and Cissus arborea have a long history of confusion. Cissus frutescens Blanco belongs to the genus Melicope (Rutaceae) and we herein correct a nomenclatural mistake made by T.G. Hartley in the revision of Melicope. The name Melicope confusa (Merr.) P.S. Liu was accepted for this taxon by Hartley. However, Cissus frutescens Blanco represents the earliest name for this entity and a new combination, Melicope frutescens (Blanco) Appelhans & J.Wen is herein proposed. Neotypification of Cissus arborea Blanco is also provided.

The Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequence of Ampelopsis: Gene Organization, Comparative Analysis, and Phylogenetic Relationships to Other Angiosperms

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata is an economically important plant that belongs to the Vitaceae family of angiosperms. The phylogenetic placement of Vitaceae is still unresolved. Recent phylogenetic studies suggested that it should be placed in various alternative families including Caryophyllaceae, asteraceae, Saxifragaceae, Dilleniaceae, or with the rest of the rosid families. However, these analyses provided weak supportive results because they were based on only one of several genes. Accordingly, complete chloroplast genome sequences are required to resolve the phylogenetic relationships among angiosperms. Recent phylogenetic analyses based on the complete chloroplast genome sequence suggested strong support for the position of Vitaceae as the earliest diverging lineage of rosids and placed it as a sister to the remaining rosids. These studies also revealed relationships among several major lineages of angiosperms; however, they highlighted the significance of taxon sampling for obtaining accurate phylogenies. In the present study, we sequenced the complete chloroplast genome of A. brevipedunculata and used these data to assess the relationships among 32 angiosperms, including 18 taxa of rosids. The Ampelopsis chloroplast genome is 161,090 bp in length, and includes a pair of inverted repeats of 26,394 bp that are separated by small and large single copy regions of 19,036 bp and 89,266 bp, respectively. The gene content and order of Ampelopsis is identical to many other unrearranged angiosperm chloroplast genomes, including Vitis and tobacco. A phylogenetic tree constructed based on 70 protein-coding genes of 33 angiosperms showed that both Saxifragales and Vitaceae diverged from the rosid clade and formed two clades with 100% bootstrap value. The position of the Vitaceae is sister to Saxifragales, and both are the basal and earliest diverging lineages. Moreover, Saxifragales forms a sister clade to Vitaceae of rosids. Overall, the results of this study will contribute to better support of the evolution, molecular biology and genetic improvement of the plant Ampelopsis.

Profiling of primary metabolites and flavonols in leaves of two table grape varieties collected from semiarid and temperate regions

Cultivation of grapes in West Bank - Palestine is very old and a large number of grape varieties exist as a result of continuous domestication over thousands of years. This rich biodiversity has highly influenced the consumer behavior of local people, who consume both grape berries and leaves. However, studies that address the contents of health-promoting metabolites in leaves are scarce. Accordingly the aim of this study is to assess metabolite levels in leaves of two grape varieties that were collected from semiarid and temperate regions. Metabolic profiling was conducted using GC-MS and LC-MS. The obtained results show that abiotic stresses in the semiarid region led to clear changes in primary metabolites, in particular in amino acids, which exist at very high levels. By contrast, qualitative and genotype-dependent differences in secondary metabolites were observed, whereas abiotic stresses appear to have negligible effect on the content of these metabolites. The qualitative difference in the flavonol profiles between the two genotypes is most probably related to differential expression of specific genes, in particular flavonol 3-O-rhamnosyltransferase, flavonol-3-O-glycoside pentosyltransferases and flavonol-3-O-d-glucosidel-rhamnosyltransferase by 'Beituni' grape leaves, which led to much higher levels of flavonols with rutinoside, pentoside, and rhamnoside moieties with this genotype.

Molecular and biochemical characterization of the UDP-glucose: Anthocyanin 5-O-glucosyltransferase from Vitis amurensis

Generally, red Vitis vinifera grapes only contain monoglucosidic anthocyanins, whereas most non-vinifera red grapes of the Vitis genus have both monoglucosidic and bis-glucosidic anthocyanins, the latter of which are believed to be more hydrophilic and more stable. Although previous studies have established the biosynthetic mechanism for formation of monoglucosidic anthocyanins, less attention has been paid to that of bis-glucosidic anthocyanins. In the present research, the full-length cDNA of UDP-glucose: anthocyanin 5-O-glucosyltransferase from Vitis amurensis Rupr. cv. 'Zuoshanyi' grape (Va5GT) was cloned. After acquisition and purification of recombinant Va5GT, its enzymatic parameters were systematically analyzed in vitro. Recombinant Va5GT used malvidin-3-O-glucoside as its optimum glycosidic acceptor when UDP-glucose was used as the glycosidic donor. Va5GT-GFP was found to be located in the cytoplasm by analyzing its subcellular localization with a laser-scanning confocal fluorescence microscope, and this result was coincident with its metabolic function of modifying anthocyanins in grape cells. Furthermore, the relationship between the transcriptional expression of Va5GT and the accumulation of anthocyanidin bis-glucosides during berry development suggested that Va5GT is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of bis-glucosidic anthocyanins in V. amurensis grape berries.

Radicinin from Cochliobolus sp. inhibits Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of Pierce's Disease of grapevine

The fastidious phytopathogenic bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, poses a substantial threat to many economically important crops, causing devastating diseases including Pierce's Disease of grapevine. Grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) planted in an area under Pierce's Disease pressure often display differences in disease severity and symptom expression, with apparently healthy vines growing alongside the dying ones, despite the fact that all the vines are genetic clones of one another. Under the hypothesis that endophytic microbes might be responsible for this non-genetic resistance to X. fastidiosa, endophytic fungi were isolated from vineyard cvs. 'Chardonnay' and 'Cabernet Sauvignon' grown under high Pierce's Disease pressure. A Cochliobolus sp. isolated from a Cabernet Sauvignon grapevine inhibited the growth of X. fastidiosa in vitro. Bioassay-guided isolation of an organic extract of Cochliobolus sp. yielded the natural product radicinin as the major active compound. Radicinin also inhibited proteases isolated from the culture supernatant of X. fastidiosa. In order to assess structure-activity relationships, three semi-synthetic derivatives of radicinin were prepared and tested for activity against X. fastidiosa in vitro. Assay results of these derivatives are consistent with enzyme inactivation by conjugate addition to carbon-10 of radicinin, as proposed previously.

A new leafminer on grapevine and Rhoicissus (Vitaceae) in South Africa within an expanded generic concept of Holocacista (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Heliozelidae)

A grapevine leafminer found recently in table grape orchards and vineyards in the Paarl region (Western Cape, South Africa) is described as Holocacistacapensis sp. n. It has also been found on native Rhoicissusdigitata and bred on that species in the laboratory. It is closely related to Holocacistasalutans (Meyrick, 1921), comb. n. (from Antispila), described from Durban in KwaZulu-Natal, but widespread in southern Africa and a native leafminer of various Vitaceae: Rhoicissustomentosa, Rhoicissusdigitata, Rhoicissustridentata and Cissuscornifolia. Holocacistacapensis has been found on Vitisvinifera both in Gauteng and Western Cape, the earliest record being from 1950 in Pretoria. The initial host shift from native Vitaceae to Vitis must have occurred much earlier. The species is sometimes present in high densities, but hitherto no sizeable damage to the crops has been noted. The genus Holocacista Walsingham & Durrant, 1909, previously known from the single European grapevine leafminer Holocacistarivillei (Stainton, 1855), is expanded and redescribed and for the first time reported from Africa, East and South-East Asia and Australia. It comprises seven named species and at least 15 unnamed species. The following species are also recombined with Holocacista: transferred from Antispilina: South-African Holocacistavarii (Mey, 2011), comb. n., feeding on Pelargonium, transferred from Antispila: the Indian species Holocacistamicrarcha (Meyrick, 1926), comb. n. and Holocacistapariodelta (Meyrick, 1929), comb. n., both feeding on Lanneacoromandelica, and Holocacistaselastis (Meyrick, 1926), comb. n. on Psychotriadalzelii. We also remove the following from Antispila: Heliozelaanna (Fletcher, 1920), comb. n. and Heliozelaargyrozona (Meyrick, 1918), comb. n., whereas the following Indian Vitaceae feeding species are confirmed to belong in Antispila s. str.: Antispilaargostoma Meyrick, 1916 and Antispilaaristarcha Meyrick, 1916. Holocacistasalutans and Holocacistavarii are redescribed and diagnosed against Holocacistacapensis and other South African Heliozelidae. DNA barcodes are provided for 13 species of Holocacista.

Pharmacognostic evaluation of Cayratia trifolia (Linn.) leaf

OBJECTIVE

To present a detailed pharmacognostic study of the leaf of Cayratia trifolia (C. trifolia) Linn. (Vitaceae), an important plant in the Indian system of medicine.

METHODS

The macroscopy, microscopy, physiochemical analysis, preliminary testing, fluorescence analysis of powder of the plant and other WHO recommended methods for standardization were investigated.

RESULTS

Leaves are trifoliolated with petioles (2-3 cm) long. Leaflets are ovate to oblong-ovate, (2-8 cm) long, (1.5-5 cm) wide, pointed at the tip. The leaf surface shows the anisocytic type stomata covered with guard cells followed by epidermis layer. Leaf surface contents including veins, vein islet and vein termination were also determined. Transverse section of leaf shows the epidermis layer followed by cuticle layer and vascular bandles (xylem and phloem). The mesophyll is differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Abundant covering trichomes emerge from the upper epidermis. Trichomes are uniseriate and multicellular. Strips of collenchyma are present below and upper layer of epidermis.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that the pharmacognostic profile of the C. trifolia is helpful in developing standards for quality, purity and sample identification.

Alkaline phosphatase activity-guided isolation of active compounds and new dammarane-type triterpenes from Cissus quadrangularis hexane extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The stem of Cissus quadrangularis L. (CQ) is used in traditional medicine to treat bone fractures and swelling. Anti-osteoporotic activity of CQ hexane extract has been reported, but the active compounds in this extract remain unknown. Thus, we aimed to identify the active compounds in CQ hexane extract using bioassay-guided isolation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The CQ hexane extract was fractionated sequentially with benzene, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol. The examination of CQ extract and its fractions was guided by bioassays for alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity during the differentiation of MC3T3-E1 osteoblastic cells. The cells were treated with or without the CQ extract and its fractions for a period of time, and then the stimulatory effect of the alkaline phosphatase enzyme, a bone differentiation marker, was investigated. The compounds obtained were structurally elucidated using spectroscopic techniques and re-evaluated for activity during bone differentiation.

RESULTS

A total of 29 compounds were isolated, viz., triterpenes, fatty acid methyl esters, glycerolipids, steroids, phytols, and cerebrosides. Four new dammarane-type triterpenes were isolated for the first time from nature, and this report is the first to identify this group of compounds from the Vitaceae family. Seven compounds, viz., glycerolipids and squalene, stimulated ALP activity at a dose of 10μg/mL. Moreover, the synergistic effect of these compounds on bone formation was demonstrated.

CONCLUSION

This report describes, for the first time, the isolation of active compounds from CQ hexane extract; these active compounds will be useful for the quality control of extracts from this plant used to treat osteoporosis.

Fruit-localized photoreceptors increase phenolic compounds in berry skins of field-grown Vitis vinifera L. cv. Malbec

Sunlight exposure has multiple effect on fruits, as it affects the light climate perceived by fruit photoreceptors and fruit tissue temperature. In grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), light exposure can have a strong effect on fruit quality and commercial value; however, the mechanisms of light action are not well understood. The role of fruit-localized photoreceptors in the control of berry quality traits was evaluated under field conditions in a commercial vineyard in Mendoza (Argentina). Characterization of the diurnal dynamics of the fruit light environment in a vertical trellis system indicated that clusters were shaded by leaves during most of the photoperiod. Supplementation of the fruit light environment from 20 days before veraison until technological harvest showed that red (R, 660 nm) and blue (B, 470 nm) light strongly increased total phenolic compound levels at harvest in the berry skins without affecting sugar content, acidity or berry size. Far-red (FR, 730 nm) and green (G, 560 nm) light supplementation had relatively small effects. The stimulation of berry phytochromes and cryptochromes favored accumulation of flavonoid and non-flavonoid compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonols, flavanols, phenolic acids and stilbenes. These results demonstrate that the chemical composition of grape berries is modulated by the light quality received by the clusters under field conditions, and that fruit photoreceptors are not saturated even in areas of high insolation and under management systems that are considered to result in a relatively high exposure of fruits to solar radiation. Therefore, manipulation of the light environment or the light sensitivity of fruits could have significant effects on critical grape quality traits.

(Vitaceae) disjunct between eastern/southeastern Asia and eastern North America, with ten new combinations

The genus Nekemias (Vitaceae) was first recognized by Rafinesque in 1838. It has been treated as a synonym of Ampelopsis Michx. Recent phylogenetic studies suggest that Ampelopsis as traditionally delimited is paraphyletic. To maintain the monophyly of each of the genera of Vitaceae, we herein segregate the Ampelopsissect.Leeaceifoliae lineage from Ampelopsis and recognize these taxa in Nekemias Raf., which has a disjunct distribution in eastern to southeastern Asia and eastern North America. Nomenclatural changes are made for nine species and one variety: Nekemiasarborea (L.) J. Wen & Boggan, Nekemiascantoniensis (Hook. & Arn.) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, Nekemiascelebica (Suess.) J. Wen & Boggan, Nekemiaschaffanjonii (H. Lév. & Van.) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, Nekemiasgongshanensis (C.L. Li) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, Nekemiasgrossedentata (Hand.-Mazz.) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, Nekemiashypoglauca (Hance) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, Nekemiasmegalophylla (Diels & Gilg) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, Nekemiasmegalophyllavar.jiangxiensis (W.T. Wang) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie, and Nekemiasrubifolia (Wall.) J. Wen & Z.L. Nie. A taxonomic key is provided for the genus to facilitate identification.

Orthology inference in nonmodel organisms using transcriptomes and low-coverage genomes: improving accuracy and matrix occupancy for phylogenomics

Orthology inference is central to phylogenomic analyses. Phylogenomic data sets commonly include transcriptomes and low-coverage genomes that are incomplete and contain errors and isoforms. These properties can severely violate the underlying assumptions of orthology inference with existing heuristics. We present a procedure that uses phylogenies for both homology and orthology assignment. The procedure first uses similarity scores to infer putative homologs that are then aligned, constructed into phylogenies, and pruned of spurious branches caused by deep paralogs, misassembly, frameshifts, or recombination. These final homologs are then used to identify orthologs. We explore four alternative tree-based orthology inference approaches, of which two are new. These accommodate gene and genome duplications as well as gene tree discordance. We demonstrate these methods in three published data sets including the grape family, Hymenoptera, and millipedes with divergence times ranging from approximately 100 to over 400 Ma. The procedure significantly increased the completeness and accuracy of the inferred homologs and orthologs. We also found that data sets that are more recently diverged and/or include more high-coverage genomes had more complete sets of orthologs. To explicitly evaluate sources of conflicting phylogenetic signals, we applied serial jackknife analyses of gene regions keeping each locus intact. The methods described here can scale to over 100 taxa. They have been implemented in python with independent scripts for each step, making it easy to modify or incorporate them into existing pipelines. All scripts are available from https://bitbucket.org/yangya/phylogenomic_dataset_construction.

Volatile organic compounds characterized from grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Malbec) berries increase at pre-harvest and in response to UV-B radiation

Ultraviolet-B solar radiation (UV-B) is an environmental signal with biological effects in plant tissues. Recent investigations have assigned a protective role of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in plant tissues submitted to biotic and abiotic stresses. This study investigated VOCs in berries at three developmental stages (veraison, pre-harvest and harvest) of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Malbec exposed (or not) to UV-B both, in in vitro and field experiments. By Head Space-Solid Phase Micro Extraction-Gas Chromatography-Electron Impact Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-EIMS) analysis, 10 VOCs were identified at all developmental stages: four monoterpenes, three aldehydes, two alcohols and one ketone. Monoterpenes increased at pre-harvest and in response to UV-B in both, in vitro and field conditions. UV-B also augmented levels of some aldehydes, alcohols and ketones. These results along with others from the literature suggest that UV-B induce grape berries to produce VOCs (mainly monoterpenes) that protect the tissues from UV-B itself and other abiotic and biotic stresses, and could affect the wine flavor. Higher emission of monoterpenes was observed in the field experiments as compared in vitro, suggesting the UV-B/PAR ratio is not a signal in itself.