1
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Barboza LJ, Rocha KN, de Jesus DP. Simple, fast, and simultaneous determination of orthophosphate, pyrophosphate, and tripolyphosphate by capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection. Electrophoresis 2024. [PMID: 38607366 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202400028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
This work describes a novel analytical method using capillary electrophoresis (CE) with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4D) for simultaneous, simple, and rapid determination of three inorganic phosphates (orthophosphate, pyrophosphate, and tripolyphosphate) widely used as food additives and in pharmaceutical formulations. A background electrolyte composed of 0.5 mol L-1 acetic acid provided fast separation (around 3.0 min) and good separation efficiency and peak resolution. Linearity in the concentration range of 10-500 mg L-1 was confirmed by the coefficients of determination (R2) higher than 0.99. The limits of detection varied from 0.41 to 0.58 mg L-1. The accuracy of the proposed method was assessed by recovery tests conducted at three concentration levels in tap water samples, food, and personal hygiene products. Recovery values varying from 81% to 118% were achieved, indicating an acceptable accuracy. The proposed CE-C4D successfully determined the three inorganic phosphates in the analyzed samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa J Barboza
- Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kionnys N Rocha
- Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Dosil P de Jesus
- Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Bioanalítica, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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2
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Shan Y, Hao H, Yin Y, Hu N, Zhan M, Ma D, Yin Y, Jiao W, Wick LY. Effects of Temperature and DC Electric Fields on Perfluorooctanoic Acid Sorption Kinetics to Activated Carbon. Environ Sci Technol 2024; 58:5987-5995. [PMID: 38504492 PMCID: PMC10993889 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Sorption to activated carbon is a common approach to reducing environmental risks of waterborne perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), while effective and flexible approaches to PFOA sorption are needed. Variations in temperature or the use of electrokinetic phenomena (electroosmosis and electromigration) in the presence of external DC electric fields have been shown to alter the contaminant sorption of contaminants. Their role in PFOA sorption, however, remains unclear. Here, we investigated the joint effects of DC electric fields and the temperature on the sorption of PFOA on activated carbon. Temperature-dependent batch and column sorption experiments were performed in the presence and absence of DC fields, and the results were evaluated by using different kinetic sorption models. We found an emerging interplay of DC and temperature on PFOA sorption, which was linked via the liquid viscosity (η) of the electrolyte. For instance, the combined presence of a DC field and low temperature increased the PFOA loading up to 38% in 48 h relative to DC-free controls. We further developed a model that allowed us to predict temperature- and DC field strength-dependent electrokinetic benefits on the drivers of PFOA sorption kinetics (i.e., intraparticle diffusivity and the film mass transfer coefficient). Our insights may give rise to future DC- and temperature-driven applications for PFOA sorption, for instance, in response to fluctuating PFOA concentrations in contaminated water streams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongping Shan
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Huijuan Hao
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yuzhou Yin
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Naiwen Hu
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Mingxiu Zhan
- College
of Metrology and Measurement Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China
| | - Dong Ma
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yongguang Yin
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Wentao Jiao
- Research
Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Lukas Y. Wick
- Department
of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz
Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig 04318, Germany
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3
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Kuo CY, Zhu JH, Chiu YP, Ni IC, Chen MH, Wu YR, Wu CI. Graphene-All-Around Cobalt Interconnect with a Back-End-of-Line Compatible Process. Nano Lett 2024; 24:2102-2109. [PMID: 38295289 PMCID: PMC10870778 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c04833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The graphene-all-around (GAA) structure has been verified to grow directly at 380 °C using hot-wire chemical vapor deposition, within the thermal budget of the back end of the line (BEOL). The cobalt (Co) interconnects with the GAA structure have demonstrated a 10.8% increase in current density, a 27% reduction in resistance, and a 36 times longer electromigration lifetime. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations have revealed the presence of bonding between carbon and Co, which makes the Co atom more stable to resist external forces. The ability of graphene to act as a diffusion barrier in the GAA structure was confirmed through time-dependent dielectric breakdown measurement. The Co interconnect within the GAA structure exhibits enhanced electrical properties and reliability, which indicates compatibility applications as next-generation interconnect materials in CMOS BEOL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Yuan Kuo
- Graduate
Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical
Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Heng Zhu
- Graduate
Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical
Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Ping Chiu
- Graduate
Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical
Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - I-Chih Ni
- Graduate
Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical
Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Hsin Chen
- Department
of Electro-Optical Engineering, National
Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Yuh-Renn Wu
- Graduate
Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical
Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Chih-I Wu
- Graduate
Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical
Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
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4
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Leitherer S, Brandbyge M, Solomon GC. Electromigration Forces on Atoms on Graphene Nanoribbons: The Role of Adsorbate-Surface Bonding. JACS Au 2024; 4:189-196. [PMID: 38274269 PMCID: PMC10806770 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.3c00622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
The synthesis of the two-dimensional (2D) material graphene and nanostructures derived from graphene has opened up an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of chemistry, physics, and materials science. In this field, it is an open question whether intuition derived from molecular or extended solid-state systems governs the physical properties of these materials. In this work, we study the electromigration force on atoms on 2D armchair graphene nanoribbons in an electric field using ab initio simulation techniques. Our findings show that the forces are related to the induced charges in the adsorbate-surface bonds rather than only to the induced atomic charges, and the left and right effective bond order can be used to predict the force direction. Focusing in particular on 3d transition metal atoms, we show how a simple model of a metal atom on benzene can explain the forces in an inorganic chemistry picture. This study demonstrates that atom migration on 2D surfaces in electric fields is governed by a picture that is different from the commonly used electrostatic description of a charged particle in an electric field as the underlying bonding and molecular orbital structure become relevant for the definition of electromigration forces. Accordingly extended models including the ligand field of the atoms might provide a better understanding of adsorbate diffusion on surfaces under nonequilibrium conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Leitherer
- Nano-Science
Center and Department of Chemistry, University
of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mads Brandbyge
- Department
of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens
Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Gemma C. Solomon
- Nano-Science
Center and Department of Chemistry, Copenhagen
University, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- NNF
Quantum Computing Programme, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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5
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Singh AK, Chakrabarti S, Vilan A, Smogunov A, Tal O. Electrically Controlled Bimetallic Junctions for Atomic-Scale Electronics. Nano Lett 2023; 23:7775-7781. [PMID: 37603598 PMCID: PMC10510575 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c00508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Forming atomic-scale contacts with attractive geometries and material compositions is a long-term goal of nanotechnology. Here, we show that a rich family of bimetallic atomic-contacts can be fabricated in break-junction setups. The structure and material composition of these contacts can be controlled by atomically precise electromigration, where the metal types of the electron-injecting and sink electrodes determine the type of atoms added to, or subtracted from, the contact structure. The formed bimetallic structures include, for example, platinum and aluminum electrodes bridged by an atomic chain composed of platinum and aluminum atoms as well as iron-nickel single-atom contacts that act as a spin-valve break junction without the need for sophisticated spin-valve geometries. The versatile nature of atomic contacts in bimetallic junctions and the ability to control their structure by electromigration can be used to expand the structural variety of atomic and molecular junctions and their span of properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Kumar Singh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Sudipto Chakrabarti
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
- Surface Physics and Material Science Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata 700064, India
| | - Ayelet Vilan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Alexander Smogunov
- SPEC, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette 91191, France
| | - Oren Tal
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
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6
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Yang SC, Tran DP, Chen C. Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Cu-Cu Joints under Electromigration at Low Temperatures. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:5822. [PMID: 37687515 PMCID: PMC10488382 DOI: 10.3390/ma16175822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
The behavior of recrystallization and grain growth was examined in Cu-Cu joints during electromigration at 150 °C. Recrystallization and grain growth were observed in all the joints after electromigration for 9000 h. Voiding was formed in Cu current-feeding lines and in bonding interfaces, and resistance increased with time due to the void formation. However, instead of rising abruptly, the resistance of certain Cu joints dropped after 7000 h. Microstructural analysis revealed that a large grain growth occurred in these joints at 150 °C, and the bonding interface was eliminated. Therefore, the electromigration lifetime can be prolonged for these joints.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chih Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan; (S.-C.Y.); (D.-P.T.)
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7
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Moon JH, Jeong E, Kim S, Kim T, Oh E, Lee K, Han H, Kim YK. Materials Quest for Advanced Interconnect Metallization in Integrated Circuits. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2023; 10:e2207321. [PMID: 37318187 PMCID: PMC10427378 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202207321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Integrated circuits (ICs) are challenged to deliver historically anticipated performance improvements while increasing the cost and complexity of the technology with each generation. Front-end-of-line (FEOL) processes have provided various solutions to this predicament, whereas the back-end-of-line (BEOL) processes have taken a step back. With continuous IC scaling, the speed of the entire chip has reached a point where its performance is determined by the performance of the interconnect that bridges billions of transistors and other devices. Consequently, the demand for advanced interconnect metallization rises again, and various aspects must be considered. This review explores the quest for new materials for successfully routing nanoscale interconnects. The challenges in the interconnect structures as physical dimensions shrink are first explored. Then, various problem-solving options are considered based on the properties of materials. New materials are also introduced for barriers, such as 2D materials, self-assembled molecular layers, high-entropy alloys, and conductors, such as Co and Ru, intermetallic compounds, and MAX phases. The comprehensive discussion of each material includes state-of-the-art studies ranging from the characteristics of materials by theoretical calculation to process applications to the current interconnect structures. This review intends to provide a materials-based implementation strategy to bridge the gap between academia and industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hwan Moon
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
| | - Eunjin Jeong
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghyun Kim
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
| | - Taesoon Kim
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
| | - Eunsoo Oh
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
| | - Keun Lee
- Semiconductor R&D centerSamsung Electronics Co., Ltd.Gyeonggi‐do18448Republic of Korea
| | - Hauk Han
- Semiconductor R&D centerSamsung Electronics Co., Ltd.Gyeonggi‐do18448Republic of Korea
| | - Young Keun Kim
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
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8
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Tian W, Gao R, Gu L, Ji H, Zhou L. Three-Dimensional Integrated Fan-Out Wafer-Level Package Micro-Bump Electromigration Study. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:1255. [PMID: 37374840 DOI: 10.3390/mi14061255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
To meet the demands for miniaturization and multi-functional and high-performance electronics applications, the semiconductor industry has shifted its packaging approach to multi-chip vertical stacking. Among the advanced packaging technologies for high-density interconnects, the most persistent factor affecting their reliability is the electromigration (EM) problem on the micro-bump. The operating temperature and the operating current density are the main factors affecting the EM phenomenon. Therefore, when a micro-bump structure is in the electrothermal environment, the EM failure mechanism of the high-density integrated packaging structure must be studied. To investigate the relationship between loading conditions and EM failure time in micro-bump structures, this study established an equivalent model of the vertical stacking structure of fan-out wafer-level packages. Then, the electrothermal interaction theory was used to carry out numerical simulations in an electrothermal environment. Finally, the MTTF equation was invoked, with Sn63Pb37 as the bump material, and the relationship between the operating environment and EM lifetime was investigated. The results showed that the current aggregation was the location where the bump structure was most susceptible to EM failure. The accelerating effect of the temperature on the EM failure time was more obvious at a current density of 3.5 A/cm2, which was 27.51% shorter than 4.5 A/cm2 at the same temperature difference. When the current density exceeded 4.5 A/cm2, the change in the failure time was not obvious, and the maximum critical value of the micro-bump failure was 4 A/cm2~4.5 A/cm2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenchao Tian
- Hangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Hangzhou 311231, China
- School of Electro-Mechnical Engineering, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China
| | - Ran Gao
- Hangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Hangzhou 311231, China
| | - Lin Gu
- Zhongkexin Integrated Circuit Co., Wuxi 214035, China
| | - Haoyue Ji
- School of Electro-Mechnical Engineering, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China
- Zhongkexin Integrated Circuit Co., Wuxi 214035, China
| | - Liming Zhou
- Yangzhou Yangjie Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., Yangzhou 225008, China
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9
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He X, Chen W, Sun F, Jiang Z, Li B, Li XY, Lin L. Enhanced NH 4+ Removal and Recovery from Wastewater Using Na-Zeolite-based Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization: Insight from Ion Transport Flux. Environ Sci Technol 2023. [PMID: 37246552 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c02286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) is a promising electromembrane technology for wastewater treatment and materials recovery. In this study, we used low-cost Na-modified zeolite (Na-zeolite) to prepare a composite flow-electrode (FE) suspension with a small amount of highly conductive carbon black (CB) to remove and recover NH4+ from synthetic and actual wastewater (200 mg-N/L). Compared with conventional activated carbon (AC), the Na-zeolite electrode exhibited a 56.2-88.5% decrease in liquid-phase NH4+ concentration in the FE suspension due to its higher NH4+ adsorption capacity (6.0 vs. 0.2 mg-N/g). The resulting enhancement of NH4+ diffusion to the electrode chamber contributed to the improved performance of FCDI under both constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) conditions. The addition of CB to the FE suspension increased the conductivity and facilitated Na-zeolite charging for NH4+ electrosorption, especially in CV mode. NH4+-rich zeolite can be easily separated by sedimentation from CB in the FE suspension, producing a soil conditioner with a high N-fertilizer content suitable for soil improvement and agricultural applications. Overall, our study demonstrates that the novel Na-zeolite-based FCDI can be developed as an effective wastewater treatment technology for both NH4+ removal and recovery as a valuable fertilizer resource.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin He
- Environmental Science and New Energy Technology Research Center, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Laboratory for Sludge and Food Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Wutong Chen
- Environmental Science and New Energy Technology Research Center, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Laboratory for Sludge and Food Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Feiyun Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zekai Jiang
- Environmental Science and New Energy Technology Research Center, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Laboratory for Sludge and Food Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Bing Li
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Laboratory for Sludge and Food Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xiao-Yan Li
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Laboratory for Sludge and Food Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Lin Lin
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Laboratory for Sludge and Food Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
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Badea SL, Niculescu VC, Iordache AM. New Trends in Separation Techniques of Lithium Isotopes: A Review of Chemical Separation Methods. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:ma16103817. [PMID: 37241444 DOI: 10.3390/ma16103817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
In terms of isotopic technologies, it is essential to be able to produce materials with an enriched isotopic abundance (i.e., a compound isotopic labelled with 2H, 13C, 6Li, 18O or 37Cl), which is one that differs from natural abundance. The isotopic-labelled compounds can be used to study different natural processes (like compounds labelled with 2H, 13C, or 18O), or they can be used to produce other isotopes as in the case of 6Li, which can be used to produce 3H, or to produce LiH that acts like a protection shield against fast neutrons. At the same time, 7Li isotope can be used as a pH controller in nuclear reactors. The COLEX process, which is currently the only technology available to produce 6Li at industrial scale, has environmental drawbacks due to generation of Hg waste and vapours. Therefore, there is a need for new eco-friendly technologies for separation of 6Li. The separation factor of 6Li/7Li with chemical extraction methods in two liquid phases using crown ethers is comparable to that of COLEX method, but has the disadvantages of low distribution coefficient of Li and the loss of crown ethers during the extraction. Electrochemical separation of lithium isotopes through the difference in migration rates between 6Li and 7Li is one of the green and promising alternatives for the separation of lithium isotopes, but this methodology requires complicated experimental setup and optimisation. Displacement chromatography methods like ion exchange in different experimental configurations have been also applied to enrich 6Li with promising results. Besides separation methods, there is also a need for development of new analysis methods (ICP-MS, MC-ICP-MS, TIMS) for reliable determination of Li isotope ratios upon enrichment. Considering all the above-mentioned facts, this paper will try to emphasize the current trends in separation techniques of lithium isotopes by exposing all the chemical separation and spectrometric analysis methods, and highlighting their advantages and disadvantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silviu-Laurentiu Badea
- National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenic and Isotopic Technologies, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania
| | - Violeta-Carolina Niculescu
- National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenic and Isotopic Technologies, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania
| | - Andreea-Maria Iordache
- National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenic and Isotopic Technologies, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania
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11
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Zhang C, Zhang K, Gao Y, Wang Y. Study on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties at Constant Electromigration Temperature of Sn2.5Ag0.7Cu0.1RE0.05Ni-GNSs/Cu Solder Joints. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:2626. [PMID: 37048920 PMCID: PMC10095658 DOI: 10.3390/ma16072626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
To solve the electromigration problem of micro-electronic connection solder joints, an ideal electromigration tester was designed, and the thickness of the intermetallic compounds (IMCs), average void diameter, grain orientation, failure, shear strength, and fracture path of Sn2.5Ag0.7Cu0.1RE0.05Ni-GNSs/Cu solder joints under constant-temperature electromigration were studied. The results indicate that the solder joints show evidence of typical electromigration polarity in the asymmetric growth of interfacial IMCs on the anode and cathode sides under the conditions of a current density ≥7 × 103 A/cm2 and an included angle between the c-axis of the β-Sn grains and the current direction θ ≤ 53.2°. The anode-side interfacial IMC is dominated by a Cu6Sn5 phase with a gradually increasing thickness, forming a Cu3Sn phase and showing evidence of microcracks. The Cu6Sn5 phase of the cathode-side interfacial IMC is gradually completely dissolved, and the growth of the Cu3Sn phase is accompanied by the formation of Kirkendall voids. The anisotropic diffusion of Cu atoms in the β-Sn of the micro-solder joints causes increased solder joint resistance and reduced shear strength. The shear fracture path of the solder joints moves from the cathode side near the IMC solder seam to the Cu3Sn interface. The shear fracture mechanism changes from ductile transgranular fracture dominated by β-Sn dimples to brittle fracture dominated by interfacial IMC cleavage and slip steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China
| | - Keke Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China
- Provincial and Ministerial Co-Construction of Collaborative Innovation Center for Non-Ferrous Metal New Materials and Advanced Processing Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Yijie Gao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China
| | - Yuming Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China
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12
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Rodríguez B, Dolado J, López-Sánchez J, Hidalgo P, Méndez B. Room Temperature Polymorphism in WO 3 Produced by Resistive Heating of W Wires. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2023; 13:884. [PMID: 36903762 PMCID: PMC10005162 DOI: 10.3390/nano13050884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphous WO3 micro- and nanostructures have been synthesized by the controlled Joule heating of tungsten wires under ambient conditions in a few seconds. The growth on the wire surface is assisted by the electromigration process and it is further enhanced by the application of an external electric field through a pair of biased parallel copper plates. In this case, a high amount of WO3 material is also deposited on the copper electrodes, consisting of a few cm2 area. The temperature measurements of the W wire agrees with the values calculated by a finite element model, which has allowed us to establish the threshold density current to trigger the WO3 growth. The structural characterization of the produced microstructures accounts for the γ-WO3 (monoclinic I), which is the common stable phase at room temperature, along with low temperature phases, known as δ-WO3 (triclinic) on structures formed on the wire surface and ϵ-WO3 (monoclinic II) on material deposited on external electrodes. These phases allow for a high oxygen vacancies concentration, which is interesting in photocatalysis and sensing applications. The results could help to design experiments to produce oxide nanomaterials from other metal wires by this resistive heating method with scaling-up potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Rodríguez
- Departament Physics of Materials, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University Complutense of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jaime Dolado
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Jesus López-Sánchez
- Spanish CRG BM25 Beamline-SpLine at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Pedro Hidalgo
- Departament Physics of Materials, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University Complutense of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Bianchi Méndez
- Departament Physics of Materials, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University Complutense of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Cui H, Tian W, Zhang Y, Chen Z. The Study of the Reliability of Complex Components during the Electromigration Process. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:499. [PMID: 36984906 PMCID: PMC10051856 DOI: 10.3390/mi14030499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
With the increasing number of inputs and outputs, and the decreasing interconnection spacing, electrical interconnection failures caused by electromigration (EM) have attracted more and more attention. The electromigration reliability and failure mechanism of complex components were studied in this paper. The failure mechanism and reliability of complex components during the electromigration process were studied through the simulation and the experiment, which can overcome the limitation of experimental measurement at a micro-scale. The simulation results indicated that the solder joint has obvious current crowding at the current inlet, which will significantly enhance the electromigration effect. Based on the atomic flux divergence method, the void formation of solder joints can be effectively predicted, and life prediction can be more accurate than Black's equation. Experimental results indicated that the resistance of the daisy chain could be significantly increased with the process of void formation in the solder and corrosion of the leads. Moreover, the growth of intermetallic compounds can be obviously promoted under current stress. The main composition of the intermetallic compounds changes from almost entirely Cu5Sn6 to Cu5Sn6 and Cu3Sn; the cracks can be detected at the Cu3Sn layer. Specifically, the mean time to failure is 1065 h under 1.4 A current and 125 °C based on IPC-9701A guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Cui
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-029-8820-3040
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14
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Hauser J, Rothhardt D, Pfender-Siedle R, Hoffmann-Vogel R. Shell effects and free-electrons in electromigrated oxidized Cu-nanocontacts. Nanotechnology 2023; 34:175703. [PMID: 36701800 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/acb654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Electromigration in interconnects continues to be an important field of study in integrated circuits as the interconnects are planned to shrink in size at comparable pace as the semiconductor functional elements. Through shrinking the interconnects approach the regime where quantum size effects become important. The observation of quantum size and shell effects is usually restricted either to low-temperatures or vacuum conditions or to chemically inert materials such as Au. Here, we show that in electromigrated Cu nanocontacts such effects can be observed at room temperature and room pressure even in the presence of oxidation. Our data provide evidence that the nanocontacts are nearly spherical objects with a triangular-cylindrical symmetry of their electronic wave functions with a stronger free-electron-like character compared to previous results. We do not observe a detrimental effect of oxygen. The presence of shell effects has implications for the technological use of Cu nanocontacts as interconnects in integrated circuits and could lead to the use of electronic wave functions of shells in such interconnects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Hauser
- Physikalisches Institut, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Daniel Rothhardt
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Potsdam, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Robert Pfender-Siedle
- Physikalisches Institut, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Regina Hoffmann-Vogel
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Potsdam, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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15
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Fu Z, Chen J, Zhao P, Guo X, Xiao Q, Fu X, Wang J, Yang C, Xu J, Yang JY. Interfacial Reaction and Electromigration Failure of Cu Pillar/Ni/Sn-Ag/Cu Microbumps under Bidirectional Current Stressing. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:1134. [PMID: 36770139 PMCID: PMC9920230 DOI: 10.3390/ma16031134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The electromigration behavior of microbumps is inevitably altered under bidirectional currents. Herein, based on a designed test system, the effect of current direction and time proportion of forward current is investigated on Cu Pillar/Ni/Sn-1.8 Ag/Cu microbumps. Under thermo-electric stressing, microbumps are found to be susceptible to complete alloying to Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn. As a Ni layer prevents the contact of the Cu pillar with the solder, Sn atoms mainly react with the Cu pad, and the growth of Cu3Sn is concentrated on the Cu pad sides. With direct current densities of 3.5 × 104 A/cm2 at 125 °C, the dissolution of a Ni layer on the cathode leads to a direct contact reaction between the Cu pillar and the solder, and the consumption of the Cu pillar and the Cu pad shows an obvious polarity difference. However, with a bidirectional current, there is a canceling effect of an atomic electromigration flux. With current densities of 2.5 × 104 A/cm2 at 125 °C, as the time proportion of the forward current approaches 50%, a polarity structural evolution will be hard to detect, and the influence of the chemical flux on Cu-Sn compounds will be more obvious. The mechanical properties of Cu/Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu/Cu are analyzed at 125 °C with direct and bidirectional currents of 1.0 × 104 A/cm2. Compared with high-temperature stressing, the coupled direct currents significantly reduced the mechanical strength of the interconnects, and the Cu-Sn compound layers on the cathode became the vulnerable spot. While under bidirectional currents, as the canceling effect of the electromigration flux intensifies, the interconnect shear strength gradually increases, and the fracture location is no longer concentrated on the cathode sides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Fu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Jian Chen
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Pengfei Zhao
- School of Microelectronics, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
| | - Xiaotong Guo
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Qingzhong Xiao
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Xing Fu
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Jian Wang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Chao Yang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
- Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, China Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing Research Institute, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Jile Xu
- Jiaxing Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics Based Intelligent Sensing and Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Institute of Flexible Electronics Technology of THU, Jiaxing 314000, China
| | - Jia-Yue Yang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
- Optics & Thermal Radiation Research Center, Institute of Frontier and Interdisciplinary Science, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
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16
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Lin YJ, Huang CS, Tsai PC, Hsiao YL, Chen CY, Jou JH. Minor Copper-Doped Aluminum Alloy Enabling Long-Lifetime Organic Light-Emitting Diodes. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2022; 14:55898-55904. [PMID: 36485031 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c18275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Aluminum has been extensively used as a conductor material in numerous electronic devices, including solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic LEDs (OLEDs), and thin-film transistors. However, its spiking surface and easy electromigration have limited its performance. To overcome this, a trace amount of nonprecious copper dopant has been proven effective in enhancing device reliability. Nevertheless, a comprehensive investigation regarding the effect of copper doping on the morphology at the aluminum conductor-organic interface is yet to be done. We had hence fabricated a series of green OLED devices to probe how copper doping affected the aluminum conductor, morphologically and electrically, and the corresponding device's efficiency and lifetime performance. We found 4 wt % copper doping to be highly effective in enabling a spike-less and smoother aluminum interface, which in turn enabled the fabrication of devices with much higher efficiency and lifetime. Specifically, the corresponding power efficacy at 1000 cd/m2 was increased from 32 to 42 lm/W and the lifetime increased from 75 to 263 h, an increment of 250%. Atomic force microscopy confirmed that the copper doping did help smooth out the conductor interface as deposited and reduce electromigration upon operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Jie Lin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chia-Sheng Huang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Pei-Chung Tsai
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Lun Hsiao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cheng-Yu Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jwo-Huei Jou
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
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17
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Weng WL, Chen HY, Ting YH, Chen HYT, Wu WW, Tu KN, Liao CN. Twin-Boundary Reduced Surface Diffusion on Electrically Stressed Copper Nanowires. Nano Lett 2022; 22:9071-9076. [PMID: 36342418 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c03437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Surface diffusion is intimately correlated with crystal orientation and surface structure. Fast surface diffusion accelerates phase transformation and structural evolution of materials. Here, through in situ transmission electron microscopy observation, we show that a copper nanowire with dense nanoscale coherent twin-boundary (CTB) defects evolves into a zigzag configuration under electric-current driven surface diffusion. The hindrance at the CTB-intercepted concave triple junctions decreases the effective surface diffusivity by almost 1 order of magnitude. The energy barriers for atomic migration at the concave junctions and different faceted surfaces are computed using density functional theory. We proposed that such a stable zigzag surface is shaped not only by the high-diffusivity facets but also by the stalled atomic diffusion at the concave junctions. This finding provides a defect-engineering route to develop robust interconnect materials against electromigration-induced failures for nanoelectronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Lun Weng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsin-Yu Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yi-Hsin Ting
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsin-Yi Tiffany Chen
- Department of Engineering and System Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Wen-Wei Wu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu30013, Taiwan, ROC
| | - King-Ning Tu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Electrical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Chien-Neng Liao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu30013, Taiwan, ROC
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18
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Gidudu B, Chirwa EMN. The Role of pH, Electrodes, Surfactants, and Electrolytes in Electrokinetic Remediation of Contaminated Soil. Molecules 2022; 27:7381. [PMID: 36364207 PMCID: PMC9657640 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27217381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrokinetic remediation has, in recent years, shown great potential in remediating polluted environments. The technology can efficiently remove heavy metals, chlorophenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, phenols, trichloroethane, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) compounds and entire petroleum hydrocarbons. Electrokinetic remediation makes use of electrolysis, electroosmosis, electrophoresis, diffusion, and electromigration as the five fundamental processes in achieving decontamination of polluted environments. These five processes depend on pH swings, voltage, electrodes, and electrolytes used in the electrochemical system. To apply this technology at the field scale, it is necessary to pursue the design of effective processes with low environmental impact to meet global sustainability standards. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the roles of the fundamental processes and their interactions in achieving effective and sustainable electrokinetic remediation in order to identify cleaner alternative solutions. This paper presents an overview of different processes involved in electrokinetic remediation with a focus on the effect of pH, electrodes, surfactants, and electrolytes that are applied in the remediation of contaminated soil and how these can be combined with cleaner technologies or alternative additives to achieve sustainable electrokinetic remediation. The electrokinetic phenomenon is described, followed by an evaluation of the impact of pH, surfactants, voltage, electrodes, and electrolytes in achieving effective and sustainable remediation.
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19
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Hsu PN, Lee DL, Tran DP, Shie KC, Tsou NT, Chen C. Effect of Tin Grain Orientation on Electromigration-Induced Dissolution of Ni Metallization in SnAg Solder Joints. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:7115. [PMID: 36295180 PMCID: PMC9605473 DOI: 10.3390/ma15207115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, symmetrical solder joints (Cu/Ni/SnAg2.3/Ni/Cu) were fabricated. They were electromigration (EM)-stressed at high (8 × 104 A/cm2) or low (1.6 × 104 A/cm2) current densities. Failures in the solder joints with different grain orientations under EM stressing were then characterized. Results show that Ni under-bump-metallurgy (UBM) was quickly dissolved into the solder joints possessing low angles between Sn c-axis and electron direction and massive NiCuSn intermetallic compounds formed in the Sn matrix. The diffusion rate of Ni increased with decreasing orientation grain angle. A theoretical model was also established to analyze the consumption rate of Ni UBM. Good agreement between the modeling and experimental results was obtained. Additionally, we found that voids were more likely to form in the solder joints under high EM stressing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Ning Hsu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Dai-Lung Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Dinh-Phuc Tran
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Cheng Shie
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Nien-Ti Tsou
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Chih Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
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20
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Zhang Y, Zhang J, Wang Y, Fang Y. Effect of Grain Structure and Ni/Au-UBM Layer on Electromigration-Induced Failure Mechanism in Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu Solder Joints. Micromachines (Basel) 2022; 13:953. [PMID: 35744565 DOI: 10.3390/mi13060953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The development of advanced electronic devices leads to highly miniaturized interconnect circuits (ICs), which significantly increases the electromigration (EM) phenomenon of solder and circuits due to higher current density. The electromigration of solder joints under high current density has become a severe reliability concern in terms of microelectronic product reliability. The microstructure of the solder plays an important role in the electromigration induced degradation. In this study, Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder bumps with Ni/Au under bump metallization (UBM) layer were fabricated and electromigration acceleration tests were conducted under current density of 1.4 × 104 A/cm2 and 120 °C to investigate the effect of grain structure and Ni/Au-UBM layer on EM-induced failure. Grain structures of solder bumps were determined by utilizing the Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) technique, and single-crystal solder, single-crystal dominated solder, and polycrystalline solder are observed in different test samples. According to the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images, it is observed that the Ni/Au-UBM layer of the Cu pad can inhibit atom diffusion between solder bump and Cu pad, which reduces the consumption of Cu pad but causes a large void and crack at the interface. The EM lifetime of single crystal solder bumps is lower than that of polycrystalline solder bumps when the c-axis of single crystal solder bumps is perpendicular to the electron flow direction. Additionally, the single crystal structure will increase the brittleness of the solder bump, and cracks are easily generated and expanded under the stress caused by the mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients between the solder bump and Ni/Au-UBM layer near Cu pad. Polycrystalline solder bumps with a higher misorientation angle (15-55°) have a higher atom diffusion rate, which will result in the acceleration of the EM-induced failure.
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21
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Cui Z, Zhang Y, Hu D, Vollebregt S, Fan J, Fan X, Zhang G. Effects of temperature and grain size on diffusivity of aluminium: electromigration experiment and molecular dynamic simulation. J Phys Condens Matter 2022; 34:175401. [PMID: 35030543 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ac4b7f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the atomic diffusion features in metallic material is significant to explain the diffusion-controlled physical processes. In this paper, using electromigration experiments and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, we investigate the effects of grain size and temperature on the self-diffusion of polycrystalline aluminium (Al). The mass transport due to electromigration are accelerated by increasing temperature and decreasing grain size. Magnitudes of effective diffusivity (Deff) and grain boundary diffusivity (DGBs) are experimentally determined, in which theDeffchanges as a function of grain size and temperature, butDGBsis independent of the grain size, only affected by the temperature. Moreover, MD simulations of atomic diffusion in polycrystalline Al demonstrate those observations from experiments. Based on MD results, the Arrhenius equation ofDGBsand empirical formula of the thickness of grain boundaries at various temperatures are obtained. In total,DeffandDGBsobtained in the present study agree with literature results, and a comprehensive result of diffusivities related to the grain size is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Cui
- Department of Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Yaqian Zhang
- Department of Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Dong Hu
- Department of Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Sten Vollebregt
- Department of Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jiajie Fan
- Academy for Engineering & Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuejun Fan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, PO Box 10028, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX 77710, United States of America
| | - Guoqi Zhang
- Department of Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands
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22
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Wang R, Zhang J, Tang CY, Lin S. Understanding Selectivity in Solute-Solute Separation: Definitions, Measurements, and Comparability. Environ Sci Technol 2022; 56:2605-2616. [PMID: 35072469 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c06176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The development of membranes capable of precise solute-solute separation is still in its burgeoning stage without a standardized protocol for evaluating selectivity. Three types of membrane processes with different driving forces, including pressure-driven filtration, concentration difference-driven diffusion, and electric field-driven ion migration, have been applied in this study to characterize solute-solute selectivity of a commercial nanofiltration membrane. Our results demonstrated that selectivity values measured using different methods, or even different conditions with the same method, are generally not comparable. The cross-method incomparability is true for both apparent selectivity, defined as the ratio between concentration-normalized fluxes, and the more intrinsic selectivity, defined as the ratio between the permeabilities of solutes through the active separation layer. The difference in selectivity measured using different methods possibly stems from the fundamental differences in the driving force of ion transport, the effect of water transport, and the interaction between cations and anions. We further demonstrated the difference in selectivity measured using feed solutions containing single-salt species and that containing mixed salts. A consistent protocol with standardized testing conditions to facilitate fair performance comparison between studies is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoyu Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235-1831, United States
| | - Junwei Zhang
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Shihong Lin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235-1831, United States
- Department of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235-1831, United States
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23
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Xu K, Fu X, Wang X, Fu Z, Yang X, Chen S, Shi Y, Huang Y, Chen H. The Effect of Grain Orientation of β-Sn on Copper Pillar Solder Joints during Electromigration. Materials (Basel) 2021; 15:ma15010108. [PMID: 35009255 PMCID: PMC8745900 DOI: 10.3390/ma15010108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The grain orientation of Sn-based solder joints on copper pillars under the combined action of electron wind force and temperature gradient greatly affects their electromigration damage. The copper pillars with Sn-1.8Ag lead-free solder on the top was subjected to a current density of 1.5 × 104 A/cm2 at 125 °C to study the electromigration behaviors. The grain orientation was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) detector. Metal dissolution and voids formation in the cathode as well as massive intermetallic compounds(IMC) accumulation in the anode were observed after electromigration. Closer examination of solder joints revealed that the Sn grain whose c-axis perpendicular to electric current may have retarded Cu diffusion to anode and IMC accumulation. In addition, the newly formed Cu6Sn5 exhibited preferred orientation related to the electric current direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexin Xu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China; (K.X.); (X.W.)
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
- Sauvage Laboratory for Smart Materials, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xing Fu
- School of Electronics and Information, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
- Correspondence: (X.F.); (H.C.)
| | - Xinjie Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China; (K.X.); (X.W.)
- Sauvage Laboratory for Smart Materials, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhiwei Fu
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
| | - Xiaofeng Yang
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
| | - Si Chen
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
| | - Yijun Shi
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
| | - Yun Huang
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (Z.F.); (X.Y.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Y.H.)
| | - Hongtao Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China; (K.X.); (X.W.)
- Sauvage Laboratory for Smart Materials, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
- Correspondence: (X.F.); (H.C.)
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24
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Abstract
With continued scaling toward higher component densities, integrated circuits (ICs) contain ever greater lengths of nanowire that are vulnerable to failure via electromigration. Previously, plastic electromigration driven by the "electron wind" has been observed, but not the elastic response to the wind force itself. Here we describe mapping, via electron energy-loss spectroscopy, the density of a lithographically defined aluminum nanowire with sufficient precision to determine both its temperature and its internal pressure. An electrical current density of 108 A/cm2 produces Joule heating, tension upwind, and compression downwind. Surprisingly, the pressure returns to its ambient value well inside the wire, where the current density is still high. This spatial discrepancy points to physics that are not captured by a classical "wind force" model and to new opportunities for optimizing electromigration-resistant IC design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Mecklenburg
- Core Center of Excellence in Nano Imaging (CNI), University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
- Microelectronics Technology Department, The Aerospace Corporation, Los Angeles, California 90009, United States
| | - Brian T Zutter
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Xin Yi Ling
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - William A Hubbard
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - B C Regan
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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25
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Preis T, Vrbica S, Eroms J, Repp J, van Ruitenbeek JM. Current-Induced One-Dimensional Diffusion of Co Adatoms on Graphene Nanoribbons. Nano Lett 2021; 21:8794-8799. [PMID: 34652923 PMCID: PMC8554795 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c03073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
One-dimensional diffusion of Co adatoms on graphene nanoribbons has been induced and investigated by means of scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM). To this end, the nanoribbons and the Co adatoms have been imaged before and after injecting current pulses into the nanoribbons, with the STM tip in direct contact with the ribbon. We observe current-induced motion of the Co atoms along the nanoribbons, which is approximately described by a distribution expected for a thermally activated one-dimensional random walk. This indicates that the nanoribbons reach temperatures far beyond 100 K, which is well above the temperature of the underlying Au substrate. This model system can be developed further for the study of electromigration at the single-atom level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Preis
- Institute
of Experimental and Applied Physics, University
of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Sasha Vrbica
- Huygens-Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory, Leiden University, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan Eroms
- Institute
of Experimental and Applied Physics, University
of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jascha Repp
- Institute
of Experimental and Applied Physics, University
of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jan M. van Ruitenbeek
- Huygens-Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory, Leiden University, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
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26
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Shie KC, Hsu PN, Li YJ, Tu KN, Chen C. Effect of Bonding Strength on Electromigration Failure in Cu-Cu Bumps. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:6394. [PMID: 34771919 DOI: 10.3390/ma14216394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In microelectronic packaging technology for three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs), Cu-to-Cu direct bonding appears to be the solution to solve the problems of Joule heating and electromigration (EM) in solder microbumps under 10 μm in diameter. However, EM will occur in Cu–Cu bumps when the current density is over 106 A/cm2. The surface, grain boundary, and the interface between the Cu and TiW adhesion layer are the three major diffusion paths in EM tests, and which one may lead to early failure is of interest. This study showed that bonding strength affects the outcome. First, if the bonding strength is not strong enough to sustain the thermal mismatch of materials during EM tests, the bonding interface will fracture and lead to an open circuit of early failure. Second, if the bonding strength can sustain the bonding structure, voids will form at the passivation contact area between the Cu–Cu bump and redistribution layer (RDL) due to current crowding. When the void grows along the passivation interface and separates the Cu–Cu bump and RDL, an open circuit can occur, especially when the current density and temperature are severe. Third, under excellent bonding, when the voids at the contact area between the Cu–Cu bump and RDL do not merge together, the EM lifetime can be more than 5000 h.
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27
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Dvornichenko AV, Kharchenko VO, Kharchenko DO. Electromigration-induced formation of percolating adsorbate islands during condensation from the gaseous phase: a computational study. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 2021; 12:694-703. [PMID: 34354898 PMCID: PMC8290097 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.12.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We provide a computational study of a change in the morphology of a growing thin film during condensation caused by electromigration effects. It will be shown, that separated circular adsorbate islands, realized in an isotropic system, become elongated in the direction of the applied electrical field. We discuss the dependence of the critical value of the strength of the applied electrical field, responsible for the formation of percolating adsorbate islands, on main control parameters. This study provides insight into details of electromigration effects during the self-organization of adatoms into percolating adsorbate islands during condensation from the gaseous phase. We will show that the elongated morphology of adsorbate islands remains stable if the electric field is turned off.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vasyl O Kharchenko
- Institute of Applied Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 58 Petropavlivska St., 40000 Sumy, Ukraine
| | - Dmitrii O Kharchenko
- Institute of Applied Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 58 Petropavlivska St., 40000 Sumy, Ukraine
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28
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Yue W, Ding C, Qin H, Gong C, Zhang J. Crystallographic Characteristic Effect of Cu Substrate on Serrated Cathode Dissolution in Cu/Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu/Cu Solder Joints during Electromigration. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:2486. [PMID: 34064928 DOI: 10.3390/ma14102486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The crystallographic characteristic effect of Cu substrate on cathode dissolution behavior in line-type Cu/Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu (SAC305)/Cu solder joints during electromigration (EM) was investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and first-principles calculations. The SEM and EBSD results show that the crystallographic characteristic of Cu substrate is crucial to cathode dissolution behavior under a direct current of 1.5 × 104 A/cm2 at 125 °C ± 2 °C. When the (001) plane of copper grain adjacent to the Cu3Sn/Cu interface is perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the current direction, local cathode dissolution tips are easily formed, whereas the (111) plane remains mostly undissolved, which finally leads to the inhomogeneous cathode serrated dissolution in the substrate. The first-principles calculation results reveal that the different surface energies and energy barriers of the different crystallographic planes of Cu grains in the substrate are responsible for the local cathode dissolution tips. Adjusting the copper grain in a substrate to a crystal plane or direction that is difficult to dissolve during EM is a promising method for improving the reliability of solder joints in the future.
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29
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Fu X, Liu M, Xu K, Chen S, Shi Y, Fu Z, Huang Y, Chen H, Yao R. The In-Situ Observation of Grain Rotation and Microstructure Evolution Induced by Electromigration in Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu Solder Joints. Materials (Basel) 2020; 13:ma13235497. [PMID: 33276575 PMCID: PMC7730036 DOI: 10.3390/ma13235497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The in-situ observation of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder joints under electromigration was conducted to investigate the microstructure and grain orientation evolution. It was observed that there was a grain rotation phenomenon during current stressing by in-situ electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD). The rotation angle was calculated, which indicated that the grain reorientation led to the decrease of the resistance of solder joints. On the other hand, the orientation of β-Sn played a critical role in determining the migration of Cu atoms in solder joints under current stressing migration. When the angle between the electron flow direction and the c-axis of Sn (defined as α) was close to 0°, massive Cu6Sn5 intermetallic compounds were observed in the solder bulk; however, when α was close to 90°, the migration of the intermetallic compound (IMC) was blocked but many Sn hillocks grew in the anode. Moreover, the low angle boundaries were the fast diffusion channel of Cu atoms while the high grain boundaries in the range of 55°–65° were not favorable to the fast diffusion of Cu atoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Fu
- School of Electronics and Information, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China;
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
| | - Min Liu
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (H.C.); (R.Y.)
| | - KeXin Xu
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Si Chen
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
| | - YiJun Shi
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
| | - ZhiWei Fu
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
| | - Yun Huang
- Department of Reliability Design Research, China Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component Laboratory, Guangzhou 510610, China; (K.X.); (S.C.); (Y.S.); (Z.F.); (Y.H.)
| | - HongTao Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (H.C.); (R.Y.)
| | - RuoHe Yao
- School of Electronics and Information, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China;
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (H.C.); (R.Y.)
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30
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Marinković S, Fernández-Rodríguez A, Collienne S, Alvarez SB, Melinte S, Maiorov B, Rius G, Granados X, Mestres N, Palau A, Silhanek AV. Direct Visualization of Current-Stimulated Oxygen Migration in YBa 2Cu 3O 7-δ Thin Films. ACS Nano 2020; 14:11765-11774. [PMID: 32806022 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c04492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The past years have witnessed major advancements in all-electrical doping control on cuprates. In the vast majority of cases, the tuning of charge carrier density has been achieved via electric field effect by means of either a ferroelectric polarization or using a dielectric or electrolyte gating. Unfortunately, these approaches are constrained to rather thin superconducting layers and require large electric fields in order to ensure sizable carrier modulations. In this work, we focus on the investigation of oxygen doping in an extended region through current-stimulated oxygen migration in YBa2Cu3O7-δ superconducting bridges. The underlying methodology is rather simple and avoids sophisticated nanofabrication process steps and complex electronics. A patterned multiterminal transport bridge configuration allows us to electrically assess the directional counterflow of oxygen atoms and vacancies. Importantly, the emerging propagating front of current-dependent doping δ is probed in situ by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The resulting imaging techniques, together with photoinduced conductivity and Raman scattering investigations, reveal an inhomogeneous oxygen vacancy distribution with a controllable propagation speed permitting us to estimate the oxygen diffusivity. These findings provide direct evidence that the microscopic mechanism at play in electrical doping of cuprates involves diffusion of oxygen atoms with the applied current. The resulting fine control of the oxygen content would permit a systematic study of complex phase diagrams and the design of electrically addressable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Marinković
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, Sart Tilman, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Simon Collienne
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, Sart Tilman, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Sylvain Blanco Alvarez
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, Sart Tilman, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Sorin Melinte
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Boris Maiorov
- Materials Physics and Applications Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Gemma Rius
- Institute of Microelectronics of Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Granados
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona, ICMAB-CSIC, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Narcís Mestres
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona, ICMAB-CSIC, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Palau
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona, ICMAB-CSIC, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alejandro V Silhanek
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, Sart Tilman, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
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31
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Abstract
We study voltage-induced conductance changes of Pb, Au, Al, and Cu atomic contacts. The experiments are performed in vacuum at low temperature using mechanically controllable break junctions. We determine switching histograms, i.e., distribution functions of switching voltages and switching currents, as a function of the conductance. We observe a clear material dependence: Au reveals the highest and almost conductance-independent switching voltage, while Al has the lowest with a pronounced dependence on the conductance. The theoretical study uses density functional theory and a generalized Langevin equation considering the pumping of particular phonon modes. We identify a runaway voltage as the threshold at which the pumping destabilizes the atomic arrangement. We find qualitative agreement between the average switching voltage and the runaway voltage regarding the material and conductance dependence and contact-to-contact variation of the average characteristic voltages, suggesting that the phonon pumping is a relevant mechanism driving the rearrangements in the experimental contacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Ring
- Physics Department, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - David Weber
- Physics Department, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Patrick Haiber
- Physics Department, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Fabian Pauly
- Physics Department, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Peter Nielaba
- Physics Department, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Elke Scheer
- Physics Department, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
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32
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Foy C, Zhang L, Trusheim ME, Bagnall KR, Walsh M, Wang EN, Englund DR. Wide-Field Magnetic Field and Temperature Imaging Using Nanoscale Quantum Sensors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:26525-26533. [PMID: 32321237 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c01545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The simultaneous imaging of magnetic fields and temperature (MT) is important in a range of applications, including studies of carrier transport and semiconductor device characterization. Techniques exist for separately measuring temperature (e.g., infrared (IR) microscopy, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and thermo-reflectance microscopy) and magnetic fields (e.g., scanning probe magnetic force microscopy and superconducting quantum interference devices). However, these techniques cannot measure magnetic fields and temperature simultaneously. Here, we use the exceptional temperature and magnetic field sensitivity of nitrogen vacancy (NV) spins in conformally coated nanodiamonds to realize simultaneous wide-field MT imaging at the device level. Our "quantum conformally attached thermo-magnetic" (Q-CAT) imaging enables (i) wide-field, high-frame rate imaging (100-1000 Hz); (ii) high sensitivity; and (iii) compatibility with standard microscopes. We apply this technique to study the industrially important problem of characterizing multifinger gallium nitride high-electron mobility transistors (GaN HEMTs). We spatially and temporally resolve the electric current distribution and resulting temperature rise, elucidating functional device behavior at the microscopic level. The general applicability of Q-CAT imaging serves as an important tool for understanding complex MT phenomena in material science, device physics, and related fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Foy
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Lenan Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Mass Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Matthew E Trusheim
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Kevin R Bagnall
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Mass Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Michael Walsh
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Evelyn N Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Mass Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Dirk R Englund
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 50 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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33
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Chatterjee A, Tegenkamp C, Pfnür H. Electromigration-induced directional steps towards the formation of single atomic Ag contacts. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 2020; 11:680-687. [PMID: 32395398 PMCID: PMC7188988 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.11.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Even though there have been many experimental attempts and theoretical approaches to understand the process of electromigration (EM), it has not been quantitatively understood for ultrathin structures and at grain boundaries. Nevertheless, we showed recently that it can be used reliably for the formation of single atomic point contacts after careful pre-structuring of the initial Ag nanostructures. The process of formation of nanocontacts by EM down to a single-atom point contact was investigated for ultrathin (5 nm) Ag structures at 100 K by measuring the conductance as a function of the time during EM. In this paper, we compare the process of thinning by EM of structures with constrictions below the average grain size of Ag layers (15 nm) with that of structures with much larger initial constrictions of around 150 nm having multiple grains at the centre constriction prior to the formation of a point contact. Even though clear morphological differences exist between both types of structures, quantized conductance plateaus showing the formation of single point contacts have been observed for both. Here we put emphasis on the thinning process by EM, just before a point contact is formed. To understand this thinning process, the semi-classical regime before the contact reaches the quantum regime was analyzed in detail. For this purpose, we used experimental conductance histograms in the range between 2G 0 and 15G 0 and their corresponding Fourier transforms (FTs). The FT analysis of the conductance histograms exhibits a clear preference for thinning along the [100] direction. Using well-established models, both atom-by-atom steps and ranges of stability, presumably caused by electronic shell effects, can be discriminated. Although the directional motion of atoms during EM leads to specific properties such as the instabilities mentioned, similarities to mechanically opened contacts with respect to cross-sectional stability were found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atasi Chatterjee
- Institut für Festkörperphysik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Appelstraße 2, 30167 Hannover, Germany
- Laboratorium für Nano und Quantenengineering (LNQE), Leibniz Universität Hannover, Schneiderberg 39, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Christoph Tegenkamp
- Institut für Festkörperphysik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Appelstraße 2, 30167 Hannover, Germany
- Laboratorium für Nano und Quantenengineering (LNQE), Leibniz Universität Hannover, Schneiderberg 39, 30167 Hannover, Germany
- Institut für Physik, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Reichenhainer Str. 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Herbert Pfnür
- Institut für Festkörperphysik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Appelstraße 2, 30167 Hannover, Germany
- Laboratorium für Nano und Quantenengineering (LNQE), Leibniz Universität Hannover, Schneiderberg 39, 30167 Hannover, Germany
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34
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Krödel M, Carter BM, Rall D, Lohaus J, Wessling M, Miller DJ. Rational Design of Ion Exchange Membrane Material Properties Limits the Crossover of CO 2 Reduction Products in Artificial Photosynthesis Devices. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:12030-12042. [PMID: 32013387 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b21415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Efficient operation is crucial for the deployment of photoelectrochemical CO2 reduction devices for large-scale artificial photosynthesis. In these devices, undesired transport of CO2 reduction products from the reduction electrode to the oxidation electrode may occur through a liquid electrolyte and an ion exchange membrane, reducing device productivity and increasing the energy required for product purification. Our work investigated the CO2 reduction product crossover through ion exchange membranes separating the cathode and anode compartments in CO2 reduction cells. The concentrations of liquid products produced by CO2 reduction on copper foil were measured. A systematic approach for the investigation of product crossover was developed. The crossover of products was analyzed over a range of working electrode potentials (-1.08 V vs RHE to -0.88 V vs RHE) in cells employing a commercial Selemion AMV membrane and a new poly(vinylimidazolium) family of ion exchange membranes with variable chemical and structural properties. We found that product loss due to electromigration of charged species in the device was more significant than product loss due to diffusion of uncharged species. To reduce the crossover of CO2 reduction products, the influence of membrane properties such as the ionic conductivity and water volume fraction was investigated for the Selemion AMV membrane and poly(vinylimidazolium) membranes with variable material properties. We show that the water volume fraction and, by extension, ionic conductivity of the membrane may be controlled to reduce product crossover in CO2 reduction artificial photosynthesis devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Krödel
- Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley 94720-8099, United States
- Department of Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Blaine M Carter
- Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley 94720-8099, United States
| | - Deniz Rall
- Department of Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen 52074, Germany
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Aachen, Germany
| | - Johannes Lohaus
- Department of Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Matthias Wessling
- Department of Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen 52074, Germany
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Aachen, Germany
| | - Daniel J Miller
- Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley 94720-8099, United States
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35
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Sun Q, Lu Y, Tang C, Song H, Li C, Zuo C. Current-Induced Changes of Surface Morphology in Printed Ag Thin Wires. Materials (Basel) 2019; 12:E3288. [PMID: 31658627 DOI: 10.3390/ma12203288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Current-induced changes of surface morphology in printed Ag thin wires were investigated by current stressing tests and numerical simulation. The samples were printed Ag thin wires on a flexible substrate with input and output pads. Different experimentalresults were obtainedthroughchangingthe current density after current supply and the mechanism of those phenomena were investigated by numerical simulations based on the method of atomic flux divergence. Good agreement between the simulations and experimental results was reached. It was found that electromigration was the main factor that caused the change of the surface morphology. The contribution of thermal migration can be ignored, and the Joule heating lead by the supplied current had a very significant accelerating effect on electromigration. Guidelines for effectively changing the Ag thin wire surface through providing predetermined current density was proposed, which were expected to be useful for improving the electrical reliability and lifetime of printed Ag thin wires in flexible electronic devices.
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Fu X, En Y, Zhou B, Chen S, Huang Y, He X, Chen H, Yao R. Microstructure and Grain Orientation Evolution in SnPb/SnAgCu Interconnects Under Electrical Current Stressing at Cryogenic Temperature. Materials (Basel) 2019; 12:E1593. [PMID: 31096663 DOI: 10.3390/ma12101593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Electromigration was characterized at the cathode Cu/solder interface—without the effect of Joule heating—by employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analyses. Rapid (Cux,Ni1−x)6Sn5 intermetallic compound (IMC) growth was observed at the anomalous region at the cathode end due to the effect of current crowding. The abnormal isotropic diffusion and parallel distribution of Pb were characterized in an ultra-low temperature environment in a monocrystalline structure stressed at −196 °C. The interesting results were attributed to crystallographic transformation due to the simultaneous effect of cryogenic and electrical stressing. The diffusion behavior of Pb atoms in face-centered cubic lattices performed isomorphism. As a result, Pb atoms of the bump gathered at the high-energy grain boundaries by diffusing through the face-centered cubic lattices around the long grain boundary, eventually forming a long-range distribution and accumulation of Pb elements. Our study may provide understanding of cryogenic electromigration evolution of the Cu/solder interface and provide visual data for abnormal lattice transformation at the current stressing.
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Mokry G, Pozuelo J, Vilatela JJ, Sanz J, Baselga J. High Ampacity Carbon Nanotube Materials. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2019; 9:E383. [PMID: 30845698 PMCID: PMC6474024 DOI: 10.3390/nano9030383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Constant evolution of technology is leading to the improvement of electronical devices. Smaller, lighter, faster, are but a few of the properties that have been constantly improved, but these developments come hand in hand with negative downsides. In the case of miniaturization, this shortcoming is found in the inherent property of conducting materials-the limit of current density they can withstand before failure. This property, known as ampacity, is close to reaching its limits at the current scales of use, and the performances of some conductors such as gold or copper suffer severely from it. The need to find alternative conductors with higher ampacity is, therefore, an urgent need, but at the same time, one which requires simultaneous search for decreased density if it is to succeed in an ever-growing electronical world. The uses of these carbon nanotube-based materials, from airplane lightning strike protection systems to the microchip industry, will be evaluated, failure mechanisms at maximum current densities explained, limitations and difficulties in ampacity measurements with different size ranges evaluated, and future lines of research suggested. This review will therefore provide an in-depth view of the rare properties that make carbon nanotubes and their hybrids unique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Mokry
- Departamento de Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales e Ingeniería Química (IAAB), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Javier Pozuelo
- Departamento de Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales e Ingeniería Química (IAAB), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Juan J Vilatela
- IMDEA Materials Institute, Eric Kandel 2, Getafe, 28906 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Javier Sanz
- Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Juan Baselga
- Departamento de Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales e Ingeniería Química (IAAB), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain.
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Yagi M, Shirakashi JI. Quantifying Joule Heating and Mass Transport in Metal Nanowires During Controlled Electromigration. Materials (Basel) 2019; 12:E310. [PMID: 30669491 DOI: 10.3390/ma12020310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The nanoscale heat dissipation (Joule heating) and mass transport during electromigration (EM) have attracted considerable attention in recent years. Here, the EM-driven movement of voids in gold (Au) nanowires of different shapes (width range: 50–300 nm) was directly observed by performing atomic force microscopy. Using the data, we determined the average mass transport rate to be 105 to 106 atoms/s. We investigated the heat dissipation in L-shaped, straight-shaped, and bowtie-shaped nanowires. The maximum Joule heating power of the straight-shaped nanowires was three times that of the bowtie-shaped nanowires, indicating that EM in the latter can be triggered by lower power. Based on the power dissipated by the nanowires, the local temperature during EM was estimated. Both the local temperature and junction voltage of the bowtie-shaped nanowires increased with the decrease in the Joule heating power and current, while the current density remained in the order of 108 A/cm2. The straight-shaped nanowires exhibited the same tendency. The local temperature at each feedback point could be simply estimated using the diffusive heat transport relationship. These results suggest that the EM-driven mass transport can be controlled at temperatures much lower than the melting point of Au.
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Chen KJ, Hung FY, Lui TS, Lin WY. Effects of Static Heat and Dynamic Current on Al/Zn∙Cu/Sn Solder/Ag Interfaces of Sn Photovoltaic Al-Ribbon Modules. Materials (Basel) 2018; 11:E1642. [PMID: 30205434 DOI: 10.3390/ma11091642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This present study applied Cu∙Zn/Al ribbon in place of a traditional Cu ribbon to a photovoltaic (PV) ribbon. A hot-dipped and an electroplated Sn PV ribbon reflowed onto an Ag electrode on a Si solar cell and estimated the feasibility of the tested module (Ag/Solder/Cu∙Zn/Al). After bias-aging, a bias-induced thermal diffusion and an electromigration promoted the growth of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) (Cu₆Sn₅, Ag₃Sn). To simulate a photo-generated current in the series connection of solar cells, an electron with Ag-direction (electron flows from Ag to Al) and Al-direction (electron flows from Al to Ag) was passed through the Al/Zn∙Cu/Solder/Ag structure to clarify the growth mechanism of IMCs. An increase in resistance of the Ag-direction-biased module was higher than that of the Al-direction biased one due to the intense growth of Cu₆Sn₅ and Ag₃Sn IMCs. The coated solder of the electroplated PV ribbon was less than that of the hot-dipped one, and thus decreased the growth reaction of IMCs and the cost of PV ribbon.
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Dasgupta A, Buret M, Cazier N, Mennemanteuil MM, Chacon R, Hammani K, Weeber JC, Arocas J, Markey L, des Francs GC, Uskov A, Smetanin I, Bouhelier A. Electromigrated electrical optical antennas for transducing electrons and photons at the nanoscale. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 2018; 9:1964-1976. [PMID: 30116688 PMCID: PMC6071726 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Background: Electrically controlled optical metal antennas are an emerging class of nanodevices enabling a bilateral transduction between electrons and photons. At the heart of the device is a tunnel junction that may either emit light upon injection of electrons or generate an electrical current when excited by a light wave. The current study explores a technological route for producing these functional units based upon the electromigration of metal constrictions. Results: We combine multiple nanofabrication steps to realize in-plane tunneling junctions made of two gold electrodes, separated by a sub-nanometer gap acting as the feedgap of an optical antenna. We electrically characterize the transport properties of the junctions in the light of the Fowler-Nordheim representation and the Simmons model for electron tunneling. We demonstrate light emission from the feedgap upon electron injection and show examples of how this nanoscale light source can be coupled to waveguiding structures. Conclusion: Electromigrated in-plane tunneling optical antennas feature interesting properties with their unique functionality enabling interfacing electrons and photons at the atomic scale and with the same device. This technology may open new routes for device-to-device communication and for interconnecting an electronic control layer to a photonic architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arindam Dasgupta
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Mickaël Buret
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Nicolas Cazier
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Marie-Maxime Mennemanteuil
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Reinaldo Chacon
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Kamal Hammani
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Jean-Claude Weeber
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Juan Arocas
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Laurent Markey
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Gérard Colas des Francs
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Alexander Uskov
- P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute, Leninsky pr. 53, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- ITMO University, Kronverkskiy pr. 49, 197101 Sankt-Petersburg, Russia
| | - Igor Smetanin
- P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute, Leninsky pr. 53, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexandre Bouhelier
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, CNRS-UMR 6303, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21078 Dijon, France
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Gurunarayanan SP, Verellen N, Zharinov VS, James Shirley F, Moshchalkov VV, Heyns M, Van de Vondel J, Radu IP, Van Dorpe P. Electrically Driven Unidirectional Optical Nanoantennas. Nano Lett 2017; 17:7433-7439. [PMID: 29068692 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b03312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Directional antennas revolutionized modern day telecommunication by enabling precise beaming of radio and microwave signals with minimal loss of energy. Similarly, directional optical nanoantennas are expected to pave the way toward on-chip wireless communication and information processing. Currently, on-chip integration of such antennas is hampered by their multielement design or the requirement of complicated excitation schemes. Here, we experimentally demonstrate electrical driving of in-plane tunneling nanoantennas to achieve broadband unidirectional emission of light. Far-field interference, as a result of the spectral overlap between the dipolar emission of the tunnel junction and the fundamental quadrupole-like resonance of the nanoantenna, gives rise to a directional radiation pattern. By tuning this overlap using the applied voltage, we record directivities as high as 5 dB. In addition to electrical tunability, we also demonstrate passive tunability of the directivity using the antenna geometry. These fully configurable electrically driven nanoantennas provide a simple way to direct optical energy on-chip using an extremely small device footprint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surya Prakash Gurunarayanan
- Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven , B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- IMEC , Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Niels Verellen
- IMEC , Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- INPAC-Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven , Celestijnenlaan 200D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Vyacheslav S Zharinov
- INPAC-Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven , Celestijnenlaan 200D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Finub James Shirley
- IMEC , Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- INPAC-Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven , Celestijnenlaan 200D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Victor V Moshchalkov
- INPAC-Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven , Celestijnenlaan 200D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marc Heyns
- Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven , B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- IMEC , Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joris Van de Vondel
- INPAC-Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven , Celestijnenlaan 200D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Pol Van Dorpe
- IMEC , Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- INPAC-Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven , Celestijnenlaan 200D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
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Cahill JT, Vasquez VR, Misture ST, Edwards D, Graeve OA. Effect of Current on Diffusivity in Metal Hexaborides: A Spark Plasma Sintering Study. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2017; 9:37357-37363. [PMID: 28984122 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b04563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We present the effect of pulsed direct current on metal ion diffusion in CaB6-SrB6 diffusion couples, showing that the diffusivity of Ca2+ and Sr2+ across the diffusion couple interface is higher toward the positive electrode when subjected to a current flow of 2.2 kA at a temperature of 2007 K. We attribute this enhanced mobility to the movement of negatively charged metal vacancies toward the positive electrode in the system. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy is used to map the concentration of Ca2+ and Sr2+ in the region near the interface, and diffusion profiles are fitted with error functions. The concentration curves display concentration-dependent Boltzmann-Matano diffusivity. Total dopant values (Q) have been used to numerically compare the differences between Ca2+ diffusion in SrB6 and Sr2+ diffusion in CaB6. We determine an enhancement of 3.8× for Ca2+ into SrB6 versus an enhancement of 1.8× for Sr2+ into CaB6. No new phases are formed at the interface between CaB6 and SrB6, since hexaboride compounds readily form solid solutions. The results elucidate the role of pulsed direct current on the diffusion of metal ions in hexaboride compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T Cahill
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093-0411, United States
| | - Victor R Vasquez
- Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, University of Nevada , Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Scott T Misture
- Kazuo Inamori School of Engineering, Alfred University , Alfred, New York 14802, United States
| | - Doreen Edwards
- Kate Gleason College of Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology , Rochester, New York 14623-5604, United States
| | - Olivia A Graeve
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093-0411, United States
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Tang K, Meng AC, Hui F, Shi Y, Petach T, Hitzman C, Koh AL, Goldhaber-Gordon D, Lanza M, McIntyre PC. Distinguishing Oxygen Vacancy Electromigration and Conductive Filament Formation in TiO 2 Resistance Switching Using Liquid Electrolyte Contacts. Nano Lett 2017; 17:4390-4399. [PMID: 28604007 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Resistance switching in TiO2 and many other transition metal oxide resistive random access memory materials is believed to involve the assembly and breaking of interacting oxygen vacancy filaments via the combined effects of field-driven ion migration and local electronic conduction leading to Joule heating. These complex processes are very difficult to study directly in part because the filaments form between metallic electrode layers that block their observation by most characterization techniques. By replacing the top electrode layer in a metal-insulator-metal memory structure with easily removable liquid electrolytes, either an ionic liquid (IL) with high resistance contact or a conductive aqueous electrolyte, we probe field-driven oxygen vacancy redistribution in TiO2 thin films under conditions that either suppress or promote Joule heating. Oxygen isotope exchange experiments indicate that exchange of oxygen ions between TiO2 and the IL is facile at room temperature. Oxygen loss significantly increases the conductivity of the TiO2 films; however, filament formation is not observed after IL gating alone. Replacing the IL with a more conductive aqueous electrolyte contact and biasing does produce electroformed conductive filaments, consistent with a requirement for Joule heating to enhance the vacancy concentration and mobility at specific locations in the film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kechao Tang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Andrew C Meng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Fei Hui
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yuanyuan Shi
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215123, China
| | | | | | | | | | - Mario Lanza
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Paul C McIntyre
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Baumans XDA, Lombardo J, Brisbois J, Shaw G, Zharinov VS, He G, Yu H, Yuan J, Zhu B, Jin K, Kramer RBG, de Vondel JV, Silhanek AV. Healing Effect of Controlled Anti- Electromigration on Conventional and High-T c Superconducting Nanowires. Small 2017; 13:1700384. [PMID: 28544388 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201700384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The electromigration process has the potential capability to move atoms one by one when properly controlled. It is therefore an appealing tool to tune the cross section of monoatomic compounds with ultimate resolution or, in the case of polyatomic compounds, to change the stoichiometry with the same atomic precision. As demonstrated here, a combination of electromigration and anti-electromigration can be used to reversibly displace atoms with a high degree of control. This enables a fine adjustment of the superconducting properties of Al weak links, whereas in Nb the diffusion of atoms leads to a more irreversible process. In a superconductor with a complex unit cell (La2-x Cex CuO4 ), the electromigration process acts selectively on the oxygen atoms with no apparent modification of the structure. This allows to adjust the doping of this compound and switch from a superconducting to an insulating state in a nearly reversible fashion. In addition, the conditions needed to replace feedback controlled electromigration by a simpler technique of electropulsing are discussed. These findings have a direct practical application as a method to explore the dependence of the characteristic parameters on the exact oxygen content and pave the way for a reversible control of local properties of nanowires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier D A Baumans
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, B-4000, Sart Tilman, Belgium
| | - Joseph Lombardo
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, B-4000, Sart Tilman, Belgium
| | - Jérémy Brisbois
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, B-4000, Sart Tilman, Belgium
| | - Gorky Shaw
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, B-4000, Sart Tilman, Belgium
| | - Vyacheslav S Zharinov
- INPAC - Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ge He
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Heshan Yu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Jie Yuan
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Beiyi Zhu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Kui Jin
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Roman B G Kramer
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut NEEL, F-38000, Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Institut NEEL, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Joris Van de Vondel
- INPAC - Institute for Nanoscale Physics and Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alejandro V Silhanek
- Experimental Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Q-MAT, CESAM, Université de Liège, B-4000, Sart Tilman, Belgium
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Wang Q, Liu R, Xiang D, Sun M, Zhao Z, Sun L, Mei T, Wu P, Liu H, Guo X, Li ZL, Lee T. Single-Atom Switches and Single-Atom Gaps Using Stretched Metal Nanowires. ACS Nano 2016; 10:9695-9702. [PMID: 27704783 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b05676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Utilizing individual atoms or molecules as functional units in electronic circuits meets the increasing technical demands for the miniaturization of traditional semiconductor devices. To be of technological interest, these functional devices should be high-yield, consume low amounts of energy, and operate at room temperature. In this study, we developed nanodevices called quantized conductance atomic switches (QCAS) that satisfy these requirements. The QCAS operates by applying a feedback-controlled voltage to a nanoconstriction within a stretched nanowire. We demonstrated that individual metal atoms could be removed from the nanoconstriction and that the removed metal atoms could be refilled into the nanoconstriction, thus yielding a reversible quantized conductance switch. We determined the key parameters for the QCAS between the "on" and "off" states at room temperature under a small operating voltage. By controlling the applied bias voltage, the atoms can be further completely removed from the constriction to break the nanowire, generating single-atom nanogaps. These atomic nanogaps are quite stable under a sweeping voltage and can be readjusted with subangstrom accuracy, thus fulfilling the requirement of both reliability and flexibility for the high-yield fabrication of molecular devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingling Wang
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Ran Liu
- College of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University , Jinan 250014, China
| | - Dong Xiang
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Mingyu Sun
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Zhikai Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Lu Sun
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Tingting Mei
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Institute of Applied Physics, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Pengfei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Haitao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, College of Electronic Information and Optical Engineering, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Xuefeng Guo
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zong-Liang Li
- College of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University , Jinan 250014, China
| | - Takhee Lee
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Institute of Applied Physics, Seoul National University , Seoul 08826, Korea
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Abstract
Ultrashort devices that incorporate atomically thin components have the potential to be the smallest electronics. Such extremely scaled atomically thin devices are expected to show ballistic nonlinear behavior that could make them tremendously useful for ultrafast applications. While nonlinear diffusive electron transport has been widely reported, clear evidence for intrinsic nonlinear ballistic transport in the growing array of atomically thin conductors has so far been elusive. Here we report nonlinear electron transport of an ultrashort single-layer graphene channel that shows quantitative agreement with intrinsic ballistic transport. This behavior is shown to be distinctly different than that observed in similarly prepared ultrashort devices consisting, instead, of bilayer graphene channels. These results suggest that the addition of only one extra layer of an atomically thin material can make a significant impact on the nonlinear ballistic behavior of ultrashort devices, which is possibly due to the very different chiral tunneling of their charge carriers. The fact that we observe the nonlinear ballistic response at room temperature, with zero applied magnetic field, in non-ultrahigh vacuum conditions and directly on a readily accessible oxide substrate makes the nanogap technology we utilize of great potential for achieving extremely scaled high-speed atomically thin devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias J Boland
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kentucky , Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
| | - Abhishek Sundararajan
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kentucky , Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
| | - M Javad Farrokhi
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kentucky , Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
| | - Douglas R Strachan
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kentucky , Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
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47
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Buret M, Uskov AV, Dellinger J, Cazier N, Mennemanteuil MM, Berthelot J, Smetanin IV, Protsenko IE, Colas-des-Francs G, Bouhelier A. Spontaneous Hot-Electron Light Emission from Electron-Fed Optical Antennas. Nano Lett 2015. [PMID: 26214575 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale electronics and photonics are among the most promising research areas providing functional nanocomponents for data transfer and signal processing. By adopting metal-based optical antennas as a disruptive technological vehicle, we demonstrate that these two device-generating technologies can be interfaced to create an electronically driven self-emitting unit. This nanoscale plasmonic transmitter operates by injecting electrons in a contacted tunneling antenna feedgap. Under certain operating conditions, we show that the antenna enters a highly nonlinear regime in which the energy of the emitted photons exceeds the quantum limit imposed by the applied bias. We propose a model based upon the spontaneous emission of hot electrons that correctly reproduces the experimental findings. The electron-fed optical antennas described here are critical devices for interfacing electrons and photons, enabling thus the development of optical transceivers for on-chip wireless broadcasting of information at the nanoscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mickael Buret
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Alexander V Uskov
- Lebedev Physical Institute , Moscow, Russia
- ITMO University , Kronverkskiy 49, 197101, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Jean Dellinger
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
- ICube UMR 7357 CNRS-Télécom Physique Strasbourg , 67412 Illkirch, France
| | - Nicolas Cazier
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Marie-Maxime Mennemanteuil
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Johann Berthelot
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
- The Institute of Photonic Sciences , 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | | | | | - Gérard Colas-des-Francs
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
| | - Alexandre Bouhelier
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne UMR 6303, CNRS-Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté , 21078 Dijon, France
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48
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Koole M, Thijssen JM, Valkenier H, Hummelen JC, van der Zant HSJ. Electric-Field Control of Interfering Transport Pathways in a Single-Molecule Anthraquinone Transistor. Nano Lett 2015; 15:5569-73. [PMID: 26182342 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
It is understood that molecular conjugation plays an important role in charge transport through single-molecule junctions. Here, we investigate electron transport through an anthraquinone based single-molecule three-terminal device. With the use of an electric-field induced by a gate electrode, the molecule is reduced resulting into a 10-fold increase in the off-resonant differential conductance. Theoretical calculations link the change in differential conductance to a reduction-induced change in conjugation, thereby lifting destructive interference of transport pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Koole
- †Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jos M Thijssen
- †Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Hennie Valkenier
- ‡Stratingh Institute for Chemistry and Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan C Hummelen
- ‡Stratingh Institute for Chemistry and Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Herre S J van der Zant
- †Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ, Delft, The Netherlands
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49
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Gazzadi GC, Frabboni S. Structural transitions in electron beam deposited Co-carbonyl suspended nanowires at high electrical current densities. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 2015; 6:1298-1305. [PMID: 26199833 PMCID: PMC4505147 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.6.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Suspended nanowires (SNWs) have been deposited from Co-carbonyl precursor (Co2(CO)8) by focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID). The SNWs dimensions are about 30-50 nm in diameter and 600-850 nm in length. The as-deposited material has a nanogranular structure of mixed face-centered cubic (FCC) and hexagonal close-packed (HCP) Co phases, and a composition of 80 atom % Co, 15 atom % O and 5 atom % C, as revealed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis and by energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, respectively. Current (I)-voltage (V) measurements with current densities up to 10(7) A/cm(2) determine different structural transitions in the SNWs, depending on the I-V history. A single measurement with a sudden current burst leads to a polycrystalline FCC Co structure extended over the whole wire. Repeated measurements at increasing currents produce wires with a split structure: one half is polycrystalline FCC Co and the other half is graphitized C. The breakdown current density is found at 2.1 × 10(7) A/cm(2). The role played by resistive heating and electromigration in these transitions is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gian Carlo Gazzadi
- S3 Center, Nanoscience Institute - CNR, Via Campi 213/a, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Stefano Frabboni
- S3 Center, Nanoscience Institute - CNR, Via Campi 213/a, 41125 Modena, Italy
- FIM Department, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 213/a, 41125 Modena, Italy
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50
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Saha S, Nicolaï A, Owens JR, Krawicz A, Dinolfo PH, Meunier V, Lewis KM. Temperature-dependent and bistable current-voltage measurements in zinc porphyrin molecular junctions. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2015; 7:10085-90. [PMID: 25919066 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b02449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We report bistability in current-voltage curves from di(PEP)PorZn in an electromigrated molecular junction. Bistability was observed at ±0.3 V at 300 K but did not occur at 4 K. No bistability was identified at 300 K for another porphyrin molecule (di(Xyl)PorZn), where the phenyl-ethnyl-phenyl (PEP) side groups were replaced with a flexible p-xylene. Molecular dynamics simulations show that bistability may be due to conformation changes related to the fluctuation of the dihedral angle surrounding the zinc and/or the rotation of the porphyrin central plane of the molecule. Results suggest that other mechanisms may play a role in the current-voltage characteristics observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swatilekha Saha
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Adrien Nicolaï
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Jonathan R Owens
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Alexandra Krawicz
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Peter H Dinolfo
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Vincent Meunier
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
| | - Kim M Lewis
- †Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy, ‡Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, and §Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, United States
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