Single, Repeat, and Poly Intimate Partner Violence Victimization among Women at a College Campus: Extending Research Through the Inclusion of Technology-Facilitated Violence and Examining Key Social Determinants for Intimate Partner Violence Prevention

This study examines intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization (i.e., technology-facilitated and in-person psychological, physical, and sexual) and polyvictimization, along with the role of social support and other factors in influencing these experiences. Using a sample of college women in intimate relationships in the past year (n  = 265), findings revealed that social support was important in predicting IPV victimizations, with less prosocial support contributing to more frequent victimization for specific IPV forms and polyvictimization. The same support features emerged as significant for repeat technology-facilitated and repeat psychological IPV (i.e., social network relationship support), and for repeat physical and repeat sexual IPV (i.e., family connectedness), suggesting certain forms share commonalities. In the polyvictimization model, both social support measures were significant. The implications for IPV research and violence prevention are discussed.

Differences in Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women's Experiences of Sexual Assault and Rape in a National U.S. Sample

Lesbian and bisexual women experience significantly higher rates of sexual assault and rape compared with heterosexual women. Despite this, researchers have yet to distinguish whether sexual orientation itself or some other related social characteristics explain these higher rates. The objective of this study was to analyze women's rates of sexual assault and rape across sexual orientation status while accounting for other social characteristics (e.g., race, education, income, outness). Women (N = 1,366), who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%), completed a nationally distributed, cross-sectional online survey in 2016. Victimization and repeat victimization were assessed using a modified version of Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Victimization. Overall, 63% of bisexual, 49% of lesbian, and 35% of heterosexual women reported experiencing rape in their lifetime. When holding all other social characteristics constant, sexual orientation remained a significant predictor in the model. Compared with the odds of heterosexual women experiencing sexual assault or rape, bisexual women (3.7 odds of victimization; 7.3 odds of repeat victimization) and lesbian women (3.2 odds of repeat victimization) were disproportionately victimized. Sexual orientation clearly plays a role in sexual victimization risk, independent of other measured sociodemographic indicators. Continued research is needed to explore possible mechanisms behind sexual assault and rape prevalence, as well as the influence of contextual factors of victimization risk among sexual minority men.

Developmental Stage of Onset, Poly-Victimization, and Persistence of Childhood Victimization: Impact on Adult Well-Being in a Rural Community-Based Study

The current study examines the persistence of victimization and poly-victimization (i.e., count of multiple types of victimization) across various stages of development (ages 0-5, 6-12, and 13-18) and the related impact on adult well-being. Participants were 2,098 adults from the Appalachian region of three Southern states. Eighty-two percent of participants reported at least one type of victimization during childhood. Among adult victims, 22.6% reported one victimization in one developmental stage (i.e., one stage, but no poly-victimization), 45.8% reported one victimization in more than one stage (i.e., persistent victimization, but no poly-victimization), 20.5% reported multiple types of victimization in one stage (i.e., poly-victimization), and 11.2% reported multiple types of victimization at more than one stage (i.e., persistent poly-victimization). Results indicated a linear decline in subjective well-being, mental health, and number of healthy days as victimization becomes more persistent across childhood and more diverse in types (i.e., poly-victimization). Study findings provide support for models of victimization that take both developmental trajectories and poly-victimization into account.

Examining the Association Between Personal Victimization in Adolescence and Intimate Partner Victimization in Adulthood

A large body of research has examined various issues related to repeat victimization, including potential risk factors and theoretical explanations. Despite the amount of studies dedicated to focusing on repeat victimization, there are some notable gaps in the literature. One particularly noteworthy omission in this research is whether there is a link between personal victimization in adolescence and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization in adulthood. The current study sought to address this gap. To do so, data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health were analyzed. The results revealed a statistically significant and relatively consistent association between personal victimization in adolescence and IPV victimization in adulthood. This association was detected for both males and females, and it was detected even after controlling for low self-control (males and females) and being the perpetrator of IPV (males). We conclude by noting some of the implications of these findings, as well as limitations to the study that need to be addressed in the future.

Measuring the Effects of Limited and Persistent School Bullying Victimization: Repeat Victimization, Fear, and Adaptive Behaviors

Extant research on school bullying has largely focused on the incidence rather than the modality of the experience, leaving key questions about impact unexplored. With a nationally representative sample of more than 3,000 cases, the present study explores the utility of expanding the classification scheme of bullying victimization to include limited victimization and persistent victimization experiences. By examining the differences in victimization, fear of victimization, and avoidance behaviors, the present study establishes that significant differences in fear of future victimization and adaptive avoidance behaviors do exist between the groups classified as limited and persistent. Furthermore, the present study explores the potential differences in the moderating influence of fear of future victimization on the relationship between limited/persistent bullying victimization and adaptive avoidance behavior. Ultimately, the evidence suggests that differentiating between limited and persistent bullying victimization is important for understanding the impact of bullying on students.

Is the Trouble Still Going On? Exploring Victims' Accounts of Why Repeat Violent and Property Victimization Ends

Programs designed to reduce repeat property victimization tend to be more successful than those aimed at repeat violence. To help understand this pattern, we examine narrative data about repeat victimization obtained from victims participating in the National Crime Victimization Survey. Victims report numerous reasons for the end of repeat property and violent incidents, though the modal response for both types of crime included victim-initiated actions taken to reduce contact with offenders. Victims of repeat violence also noted the importance of legal actions, especially for ending victimizations that involve intimate partners. We discuss how research that capitalizes on victims' perspectives can improve our understanding of how these incidents end and help inform programs seeking to reduce repeat victimization.

Child Sexual Abuse and Criminal Offending: Gender-Specific Effects and the Role of Abuse Characteristics and Other Adverse Outcomes

This study sought to enhance knowledge of the link between child sexual abuse (CSA) and long-term criminality by investigating gender-specific effects and the role of index sexual abuse characteristics, revictimization, and serious mental health problems. An Australian sample of 2,759 documented cases of sexual abuse and 2,677 community controls were linked to statewide police records and public mental health service databases, with a follow-up period of 13-44 years. Four key findings emerged from the analysis: (1) CSA victims were more likely than controls to engage in all types of criminal behaviors including violent, sexual, and other offending; (2) gender moderated the relationship between CSA and criminal offending, with stronger associations found among females for general and violent offending, and among males for sexual offending; (3) certain features of the index sexual abuse (i.e., developmental period, number of perpetrators, relation to perpetrator), further victimization experiences, and the development of serious mental health problems were all associated with an increased likelihood of criminal behavior among CSA victims; (4) CSA victims who engaged in criminal offending were more likely to present with cumulative risks than victims not engaging in criminal offending. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Child Maltreatment and Physical Victimization: Does Heavy Drinking Mediate the Relationship?

Past studies examining the child maltreatment (CM)/victimization pathway have been limited by their focus on sexual victimization, narrow windows of assessment, and failure to examine gender differences. In the current study, we sought to examine (1) the impact of CM on physical victimization (PV) trajectories from adolescence to young adulthood and (2) the extent to which heavy drinking mediated the relationship between CM and later PV. Using three waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we found that CM was associated with a 69% greater odds of later PV for both genders, after the inclusion of control variables, and that the risk continued into adulthood. Further, heavy drinking was found to mediate the CM/victimization pathway at Wave I, but not at later waves. When mediation was examined separately for men and women, support for mediation was found for men and women. The current study suggests that CM represents a liability for interpersonal violence for both genders and highlights the importance of looking at victimization across time.

Predicting Sexual Revictimization in Childhood and Adolescence: A Longitudinal Examination Using Ecological Systems Theory

A substantial proportion of sexual abuse victims report repeat sexual victimization within childhood or adolescence; however, there is limited understanding of factors contributing to revictimization for youth. Thus, the present study examined predictors of sexual revictimization prior to adulthood using ecological systems theory. Records of 1,915 youth presenting to a Child Advocacy Center (CAC) were reviewed to identify individual, familial, and community factors as well as initial abuse characteristics associated with risk for revictimization. Results showed that 11.1% of youth re-presented to the CAC for sexual revictimization. At the individual level, younger children, girls, ethnoracial minority youth, and those with an identified mental health problem were most likely to experience revictimization. Interpersonal factors that increased vulnerability included the presence of a noncaregiving adult in the home, being in mental health treatment, and domestic violence in the family. Community-level factors did not predict revictimization. When factors at all levels were examined in conjunction, however, only individual-level factors significantly predicted the risk for revictimization. Findings from this study provide valuable information for CACs when assessing risk for re-report of sexual abuse and add to the field's understanding of revictimization within childhood.

The Impact of Family Engagement and Child Welfare Services on Maltreatment Re-reports and Substantiated Re-reports

Despite decades of debate about the most effective ways to intervene with families reported to child protective services (CPS), little evidence exists regarding the types of services or approach that reduce children's risk of additional maltreatment. The current study used data collected during a statewide experimental evaluation of CPS to examine the impact of numerous service variables, family engagement, and family characteristics on the risk of maltreatment re-reports and substantiated re-reports among families initially reported for neglect and risk of harm. The sample included 4,868 families with screened-in reports that were randomly assigned to receive either an investigation or an assessment. The results of the Cox regression analyses found that service duration, intensity, and breadth were unrelated to maltreatment re-report or substantiated re-reports, but caseworker ratings of the service-need match were associated with both. The provision of domestic violence services was related to decreased risk of maltreatment re-reports. Increased levels of family engagement were associated with lowered risk of both maltreatment re-reports and substantiated re-reports. Once the effects of services, engagement, and family characteristics were taken into account, CPS response pathway (investigation or assessment) had no relationship to maltreatment re-reports or substantiated re-reports.

The role of ethnicity, sexual attitudes, and sexual behavior in sexual revictimization during the transition to emerging adulthood

An experience of child sexual abuse (CSA) substantially increases women's risk of adult sexual assault (ASA), but the mechanisms underlying this relationship are unclear. Previous research often has not examined the full range of ASA experiences or included the influence of ethnicity, sexual behavior, and sexual attitudes on CSA and severity of ASA. The current study utilized path analysis to explore the relationships among ethnicity, sexual attitudes, number of lifetime sexual partners, CSA, and severity of ASA in emerging adult women. Results indicated a significant relationship between CSA and more severe ASA that was partially explained by having more lifetime sexual partners. Additionally, European American women, relative to Hispanic women, reported more severe victimization, which was fully explained by more positive attitudes toward casual sex and having more lifetime sexual partners. These results have implications in the design and implementation of universal and selective prevention programs aimed at reducing ASA and revictimization among emerging adult women.