Artificial intelligence and social intelligence: preliminary comparison study between AI models and psychologists

Background

Social intelligence (SI) is of great importance in the success of the counseling and psychotherapy, whether for the psychologist or for the artificial intelligence systems that help the psychologist, as it is the ability to understand the feelings, emotions, and needs of people during the counseling process. Therefore, this study aims to identify the Social Intelligence (SI) of artificial intelligence represented by its large linguistic models, "ChatGPT; Google Bard; and Bing" compared to psychologists.

Methods

A stratified random manner sample of 180 students of counseling psychology from the bachelor's and doctoral stages at King Khalid University was selected, while the large linguistic models included ChatGPT-4, Google Bard, and Bing. They (the psychologists and the AI models) responded to the social intelligence scale.

Results

There were significant differences in SI between psychologists and AI's ChatGPT-4 and Bing. ChatGPT-4 exceeded 100% of all the psychologists, and Bing outperformed 50% of PhD holders and 90% of bachelor's holders. The differences in SI between Google Bard and bachelor students were not significant, whereas the differences with PhDs were significant; Where 90% of PhD holders excel on Google Bird.

Conclusion

We explored the possibility of using human measures on AI entities, especially language models, and the results indicate that the development of AI in understanding emotions and social behavior related to social intelligence is very rapid. AI will help the psychotherapist a great deal in new ways. The psychotherapist needs to be aware of possible areas of further development of AI given their benefits in counseling and psychotherapy. Studies using humanistic and non-humanistic criteria with large linguistic models are needed.

The Social Intelligence Self-care Conceptual Model

Purpose Person-centered care focuses on the whole person as a unique individual whose perspective, as well as their family's perspective, is integrated into the provision of care. The purpose of this study was to describe the perspectives of patients regarding the influence of dental hygienist providers' Social Intelligence on self-care and to create a Social Intelligence Self-care Conceptual Model.Methods An investigator-designed questionnaire was administered to patients who received care at a dental hygiene program clinic following a minimum of one 15-minute self-care education session. Five open-ended items relating to patients' perspectives of the dental hygienist providers' Social Intelligence on self-care included: 1) commitment 2) partnering 3) responsibility, 4) positive social qualities and 5) negative social qualities. Responses were analyzed and themes developed for the first three items. Social Intelligence capabilities were used to analyze the last two items.Results A total of 103 participants responded to the questionnaire. Themes for the first three items were: 1) interactions promoting encouragement and that are educational and individualized, 2) personal and shared responsibility, and 3) helpful, collaborative, and negative partners. Analysis of the last two items regarding influential positive and negative qualities yielded adapted Social Intelligence capabilities definitions. A Social Intelligence Self-care Conceptual Model was created by combining the study's results, the concepts of the Client Self-care Commitment Model, and the philosophy of person-centered care.Conclusion Social Intelligence was apparent in participants' interpersonal interactions with dental hygiene care providers that were encouraging, educational, and individualized. Other influential interactions in relationship building were revealed in the themes of shared responsibility, helpful and collaborative partnerships and positive qualities demonstrated by dental hygienists. The Social Intelligence conceptual model may be valuable to implement into education and practice with the goal of improving person-centered care and the client's oral health.

Emotion prediction as computation over a generative theory of mind

From sparse descriptions of events, observers can make systematic and nuanced predictions of what emotions the people involved will experience. We propose a formal model of emotion prediction in the context of a public high-stakes social dilemma. This model uses inverse planning to infer a person's beliefs and preferences, including social preferences for equity and for maintaining a good reputation. The model then combines these inferred mental contents with the event to compute 'appraisals': whether the situation conformed to the expectations and fulfilled the preferences. We learn functions mapping computed appraisals to emotion labels, allowing the model to match human observers' quantitative predictions of 20 emotions, including joy, relief, guilt and envy. Model comparison indicates that inferred monetary preferences are not sufficient to explain observers' emotion predictions; inferred social preferences are factored into predictions for nearly every emotion. Human observers and the model both use minimal individualizing information to adjust predictions of how different people will respond to the same event. Thus, our framework integrates inverse planning, event appraisals and emotion concepts in a single computational model to reverse-engineer people's intuitive theory of emotions. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Cognitive artificial intelligence'.

Socially intelligent machines that learn from humans and help humans learn

A hallmark of human intelligence is the ability to understand and influence other minds. Humans engage in inferential social learning (ISL) by using commonsense psychology to learn from others and help others learn. Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) are raising new questions about the feasibility of human-machine interactions that support such powerful modes of social learning. Here, we envision what it means to develop socially intelligent machines that can learn, teach, and communicate in ways that are characteristic of ISL. Rather than machines that simply predict human behaviours or recapitulate superficial aspects of human sociality (e.g. smiling, imitating), we should aim to build machines that can learn from human inputs and generate outputs for humans by proactively considering human values, intentions and beliefs. While such machines can inspire next-generation AI systems that learn more effectively from humans (as learners) and even help humans acquire new knowledge (as teachers), achieving these goals will also require scientific studies of its counterpart: how humans reason about machine minds and behaviours. We close by discussing the need for closer collaborations between the AI/ML and cognitive science communities to advance a science of both natural and artificial intelligence. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Cognitive artificial intelligence'.

Theory and Application of Neuropsychological Underpinnings of Adjudicative Competency

In their article, Aveson and colleagues postulate a model for understanding the neurocognitive underpinnings of competence to stand trial, and they present evidence to support that model for two specific facets: social intelligence and auditory verbal (episodic) memory. This commentary attempts to extend those findings by outlining specific interventions and assessment methods in the inpatient restoration setting that focus on strengthening these capacities and connecting them to the psycho legal context. It echoes the work of Aveson et al. that court is a transactional, social context heavily dependent on auditory processing and verbal comprehension and expression and suggests that restoration programs ought to incorporate interventions and assessment tools that address such faculties. Further refinement of our understanding of competence and its constituent components will enable us to better allocate scarce resources throughout the system, to tailor restoration programming to the needs of each individual defendant, and to aid defendants through restoration programming to develop the skills to take a more involved, collaborative role in the process.

Developing Emotional Intelligence through Physical Education: A Systematic Review

The development of Emotional Intelligence (EI) has gained importance in the context of goals to spur a new generation of people intent upon improving human health. Physical education (PE) is a suitable curriculum subject in which to train EI. Therefore, our aim in this review is to summarize existing literature pertaining to EI within PE, while seeking particular guidance on how to best teach EI. We systematically reviewed PubMed, ERIC, Education Database, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane, and FECYT (i.e., Web of Sciences, CCC, DIIDW, KJD, MEDLINE, RSCI, and SCIELO) databases up to January 24, 2022. From 248 studies initially located, 28 were included in a final qualitative synthesis. These 28 studies were sub-divided into (i) correlation and (ii) intervention studies with an intervention group, possibly a control group, and with pre-test and post-test outcome measures. There was a clear correlation between EI-motivation and EI-psychological needs, and there emerged the following types of educational programs for developing EI within PE: (a) pedagogical models based on corporal expression and relaxation, (b) Cooperative Learning (e.g., the Sport Education Model), (c) community engagement interventions (e.g., Social-Emotional Learning, the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model, and Service Learning), and (d) augmented reality games. Most successful EI programs included themes of collaborative work, concern for others, and social welfare. Including EI as a PE goal will require developing students' personality and encouraging PE teachers to focus on EI within pedagogical models based on community engagement.

Quantifying social performance: A review with implications for further work

Human social performance has been a focus of theory and investigation for more than a century. Attempts to quantify social performance have focused on self-report and non-social performance measures grounded in intelligence-based theories. An expertise framework, when applied to individual differences in social interaction performance, offers novel insights and methods of quantification that could address limitations of prior approaches. The purposes of this review are 3-fold. First, to define the central concepts related to individual differences in social performance, with a particular focus on the intelligence-based framework that has dominated the field. Second, to make an argument for a revised conceptualization of individual differences in social-emotional performance as a social expertise. In support of this second aim, the putative components of a social-emotional expertise and the potential means for their assessment will be outlined. To end, the implications of an expertise-based conceptual framework for the application of computational modeling approaches in this area will be discussed. Taken together, expertise theory and computational modeling methods have the potential to advance quantitative assessment of social interaction performance.

The evolution of language by sexual selection

Most accounts of the evolution of language assume that language and greater intelligence are beneficial adaptations, leading to increases in survival fitness. These accounts emphasise natural selection, with language as an adaptation to the habitat, placing less emphasis on sexual selection and reproductive fitness. An account of language evolution by natural selection alone faces problems in accounting for the prodigious power and expressivity of human language. Modern language (and its recent antecedents) would appear to offer only small incremental benefits over simpler language, which would require a smaller brain with smaller metabolic costs. Accounts by natural selection also face problems in accounting for the uniqueness of human language and intelligence. I therefore consider a hybrid account, in which both natural selection and sexual selection played a role in the evolution of language and intelligence, probably at different times. Specifically, in this account, early language was driven by natural selection to collaborate. Then later humans became subject to sexual selection for superior intelligence, with language acting as the main display mechanism for intelligence. It is hard to determine the relative roles of natural and sexual selection over the time course of the evolution of language. In the later stages, sexual selection to display intelligence drove a runaway selection process towards powerful modern language. This hybrid account retains the benefits of accounts by natural selection, while also accounting for the prodigious power of human language and intelligence, and for its uniqueness compared to other primates. Sexual selection often leads to traits which are unique to a species, and are exaggerated beyond natural needs. On this account, the capability for language may have evolved in the order: (1) pragmatics and a theory of mind; (2) using single words and constructions; (3) learning and using syntax. In this model, relevance-based pragmatics evolved before language; then, single words and constructions came into use; and later, syntax condensed out of pragmatics, as a codification of some pragmatic rules of inference. This order requires only incremental extensions of primate cognition, and agrees with the order in which children learn language.

Patients' Perspectives About the Influence of Dental Hygienists' Social Intelligence on Self-Care

Purpose: Social Intelligence refers to interpersonal relationships and a person's ability to recognize and influence the emotions and motivations of another person. The purpose of this study was to describe patients' perspectives regarding the influence dental hygienists' Social Intelligence had on their self-care. Perspectives were also compared to determine differences based on the participants' gender, generation, and recare intervals.Methods: This descriptive comparative study used a convenience sample consisting of patients receiving care at a university dental hygiene clinic. Participants were surveyed during the spring of 2019 following a dental hygiene care appointment which included a 15-minute oral self-care session. Data were collected using a self-designed questionnaire based on the Emotional Competence Framework. Content validity and test-retest reliability were established prior to administration. The Social Intelligence abilities of Social Awareness and Social Skills were measured by thirteen capabilities: Empathy, Service Orientation, Developing Others, Leveraging Diversity, and Political Awareness, Influence, Communication, Leadership, Change Catalyst, Conflict Management, Building Bonds, Collaboration and Teamwork. Participants rated twenty-six items on a 7-point Likert scale. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.Results: A total of 103 patients agreed to participate. Means of the Social Awareness capabilities ranged from 6.4 to 6.6 while the means for the Social Skills capabilities ranged from 6.0 to 6.55. There was a statistically significant difference between patients' perspectives based on gender (p=0.013); female participants rated the capabilities higher than males. However, there were no significant differences between patients' perspectives based on generation or recare interval (p=0.157 and p=0.340, respectively).Conclusion: All thirteen Social Intelligence capabilities positively influenced the dental hygienists' Social Intelligence from the patients' perspectives. Perhaps practitioners and oral healthcare students could benefit from learning about these capabilities and their application to patient self-care.

Peer Attachment and Proactive Socialization Behavior: The Moderating Role of Social Intelligence

Proactive socialization involves an active attempt to integrate into an organization, which can help an individual complete the transition from student to employee. This study-conducted via a survey involving college graduates (one year after graduation)-explores the peer attachment influence mechanism on proactive socialization behaviors and the moderating effects of social intelligence. The results of the empirical analysis show that core self-evaluation has a mediating effect between peer attachment and individual proactive socialization behavior. Peer trust and peer communication can improve individual proactive socialization behavior by enhancing core self-evaluation, but peer alienation may reduce core self-evaluation and inhibit individual proactive socialization behavior in the workplace. Social intelligence has a moderating mediating role between peer attachment, core self-evaluation, and proactive socialization behavior. High social intelligence may enhance the indirect influence of peer trust and communication on proactive socialization behavior through core self-evaluation and weaken the indirect influence of peer alienation on proactive socialization behavior through core self-evaluation. In recruitment and selection, organizations can predict the proactive socialization behaviors of candidates by investigating their peer relationships, and can also strive to create a harmonious working atmosphere and relationship to help new employees integrate into the organization.

A Model of How Shifting Intelligence Drives Social Movements

Based on the theory of social change, cultural evolution, and human development, we propose a mechanism whereby increased danger in society causes predictable shifts in valued forms of intelligence: 1. Practical intelligence rises in value relative to abstract intelligence; and 2. social intelligence shifts from measuring how well individuals can negotiate the social world to achieve their personal aims to measuring how well they can do so to achieve group aims. We document these shifts during the COVID-19 pandemic and argue that they led to an increase in the size and strength of social movements.

Phubbing and Social Intelligence: Role-Playing Experiment on Bystander Inaccessibility

Smartphone use has changed patterns of online and offline interaction. Phubbing (i.e., looking at one’s phone instead of paying attention to others) is an increasingly recognized phenomenon in offline interaction. We examined whether people who phub are more likely to have lower social intelligence, whether phubbing is considered more annoying than being ignored due to reading a magazine, and if people describe smartphones and magazines differently as sources of social distraction. We collected two survey samples (N = 112, N = 108) for a cartoon-based role-playing experiment (the Bystander Inaccessibility Experiment) in which a smartphone user and a person reading a magazine ignored the respondents’ conversational initiatives. Annoyance in each scenario was measured, and written accounts were collected on why the respondents rated the scenarios the way they did. Other measures used included the Generic Scale of Phubbing, Generic Scale of Being Phubbed, and Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale. The results showed that participants in both samples were more annoyed by phubbing than by being ignored due to reading a magazine. Linear regression analyses showed that phubbing was associated with lower social intelligence, even after adjusting for confounding factors. The annoyingness of phubbing was explained with negative attitudes toward smartphones, which were assumed to be used for useless endeavors, while magazines were more appreciated and seen as more cultivating. The role of bystanders’ epistemic access to the smartphone user’s activities is discussed.

The role of smartphone app "WhatsApp" on achievement motivation and social intelligence among female undergraduate students

PURPOSE

This study investigates the effects of using a smartphone application (WhatsApp) on achievement motivation and social intelligence in female students at Taif University.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The sample comprised 60 undergraduate female students from a college of education. The design was a quasi-experimental nonequivalent (pretest and posttest) control group.

FINDINGS

Achievement motivation was significantly higher in the experimental group than the control group at posttest. However, no significant difference was found between the experimental and control groups in social intelligence at posttest.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Smartphones can increase student learning by fostering high-level skills and concepts.

Bringing Together Robotics, Neuroscience, and Psychology: Lessons Learned From an Interdisciplinary Project

The diversified methodology and expertise of interdisciplinary research teams provide the opportunity to overcome the limited perspectives of individual disciplines. This is particularly true at the interface of Robotics, Neuroscience, and Psychology as the three fields have quite different perspectives and approaches to offer. Nonetheless, aligning backgrounds and interdisciplinary expectations can present challenges due to varied research cultures and practices. Overcoming these challenges stands at the beginning of each productive collaboration and thus is a mandatory step in cognitive neurorobotics. In this article, we share eight lessons that we learned from our ongoing interdisciplinary project on human-robot and robot-robot interaction in social settings. These lessons provide practical advice for scientists initiating interdisciplinary research endeavors. Our advice can help to avoid early problems and deal with differences between research fields, prepare for and anticipate challenges, align project expectations, and speed up research progress, thus promoting effective interdisciplinary research across Robotics, Neuroscience, and Psychology.

Attributing social meaning to animated shapes: A new experimental study of apparent behavior

In 1944, Heider and Simmel reported that observers could perceive simple animated geometric shapes as characters with emotions, intentions, and other social attributes. This work has been cited over 3000 times and has had wide and ongoing influence on the study of social cognition and social intelligence. However, many researchers in this area have continued to use the original Heider and Simmel black-and-white video. We asked whether the original findings could be reproduced 75 years later by creating 32 new colored animated shape videos designed to depict various social plots and testing whether they can evoke similar spontaneous social attributions. Participants (N = 66) viewed our videos and were asked to write narratives which we coded for indicia of different types of social attributions. Consistent with Heider and Simmel, we found that participants spontaneously attributed social meaning to the videos. We observed that responses to our videos were also similar to responses to the original video reported by Klin (2000), despite being only 13-23 s and portraying a broader range of social plots. Participants varied in how many social attributions they made in response, and the videos varied in how much they elicited such responses. Our set of animated shape videos is freely available online for all researchers to use and forms the basis of a multiple-choice assessment of social intelligence (Brown et al., 2019).

Two-level tumor board operation-based social intelligence that serves the quality of cancer treatment and the prevention of burnout phenomenon

Összefoglaló. Bevezetés és célkitűzések: Az együttműködés, a csoportmunka életünk szinte minden területén képes növelni a hatékonyságot. A rákgyógyításban már évtizedek óta alkalmazott onkoteamek működését vizsgálva, annak egyértelmű célja az orvosi hatékonyság, az egymástól tanulás és a jogi védelem biztosítása. Jelenleg egy másik aspektust hangsúlyozva próbáljuk bemutatni a kooperatív munka működését, megvilágítva a kommunikációban részt vevők lehetőségeit és dilemmáit, illetve legfőképpen a pszichés támogató hatást. Módszer és eredmények: A Pécsi Tudományegyetem Klinikai Központjának Onkoterápiás Intézetében 12 éve működik a kétlépcsős onkoteamrendszer. Az onkoterápiás megbeszéléseken egyéves időszak alatt 21 orvos, több adminisztrátor, klinikai kutatási munkatárs, szakdolgozó, gyógyszerész és pszichológus vett részt, a résztvevők szakmai tapasztalata igen széles spektrumot fedett le. A megbeszélések során az egyes betegek onkológiai életútja került részletes diszkusszióra interaktív formában, végül a döntési részletek rögzítésre kerültek a központi informatikai rendszerben. Megfigyeléseink rávilágítottak a csapatmunka előnyeire, illetve a csoport által ellátott feladatok megosztó, kiegyensúlyozó, oktatást segítő hatásaira. Az orvosok által kitöltött kérdőívek pedig bizonyították, hogy a közvetlen munkatársak közötti szakmai megbeszélés, egyféle "Bálint-csoport" működésként a pszichés terhek megosztásában is szerepet játszhat. Következtetés: A rákgyógyítás területén az elmúlt évek során bekövetkezett gyors fejlődés, a fokozott elvárások, illetve az ezen a területen végzett, sokszor igen összetett és lelkileg is megterhelő szakmai munka kiemelten fontossá teszi a hatékony minőségbiztosítási módszerek és együttműködési formák alkalmazását, melyek segítségével lehetőség nyílik a szakmai eszmecseréken át a többirányú tudástranszferre és a kiégést megelőző csoportventilációra. Orv Hetil. 2021; 162(9): 344-351.

SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

The teamwork, the cooperation is always able to elevate effectiveness in every field of life. The tumor board meetings which are widely used in cancer treatment process in the last decades were originally established to warrant the medical, educational and legal quality assurance. Over these aspects, here we present the possibilities and dilemmas of the team work in the communication practices and most of all the psychological support of the participants.

METHOD AND RESULTS

The two-level oncotherapy tumor board system was introduced 12 years ago at the Institute of Oncotherapy, Clinical Center, University of Pécs. During a one-year long observation period, 21 physicians and several administrators, study coordinators, pharmacists, nurses and psychologists with different experiences participated in the oncotherapy tumor board discussions. In the meetings, the specific cancer histories of the patients were analyzed in an interactive form, and finally the detailed decisions were stored in the medical database system. Our observations proved the advantages, moreover, the task sharing, balancing and educational effects of the teamwork. The results obtained from the questionnaires filled out by the physicians proved that the direct conversation between department colleagues works like a case-discussing "Bálint-group" in taking the role of distributing of the psychological burden of the physicians.

CONCLUSION

The immense advancements in cancer treatment during the last years, moreover, the increased expectations and the complex and mentally charging professional tasks all demand the establishment of more effective quality control and cooperation methods. Introducing these new methods, it would lead to more efficient professional discussions, knowledge transfer and burnout preventive group-related psychological ventilation. Orv Hetil. 2021; 162(9): 344-351.

Social Intelligence and Psychological Distress: Subjective and Psychological Well-Being as Mediators

The strength named "social intelligence" in the Values in Action (VIA) Classification of Character Strengths and Virtues represents emotional, personal, and social intelligences, which are considered "hot intelligences". This work contributed to the study of the mechanisms of influence of social intelligence on mental health. A multiple mediation model was proposed to quantify the direct effect of social intelligence on psychopathological symptoms, as well as its indirect effect through its impact on components of subjective and psychological well-being. This study involved 1407 university students who completed the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Psychological Well-Being Scales (PWBS), and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). Social intelligence was found to be significantly associated with life satisfaction (a = 0.33, p < 0.001), positive affect (a = 0.42, p < 0.001), and negative affect (a = -0.21, p < 0.001), transmitting significant indirect effects on psychopathological symptomatology through these components of subjective well-being. Likewise, social intelligence was positively and significantly related to psychological well-being (a-paths ranged from 0.31 to 0.43, p < 0.001), exerting significant and negative indirect effects on psychological distress through the dimension of positive relations with other people. These results could be useful in order to expand the explanatory models of the influence of social intelligence on mental health and to design interventions based on this strength for the promotion of well-being and the reduction in psychological distress.

Transitive inference in Polistes paper wasps

Transitive inference (TI) is a form of logical reasoning that involves using known relationships to infer unknown relationships (A > B; B > C; then A > C). TI has been found in a wide range of vertebrates but not in insects. Here, we test whether Polistes dominula and Polistes metricus paper wasps can solve a TI problem. Wasps were trained to discriminate between five elements in series (A₀B-, B₀C-, C₀D-, D₀E-), then tested on novel, untrained pairs (B versus D). Consistent with TI, wasps chose B more frequently than D. Wasps organized the trained stimuli into an implicit hierarchy and used TI to choose between untrained pairs. Species that form social hierarchies like Polistes may be predisposed to spontaneously organize information along a common underlying dimension. This work contributes to a growing body of evidence that the miniature nervous system of insects does not limit sophisticated behaviours.

Social Intelligence Attenuates Association between Peer Victimization and Depressive Symptoms among Adolescents

OBJECTIVE

Peer victimization is linked to psychological distress, but some youth are less affected than others. Identifying protective factors can inform prevention programs. Using longitudinal data from 7^th graders we tested the role of social intelligence as a protective factor in the relation between peer victimization and depressive symptoms.

METHOD

Students (N = 986; 54% female; 43% non-white) from three schools provided self-report data via computer-assisted survey interviews in the fall (Time 1, T1) and spring (Time 2, T2) of 7^th grade.

RESULTS

Females reported more depressive symptoms and less physical victimization than males but did not differ from males on social intelligence or relational victimization. Regression analyses controlling for T1 depressive symptoms and other potential confounds revealed that both physical and relational victimization were positively and significantly associated with T2 depressive symptoms, but the strength of the relation varied by gender and by social intelligence. Specifically, the associations between victimization and depressive symptoms were stronger among females than males and among those with low or moderate rather than high social intelligence.

CONCLUSIONS

Social intelligence may protect youth from the psychological harms of peer victimization and could be an effective target of prevention programming.

The Effect of Robot Attentional Behaviors on User Perceptions and Behaviors in a Simulated Health Care Interaction: Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

For robots to be effectively used in health applications, they need to display appropriate social behaviors. A fundamental requirement in all social interactions is the ability to engage, maintain, and demonstrate attention. Attentional behaviors include leaning forward, self-disclosure, and changes in voice pitch.

Objective

This study aimed to examine the effect of robot attentional behaviors on user perceptions and behaviors in a simulated health care interaction.

Methods

A parallel randomized controlled trial with a 1:1:1:1 allocation ratio was conducted. We randomized participants to 1 of 4 experimental conditions before engaging in a scripted face-to-face interaction with a fully automated medical receptionist robot. Experimental conditions included a self-disclosure condition, voice pitch change condition, forward lean condition, and neutral condition. Participants completed paper-based postinteraction measures relating to engagement, perceived robot attention, and perceived robot empathy. We video recorded interactions and coded for participant attentional behaviors.

Results

A total of 181 participants were recruited from the University of Auckland. Participants who interacted with the robot in the forward lean and self-disclosure conditions found the robot to be significantly more stimulating than those who interacted with the robot in the voice pitch or neutral conditions (P=.03). Participants in the forward lean, self-disclosure, and neutral conditions found the robot to be significantly more interesting than those in the voice pitch condition (P<.001). Participants in the forward lean and self-disclosure conditions spent significantly more time looking at the robot than participants in the neutral condition (P<.001). Significantly, more participants in the self-disclosure condition laughed during the interaction (P=.01), whereas significantly more participants in the forward lean condition leant toward the robot during the interaction (P<.001).

Conclusions

The use of self-disclosure and forward lean by a health care robot can increase human engagement and attentional behaviors. Voice pitch changes did not increase attention or engagement. The small effects with regard to participant perceptions are potentially because of the limitations in self-report measures or a lack of comparison for most participants who had never interacted with a robot before. Further research could explore the use of self-disclosure and forward lean using a within-subjects design and in real health care settings.

I Should Have Known Better: Development of a Self-Report Measure of Gullibility

The aim of this research was to explore the predictors of gullibility and to develop a self-report measure of the construct. In Studies 1 to 3, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on a large pool of items resulting in a 12-item scale with two factors: Persuadability and Insensitivity to cues of untrustworthiness. Study 4 confirmed the criterion validity of the scale using two distinct samples: scam victims and members of the Skeptics Society. Study 5 demonstrated positive relationships between gullibility and the self-reported persuasiveness of, and likelihood of responding to, unsolicited emails. Throughout the article, analyses of a variety of measures expected to converge with the scale provided evidence for its construct validity. Overall, these studies demonstrate that the construct of gullibility is distinct from trust, negatively related to social intelligence, and that the Gullibility Scale is a reliable and valid measure of gullibility.

The Behavioral Level of Emotional Intelligence and Its Measurement

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is now widely used in organizations and graduate schools with an increase in published research supporting it. Discussion about EI whether based on measures or theory has given little distinction as to behavioral EI (i.e., how does EI appear in a person's actions). This results in spurious conflicts about the validity of the different theories or measures which likely limit predicting managerial and leadership effectiveness, engagement, innovation and organizational citizenship. By adding a behavioral level, the concept of EI could relate to work and life outcomes beyond general mental ability and personality traits, avoid some of the criticisms while providing a more holistic theory of EI. As such, EI exists within personality as a performance trait or ability, and a self-schema self-image and trait, and a set of behaviors (i.e., competencies). The main contribution of this establishing the behavioral EI with a multi-level theory, while explaining how to assess it, the benefits of such a concept and its psychometric validity and challenges. The history and assortment of validation studies will illustrate that measures can rigorously and effectively assess the behavioral level of EI.

Experiments in Artificial Theory of Mind: From Safety to Story-Telling

Theory of mind is the term given by philosophers and psychologists for the ability to form a predictive model of self and others. In this paper we focus on synthetic models of theory of mind. We contend firstly that such models—especially when tested experimentally—can provide useful insights into cognition, and secondly that artificial theory of mind can provide intelligent robots with powerful new capabilities, in particular social intelligence for human-robot interaction. This paper advances the hypothesis that simulation-based internal models offer a powerful and realisable, theory-driven basis for artificial theory of mind. Proposed as a computational model of the simulation theory of mind, our simulation-based internal model equips a robot with an internal model of itself and its environment, including other dynamic actors, which can test (i.e., simulate) the robot's next possible actions and hence anticipate the likely consequences of those actions both for itself and others. Although it falls far short of a full artificial theory of mind, our model does allow us to test several interesting scenarios: in some of these a robot equipped with the internal model interacts with other robots without an internal model, but acting as proxy humans; in others two robots each with a simulation-based internal model interact with each other. We outline a series of experiments which each demonstrate some aspect of artificial theory of mind.

Quantifying uncertainty due to fission-fusion dynamics as a component of social complexity

Groups of animals (including humans) may show flexible grouping patterns, in which temporary aggregations or subgroups come together and split, changing composition over short temporal scales, (i.e. fission and fusion). A high degree of fission-fusion dynamics may constrain the regulation of social relationships, introducing uncertainty in interactions between group members. Here we use Shannon's entropy to quantify the predictability of subgroup composition for three species known to differ in the way their subgroups come together and split over time: spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and geladas (Theropithecus gelada). We formulate a random expectation of entropy that considers subgroup size variation and sample size, against which the observed entropy in subgroup composition can be compared. Using the theory of set partitioning, we also develop a method to estimate the number of subgroups that the group is likely to be divided into, based on the composition and size of single focal subgroups. Our results indicate that Shannon's entropy and the estimated number of subgroups present at a given time provide quantitative metrics of uncertainty in the social environment (within which social relationships must be regulated) for groups with different degrees of fission-fusion dynamics. These metrics also represent an indirect quantification of the cognitive challenges posed by socially dynamic environments. Overall, our novel methodological approach provides new insight for understanding the evolution of social complexity and the mechanisms to cope with the uncertainty that results from fission-fusion dynamics.

The repurposed social brain

Human social intelligence depends on a diverse array of perceptual, cognitive, and motivational capacities. Some of these capacities depend on neural systems that may have evolved through modification of ancestral systems with non-social or more limited social functions (evolutionary repurposing). Social intelligence, in turn, enables new forms of repurposing within the lifetime of an individual (cultural and instrumental repurposing), which entail innovating over and exploiting pre-existing circuitry to meet problems our brains did not evolve to solve. Considering these repurposing processes can provide insight into the computations that brain regions contribute to social information processing, generate testable predictions that usefully constrain social neuroscience theory, and reveal biologically imposed constraints on cultural inventions and our ability to respond beneficially to contemporary challenges.

The relationship between the social management of emotional intelligence and academic performance among medical students

Positive social interaction with peers was said to facilitate cognitive and intellectual development leading to good academic performance. There was paucity of published data on the effect of social management (SM) emotional intelligence (EI) on academic performance. We conducted this study to examine their relationship in the undergraduate medical students in a public medical school in Malaysia. This was a cross-sectional study using the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) to measure the SM. The first and final year medical students were invited to participate. Students answered a paper-based demography questionnaire and completed the online MSCEIT in privacy. Independent predictors were identified using multivariate analyses. A total of 163 (84 first year and 79 final year) medical students completed the study (at a response rate of 66.0%). SM score (B = -.10 95% CI -.175 to -.015, p = .021) was significantly related to the continuous assessment (CA) marks (adjusted R(2) = .45, F13,137 = 10.26, p < .0001), and was a predictor of poor result in the overall CA (adjusted OR 1.06 95% CI 1.011-1.105). Negative relationships might exist between emotional social intelligence and academic success in undergraduate medical students. A different collection of social skills and SM EI could be constructive towards academic achievement in medical schools.

Lesion mapping of social problem solving

Accumulating neuroscience evidence indicates that human intelligence is supported by a distributed network of frontal and parietal regions that enable complex, goal-directed behaviour. However, the contributions of this network to social aspects of intellectual function remain to be well characterized. Here, we report a human lesion study (n = 144) that investigates the neural bases of social problem solving (measured by the Everyday Problem Solving Inventory) and examine the degree to which individual differences in performance are predicted by a broad spectrum of psychological variables, including psychometric intelligence (measured by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), emotional intelligence (measured by the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test), and personality traits (measured by the Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory). Scores for each variable were obtained, followed by voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that working memory, processing speed, and emotional intelligence predict individual differences in everyday problem solving. A targeted analysis of specific everyday problem solving domains (involving friends, home management, consumerism, work, information management, and family) revealed psychological variables that selectively contribute to each. Lesion mapping results indicated that social problem solving, psychometric intelligence, and emotional intelligence are supported by a shared network of frontal, temporal, and parietal regions, including white matter association tracts that bind these areas into a coordinated system. The results support an integrative framework for understanding social intelligence and make specific recommendations for the application of the Everyday Problem Solving Inventory to the study of social problem solving in health and disease.

Responses of chimpanzees to cues of conspecific observation

Recent evidence has shown that humans are remarkably sensitive to artificial cues of conspecific observation when making decisions with potential social consequences. Whether similar effects are found in other great apes has not yet been investigated. We carried out two experiments in which individual chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, took items of food from an array in the presence of either an image of a large conspecific face or a scrambled control image. In experiment 1 we compared three versions of the face image varying in size and the amount of the face displayed. In experiment 2 we compared a fourth variant of the image with more prominent coloured eyes displayed closer to the focal chimpanzee. The chimpanzees did not look at the face images significantly more than at the control images in either experiment. Although there were trends for some individuals in each experiment to be slower to take high-value food items in the face conditions, these were not consistent or robust. We suggest that the extreme human sensitivity to cues of potential conspecific observation may not be shared with chimpanzees.

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Humans respond strongly to ‘watching eyes’, but whether chimpanzees do is unknown.

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We investigated if chimpanzees' readiness to take food was affected by face images.

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There was no clear evidence that subjects looked at faces more than control images.

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Any effect of the faces on chimpanzees' decisions was weak and inconsistent.

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Chimpanzees may not be as sensitive to cues of being watched as humans are.

Experimental evidence for limited vocal recognition in a wild primate: implications for the social complexity hypothesis

Although monitoring social information is a key aspect of the social complexity hypothesis, surprisingly little work has compared social knowledge across different species of wild animals. In the present study, I use playback experiments to test for individual recognition in wild male geladas (Theropithecus gelada) to compare with published accounts of social knowledge in chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). Geladas and baboons are closely related primates living in socially complex groups that differ dramatically in group size-geladas routinely associate with more than 10 times the number of conspecifics than do baboons. Using grunts from non-rival males to simulate approaches, I examined the strength of a subject male's response when the 'approach' was from the direction of (i) non-rival males (control), or (ii) rival males (a more salient stimulus if playback grunts are not recognized by the subject). I compared responses separately based on the degree of social overlap between the caller and the subject. Responses indicate that male geladas, unlike baboons, do not use vocalizations to recognize all of the individuals they regularly encounter. This represents, to my knowledge, the first documented evidence of 'missing' social knowledge in a natural primate population. The sharp distinction between baboons and geladas suggests that geladas are either unable or unmotivated to keep track of the individual identity of other males in their multi-level society-even males with whom they have a large degree of social overlap. Thus, these results are consistent with the central assumption of the social complexity hypothesis that social cognition is costly.

Social Complexity Predicts Transitive Reasoning in Prosimian Primates

Transitive Inference is a form of deductive reasoning that has been suggested as one cognitive mechanism by which animals could learn the many relationships within their group's dominance hierarchy. This process thus bears relevance to the social intelligence hypothesis which posits evolutionary links between various forms of social and nonsocial cognition. Recent evidence corroborates the link between social complexity and transitive inference and indicates that highly social animals may show superior transitive reasoning even in nonsocial contexts. We examined the relationship between social complexity and transitive inference in two species of prosimians, a group of primates that diverged from the common ancestor of monkeys, apes, and humans over 50 million years ago. In Experiment 1, highly social ring-tailed lemurs, Lemur catta, outperformed the less social mongoose lemurs, Eulemur mongoz, in tests of transitive inference and showed more robust representations of the underlying ordinal relationships between the stimuli. In Experiment 2, after training under a correction procedure that emphasized the underlying linear dimension of the series, both species showed similar transitive inference. This finding suggests that the two lemur species differ not in their fundamental ability to make transitive inferences, but rather in their predisposition to mentally organize information along a common underlying dimension. Together, these results support the hypothesis that social complexity is an important selective pressure for the evolution of cognitive abilities relevant to transitive reasoning.

Chimpanzees modify recruitment screams as a function of audience composition

Wild chimpanzees produce acoustically distinct scream vocalizations depending on their social role during agonistic interactions with other group members. Here, we show that victims during such agonistic interactions alter the acoustic structure of their screams depending on the severity of aggression experienced, providing nearby listeners with important cues about the nature of the attack. However, we also found that victims of severe attacks produced screams that significantly exaggerated the true level of aggression experienced, but they did so only if there was at least one listener in the audience who matched or surpassed the aggressor in rank. Our results are consistent with the more general hypothesis that chimpanzees possess sophisticated understanding of third-party relationships, so-called triadic awareness, and that this knowledge influences their vocal production.

Getting back to the rough ground: deception and 'social living'

At the heart of the social intelligence hypothesis is the central role of 'social living'. But living is messy and psychologists generally seek to avoid this mess in the interests of getting clean data and cleaner logical explanations. The study of deception as intelligent action is a good example of the dangers of such avoidance. We still do not have a full picture of the development of deceptive actions in human infants and toddlers or an explanation of why it emerges. This paper applies Byrne & Whiten's functional taxonomy of tactical deception to the social behaviour of human infants and toddlers using data from three previous studies. The data include a variety of acts, such as teasing, pretending, distracting and concealing, which are not typically considered in relation to human deception. This functional analysis shows the onset of non-verbal deceptive acts to be surprisingly early. Infants and toddlers seem to be able to communicate false information (about themselves, about shared meanings and about events) as early as true information. It is argued that the development of deception must be a fundamentally social and communicative process and that if we are to understand why deception emerges at all, the scientist needs to get 'back to the rough ground' as Wittgenstein called it and explore the messy social lives in which it develops.

Cooperation and human cognition: the Vygotskian intelligence hypothesis

Nicholas Humphrey's social intelligence hypothesis proposed that the major engine of primate cognitive evolution was social competition. Lev Vygotsky also emphasized the social dimension of intelligence, but he focused on human primates and cultural things such as collaboration, communication and teaching. A reasonable proposal is that primate cognition in general was driven mainly by social competition, but beyond that the unique aspects of human cognition were driven by, or even constituted by, social cooperation. In the present paper, we provide evidence for this Vygotskian intelligence hypothesis by comparing the social-cognitive skills of great apes with those of young human children in several domains of activity involving cooperation and communication with others. We argue, finally, that regular participation in cooperative, cultural interactions during ontogeny leads children to construct uniquely powerful forms of perspectival cognitive representation.

Social intelligence, human intelligence and niche construction

This paper is about the evolution of hominin intelligence. I agree with defenders of the social intelligence hypothesis in thinking that externalist models of hominin intelligence are not plausible: such models cannot explain the unique cognition and cooperation explosion in our lineage, for changes in the external environment (e.g. increasing environmental unpredictability) affect many lineages. Both the social intelligence hypothesis and the social intelligence-ecological complexity hybrid I outline here are niche construction models. Hominin evolution is hominin response to selective environments that earlier hominins have made. In contrast to social intelligence models, I argue that hominins have both created and responded to a unique foraging mode; a mode that is both social in itself and which has further effects on hominin social environments. In contrast to some social intelligence models, on this view, hominin encounters with their ecological environments continue to have profound selective effects. However, though the ecological environment selects, it does not select on its own. Accidents and their consequences, differential success and failure, result from the combination of the ecological environment an agent faces and the social features that enhance some opportunities and suppress others and that exacerbate some dangers and lessen others. Individuals do not face the ecological filters on their environment alone, but with others, and with the technology, information and misinformation that their social world provides.

The evolution of animal 'cultures' and social intelligence

Decades-long field research has flowered into integrative studies that, together with experimental evidence for the requisite social learning capacities, have indicated a reliance on multiple traditions ('cultures') in a small number of species. It is increasingly evident that there is great variation in manifestations of social learning, tradition and culture among species, offering much scope for evolutionary analysis. Social learning has been identified in a range of vertebrate and invertebrate species, yet sustained traditions appear rarer, and the multiple traditions we call cultures are rarer still. Here, we examine relationships between this variation and both social intelligence--sophisticated information processing adapted to the social domain--and encephalization. First, we consider whether culture offers one particular confirmation of the social ('Machiavellian') intelligence hypothesis that certain kinds of social life (here, culture) select for intelligence: 'you need to be smart to sustain culture'. Phylogenetic comparisons, particularly focusing on our own study animals, the great apes, support this, but we also highlight some paradoxes in a broader taxonomic survey. Second, we use intraspecific variation to address the converse hypothesis that 'culture makes you smart', concluding that recent evidence for both chimpanzees and orangutans support this proposition.

Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence

Resilience is a construct of increasing interest, but validated scales measuring resilience factors among adults are scarce. Here, a scale named the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA) was crossvalidated and compared with measures of personality (Big Five/5PFs), cognitive abilities (Raven's Advanced Matrices, Vocabulary, Number series), and social intelligence (TSIS). All measures were given to 482 applicants for the military college. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the fit of the five-factor model, measuring 'personal strength', 'social competence', 'structured style', 'family cohesion' and 'social resources'. Using Big Five to discriminate between well adjusted and more vulnerable personality profiles, all resilience factors were positively correlated with the well adjusted personality profile. RSA-personal strength was most associated with 5PFs-emotional stability, RSA-social competence with 5PFs-extroversion and 5PFs-agreeableness, as well as TSIS-social skills, RSA-structured style with 5PFs-conscientiousness. Unexpectedly but interestingly, measures of RSA-family cohesion and RSA-social resources were also related to personality. Furthermore, the RSA was unrelated to cognitive abilities. This study supported the convergent and discriminative validity of the scale, and thus the inference that individuals scoring high on this scale are psychologically healthier, better adjusted, and thus more resilient.

Human facial expressions as adaptations: Evolutionary questions in facial expression research

The importance of the face in social interaction and social intelligence is widely recognized in anthropology. Yet the adaptive functions of human facial expression remain largely unknown. An evolutionary model of human facial expression as behavioral adaptation can be constructed, given the current knowledge of the phenotypic variation, ecological contexts, and fitness consequences of facial behavior. Studies of facial expression are available, but results are not typically framed in an evolutionary perspective. This review identifies the relevant physical phenomena of facial expression and integrates the study of this behavior with the anthropological study of communication and sociality in general. Anthropological issues with relevance to the evolutionary study of facial expression include: facial expressions as coordinated, stereotyped behavioral phenotypes, the unique contexts and functions of different facial expressions, the relationship of facial expression to speech, the value of facial expressions as signals, and the relationship of facial expression to social intelligence in humans and in nonhuman primates. Human smiling is used as an example of adaptation, and testable hypotheses concerning the human smile, as well as other expressions, are proposed.