A Review of the Principles and Applications of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to Characterize Meat, Fat, and Meat Products

Consumer demand for quality and healthfulness has led to a higher need for quality assurance in meat production. This requirement has increased interest in near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy due to the ability for rapid, environmentally friendly, and noninvasive prediction of meat quality or authentication of added-value meat products. This review includes the principles of NIR spectroscopy, pre-processing methods, and multivariate analyses used for quantitative and qualitative purposes in the meat sector. Recent advances in portable NIR spectrometers that enable new online applications in the meat industry are shown and their performance evaluated. Discrepancies between published studies and potential sources of variability are discussed, and further research is encouraged to face the challenges of using NIRS technology in commercial applications, so that its full potential can be achieved.

[Nutrition and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease]

Atherosclerotic lesion called atheroma includes large amounts of cholesterol. Intake of cholesterol and quality of free fatty acids contributes to the increase of serum cholesterol level and the development of atherosclerosis. A high level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is established as a the most dangerous risk factor to promote atherosclerosis. However, recent dietary instruction is focusing on the diet pattern instead of the dietary individual nutrients including cholesterol. We discuss the problem concerning dietary lipids and others for the prevention of atherosclerosis.

Evidence-Based Guideline of the German Nutrition Society: Fat Intake and Prevention of Selected Nutrition-Related Diseases

As nutrition-related chronic diseases have become more and more frequent, the importance of dietary prevention has also increased. Dietary fat plays a major role in human nutrition, and modification of fat and/or fatty acid intake could have a preventive potential. The aim of the guideline of the German Nutrition Society (DGE) was to systematically evaluate the evidence for the prevention of the widespread diseases obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipoproteinaemia, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, and cancer through the intake of fat or fatty acids. The main results can be summarized as follows: it was concluded with convincing evidence that a reduced intake of total and saturated fat as well as a larger intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) at the expense of saturated fatty acids (SFA) reduces the concentration of total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma. Furthermore, there is convincing evidence that a high intake of trans fatty acids increases risk of dyslipoproteinaemia and that a high intake of long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids reduces the triglyceride concentration in plasma. A high fat intake increases the risk of obesity with probable evidence when total energy intake is not controlled for (ad libitum diet). When energy intake is controlled for, there is probable evidence for no association between fat intake and risk of obesity. A larger intake of PUFA at the expense of SFA reduces risk of CHD with probable evidence. Furthermore, there is probable evidence that a high intake of long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids reduces risk of hypertension and CHD. With probable evidence, a high trans fatty acid intake increases risk of CHD. The practical consequences for current dietary recommendations are described at the end of this article.

The impact of food and nutrient-based standards on primary school children's lunch and total dietary intake: a natural experimental evaluation of government policy in England

In 2005, the nutritional content of children's school lunches in England was widely criticised, leading to a major policy change in 2006. Food and nutrient-based standards were reintroduced requiring primary schools to comply by September 2008. We aimed to determine the effect of the policy on the nutritional content at lunchtime and in children's total diet. We undertook a natural experimental evaluation, analysing data from cross-sectional surveys in 12 primary schools in North East England, pre and post policy. Dietary data were collected on four consecutive days from children aged 4-7 years (n = 385 in 2003-4; n = 632 in 2008-9). We used linear mixed effect models to analyse the effects of gender, year, and lunch type on children's mean total daily intake. Both pre- and post-implementation, children who ate a school lunch consumed less sodium (mean change -128 mg, 95% CI: -183 to -73 mg) in their total diet than children eating home-packed lunches. Post-implementation, children eating school lunches consumed a lower % energy from fat (-1.8%, -2.8 to -0.9) and saturated fat (-1.0%; -1.6 to -0.5) than children eating packed lunches. Children eating school lunches post implementation consumed significantly more carbohydrate (16.4 g, 5.3 to 27.6), protein (3.6 g, 1.1 to 6.0), non-starch polysaccharides (1.5 g, 0.5 to 1.9), vitamin C (0.7 mg, 0.6 to 0.8), and folate (12.3 µg, 9.7 to 20.4) in their total diet than children eating packed lunches. Implementation of school food policy standards was associated with significant improvements in the nutritional content of school lunches; this was reflected in children's total diet. School food- and nutrient-based standards can play an important role in promoting dietary health and may contribute to tackling childhood obesity. Similar policy measures should be considered for other environments influencing children's diet.

Development and evaluation of a brief questionnaire to assess dietary fat quality in low-income overweight women in the southern United States

OBJECTIVE

To develop a brief questionnaire to assess dietary fat quality, the Dietary Fat Quality Assessment (DFQA), for use in dietary counseling to reduce heart disease risk.

METHODS

A subsample of 120 underserved, midlife women enrolled in a randomized, controlled weight loss trial completed baseline and follow-up telephone surveys. Main outcome measures included dietary fat components (total fat, saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, monounsaturated fat, omega-3 fatty acids, and cholesterol).

RESULTS

Assessments of major dietary fat components using the DFQA and a food frequency questionnaire were significantly correlated, with correlation coefficients of 0.54-0.66 (P < .001). Intra-class correlation coefficients to assess reliability ranged from 0.48 to 0.59 for each of the fat components studied.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The DFQA provides a reasonable assessment of dietary fat quality associated with coronary heart disease risk and may prove useful as a brief assessment tool to guide dietary counseling given to reduce heart disease risk.

[Nutritional guidelines for healthy children aged 1-3 years - Polish Expert Group statement. Part I- energy and nutritional components demand]

Updating of the nutritional guidelines for the Polish population requires updates of the nutritional norms for children. We present the Polish Expert Group statement (2012) on intake of selected nutrients (protein, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamin D and E) essential in nutrition of children aged 1-3 years. For this purpose the Expert Group reviewed available scientific data: the recent guidelines, nutritional norms and recommendations, systematic reviews and expert opinions as well as original publications, in relation to the specific requirements of the Polish population.

Nutritional content of supermarket ready meals and recipes by television chefs in the United Kingdom: cross sectional study

OBJECTIVES

To compare the energy and macronutrient content of main meals created by television chefs with ready meals sold by supermarkets, and to compare both with nutritional guidelines published by the World Health Organization and UK Food Standards Agency.

DESIGN

Cross sectional study.

SETTING

Three supermarkets with the largest share of the grocery market in the United Kingdom, 2010.

SAMPLES

100 main meal recipes from five bestselling cookery books by UK television chefs and 100 own brand ready meals from the three leading UK supermarkets.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Number of meals for which the nutritional content complied with WHO recommendations, and the proportion of nutrients classified as red, amber, or green using the UK FSA's "traffic light" system for labelling food.

RESULTS

No recipe or ready meal fully complied with the WHO recommendations. The ready meals were more likely to comply with the recommended proportions of energy derived from carbohydrate (18% v 6%, P=0.01) and sugars (83% v 81%, P=0.05) and fibre density (56% v 14% P<0.01). The recipes were more likely to comply with the recommended sodium density (36% v 4%, P<0.01), although salt used for seasoning was not assessed. The distributions of traffic light colours under the FSA's food labelling recommendations differed: the modal traffic light was red for the recipes (47%) and green for ready meals (42%). Overall, the recipes contained significantly more energy (2530 kJ v 2067 kJ), protein (37.5 g v 27.9 g), fat (27.1 g v 17.2 g), and saturated fat (9.2 g v 6.8 g; P<0.01 for all) and significantly less fibre (3.3 g v 6.5 g, P<0.01) per portion than the ready meals.

CONCLUSIONS

Neither recipes created by television chefs nor ready meals sold by three of the leading UK supermarkets complied with WHO recommendations. Recipes were less healthy than ready meals, containing significantly more energy, protein, fat, and saturated fat, and less fibre per portion than the ready meals.

[Principles of optimal nutrition of sportsmen in various kinds of sport]

Basic principles of optimal nutrition of sportsmen in various kinds of sport are formulated. Their diet must be well-balanced in terms of all nutrients and contain essential vitamins and minerals. There is outlined an indispensable content of the basic nutrients in sportsmen's daily diet: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals.

Dietary lipids in early development: relevance to obesity, immune and inflammatory disorders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Regardless of social, cultural and behavioural environments, obesity is usually caused by an energy intake above requirements, which is accommodated by the accumulation of triacylglycerols. The composition of dietary fat impacts tissue fatty acids, which are important modulators of multiple cell functions, including differentiation, lipogenesis, lipolysis and the generation of inflammatory mediators. This review focuses on the possible contribution of fatty acids to the link between obesity and inflammation in young children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Adipose tissue is a complex organ that functions to regulate fatty acid balance, clearing and releasing fatty acids, and synthesizing protein and signaling molecules that act as local and distant inflammatory mediators. Obesity, even in young children, is associated with increased circulating inflammatory mediators. As a result of changes in dietary fat compositions, infants are exposed to high n-6, saturated and trans fatty acids and low n-3 fatty acids. Saturated and trans fatty acids increase and n-3 fatty acids decrease many metabolic and inflammatory changes that accompany diet-induced triacylglycerol storage. High linoleic acid is associated with increased oxidative stress.

SUMMARY

There is a biological reason to consider that dietary fatty acids may contribute to oxidative stress and heightened inflammatory responses in young children.

Dietary fat in infancy should be more focused on quality than on quantity

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim was to assess, the association of the quantity and quality of dietary fat intake from 6 to 12 months of age and serum lipids at 12 months.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Three hundred healthy term Swedish infants were recruited in a longitudinal prospective study at the age of 6 months; 276 remained in the study at 12 months. Food records and anthropometric data were collected monthly from 6 to 12 months; serum lipids were analysed at 6 and 12 months.

RESULTS

Swedish infants had a total fat intake within the Nordic recommendations, but intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was low (5.6 percent of total energy (E%)) and intake of saturated fatty acids (SAFA) was high (15.1 E%). Higher PUFA intake was associated with lower total serum cholesterol (TC, B=-0.13, P=0.003), lower low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C, B=-0.12, P=0.004) and apolipoprotein B (B=-0.03) (P=0.034) in girls but not in boys. When data from the present study were compared to data from similar studies in Finland and Iceland, it appears that the quality of the dietary fat has greater impact on serum lipid levels than the quantity of fat in the diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher PUFA and lower SAFA intakes may reduce TC and LDL-C early in life, particularly in girls. Further, with respect to lowering serum lipid concentrations in early childhood it seems appropriate to set focus on fat quality rather than the quantity.

SPONSORSHIPS

Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (Formas), Swedish Research Council, Medicine, Stiftelsen Oskar Foundation, Sven Jerring Foundation, Samariten Foundation, Stiftelsen Goljes minne and Semper AB.

Diabetes and Nutrition Study Group of the Spanish Diabetes Association (GSEDNu). Diabetes Nutrition and Complications Trial: adherence to the ADA nutritional recommendations, targets of metabolic control, and onset of diabetes complications. A 7-year, prospective, population-based, observational multicenter study

OBJECTIVE

To know the adherence to the ADA nutritional recommendations and its relation to targets of metabolic control and onset of diabetic complications in a sample of diabetic people in Spain.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The Diabetes Nutrition and Complications Trial (DNCT) is a prospective, population-based, observational multicenter study designed to know the nutritional pattern, based on the 7-day food diaries, of a population with long-standing diabetes mellitus (93/99 type 1/type 2 diabetic patients, 20/18 years of duration of diabetes, and 6.9%/6.4% HbA(1c) values) and its relation with the onset of microvascular and macrovascular diabetes complications between 1993 and 2000.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up period of 6.5 years, more than 55% of diabetic people complied with the recommendation of protein intake between 15% and 20%, but only 27% consumed less than 10% of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), the 13% achieved up 10% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) intake, the 39% consumed more than 60% from carbohydrate and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and the 30% consumed <300 mg/day of cholesterol. In spite of these, more than 90% had an optimal HDL cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol level, and triglycerides level, while less than 41% of diabetic people had an HbA(1c) value >7.5%. Moreover, more than 69% consumed a MUFAs-to-SFAs ratio >1.5 and the 46% a PUFAs-to-SFAs ratio >0.4. Nonadherence to nutritional recommendation, but MUFAs/SFAs ratio >1.5 and PUFAs/SFAs ratio >0.4, was associated with a reduction between 3.4- and 8.2-fold in the risk of onset of diabetic complications.

CONCLUSIONS

The adherence to ADA nutritional recommendations for people with diabetes in Spain is rather poor except for the protein consumption. Only PUFAs/SFAs >0.4 and MUFAs/SFAs>1.5 were associated to near-optimal targets of metabolic control and a reduction in the risk of the onset of diabetic complications. These data suggest that other nutritional recommendations should be taken in mind.

Interpreting the Joslin Diabetes Center and Joslin Clinic Clinical Nutrition Guideline for Overweight and Obese Adults With Type 2 Diabetes

Interpreting the Joslin Diabetes Center and Joslin Clinic Clinical Nutrition Guideline for Overweight and Obese Adults with Type 2 Diabetes, Prediabetes, or at High Risk for Developing Type 2 Diabetes is a weight loss approach to assist health care providers in a clinical setting when counseling overweight individuals. It recommends an individualized weight reduction plan consisting of a lower carbohydrate, moderate protein, and fat diet, with specific activity and behavior modification guidelines.

Factor analysis of fatty acids in serum lipids as a measure of dietary fat quality in relation to the metabolic syndrome in men

BACKGROUND

A specific fatty acid (FA) composition in plasma lipid esters is related to the metabolic syndrome (MetS) and may influence the development of the MetS.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to define and study FA factors as measures of dietary fat quality and endogenous FA metabolism in relation to MetS.

DESIGN

Principal factor analysis was performed to define specific FA factors in men participating in a population-based cohort study-the Uppsala Longitudinal Study of Adult Men. The factors were generated at ages 50 (n = 2009) and 70 (n = 576) y, and relations between FA factors and MetS (National Cholesterol Education Program) were studied in cross-sectional and prospective (20 y) analyses.

RESULTS

The factor analysis generated 3 major FA factors: a low-linoleic acid (LA) factor, a dietary saturated FA factor, and an n-3 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) factor. All factors differed between those subjects with MetS (n = 281 of 2009) and those without MetS at age 50 y; only the low-LA factor differed at age 70 y, which suggests an association between MetS and fat quality. The low-LA factor (odds ratio: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.28, 1.79; P < 0.0001) and the n-3 PUFA factor (0.76; 0.64, 0.90; P < 0.001) predicted MetS development over 20 y, independent of smoking habits, physical activity, and BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

The generated FA factors, which presumably represent dietary fat quality and endogenous FA metabolism, may be important in the development of MetS. This finding supports current dietary recommendations to increase PUFA intakes and restrict saturated FA intakes.

Functional fatty fish supplemented with grape procyanidins. Antioxidant and proapoptotic properties on colon cell lines

This work shows the properties of grape procyanidins with additional anticarcinogenic properties for increasing the shelf life of functional seafood preparations. Galloylated procyanidins (100 ppm, 2.7 mean degree of polymerization, 25% galloylation) extended the shelf life of minced horse mackerel muscle stored at 4 degrees C more than 8 days compared to controls without addition of polyphenols. The levels of endogenous alpha-tocopherol, EPA, and DHA of fish muscle were also preserved after 10 days at 4 degrees C. Therefore, the presence of procyanidins increased the stability of a product based on minced fish muscle during cold storage and maintained its functionality associated with the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids and alpha-tocopherol. In addition, grape procyanidins showed a significant capacity to induce apoptosis in colon cancer cells (HT29 cell line) while being inactive in noncancer control cells (IEC-6). Thus, the product based on fatty fish muscle supplemented with grape procyanidins appears to be a stable functional food offering the combined action of omega-3 fatty acids and natural polyphenols.

New Quantitative Index for Dietary Diversity (QUANTIDD) and its annual changes in the Japanese

OBJECTIVE

A diverse diet is recommended in many dietary guidelines. However, because there are no unified standards for measurement methods, objective comparisons across different populations or time points is difficult. This report proposes a new dietary diversity index based on quantitative distribution of consumed foods to allow objective measurement of dietary diversity.

METHODS

A Quantitative Index for Dietary Diversity (QUANTIDD) is proposed: QUANTIDD=(1-summation operatorjn prop[j]2)/(1-1/n), where prop(j) is the proportion of food group(s) j that contributes to total energy or nutrient intake, n is the number of food groups, and j = 1,2,...,n. The numerator is the probability that the two foods taken out of an aggregation of consumed foods belong to different food groups. The denominator is its maximum value. The index ranges from 0 to 1. By using the officially released average data from the National Nutrition Survey in Japan from 1957 to 2000, we investigated annual changes in the QUANTIDD. We also investigated the distribution of the index by using individual data from the National Nutrition Survey in Japan in 1996.

RESULTS

The QUANTIDD increased from the 1960s to the 1970s. This was the era of rapid economic growth in Japan, during which the dietary habits of the Japanese underwent rapid changes. The distribution of the QUANTIDD was skewed to the left, but logit-transformation decreased this asymmetry and made it similar to a normal distribution.

CONCLUSION

Because this index can measure dietary diversity objectively and is suitable for statistical handling, it is useful as a method to compare dietary patterns across different populations or time points.

Fat intakes of children with PKU on low phenylalanine diets

BACKGROUND

As part of a study on the effects of a fat-supplemented phenylalanine (phe)-free protein substitute on the fatty acid status of children with phenylketonuria (PKU), the adequacy of the diets of children aged 1-10 years for fat and essential fatty acids (EFA) was assessed.

METHODS

Subjects randomized in a 1 : 1 ratio to a phe-free protein substitute supplemented with EFA (test-treatment group) or a phe-free, fat-free protein substitute (control group) for 20 weeks. 3-day semi-weighed records of food intakes collected at the end of the study period.

RESULTS

Total fat and alpha-linolenic acid (alpha-LA) intakes were found to be poor in the control group (n = 19). Those in the test-treatment group (n = 24) had higher fat and EFA intakes (P < 0.05), bringing intakes closer to population norms. The youngest children (<5 years of age) in the control group appeared to be especially vulnerable to poor fat intakes because of the restricted diversity of their diets and, regardless of age, alpha-LA intakes by this group were poor compared with the non-PKU population.

CONCLUSIONS

The quantity and quality of fat in the diets of children with PKU, in particular young children, should be given careful consideration in trying to optimize the ratio of linoleic acid: alpha-LA in their diets and in satisfying the requirements of this group for fat and alpha-LA.

[Requeriments of macronutrients and micronutrients]

Critically ill patients have important modifications in their energetic requirements, in which the clinical situation, treatment applied and the time course take part. Thus, the most appropriate method to calculate the caloric intake is indirect calorimetry. When this test is not available, calculations such as Harris-Benedict's may be used, although not using the so high correction factors as previously recommended in order to avoid hypercaloric intakes. The intake of a fixed caloric amount (comprised between 25-30 KcalKg/min) is adequate for most critically ill patients. Carbohydrates intake must be of 5 g/kg/day) maximum. Glucose plasma levels must be controlled in order to avoid hyperglycemia. With regards to fat intake, the maximum limit should be 1.5 g/kg/day. The recommended protein intake is 1.0-1.5 g/kg/day, according to the clinical situation characteristics. Special care must be taken with micronutrients intake, an issue that is many times undervalued. In this sense, there are data to consider some micronutrients such as Zn, CU, Mn, Cr, Se, Mo and some vitamins (A, B, C, and E) of great importance for patients in a critical condition, although specific requirements for each one of them have not been established.

Dietary fat, insulin sensitivity and the metabolic syndrome

Insulin resistance is the pathogenetic link underlying the different metabolic abnormalities clustering in the metabolic syndrome. It can be induced by different environmental factors, including dietary habits. Consumption of energy-dense/high fat diets is strongly and positively associated with overweight that, in turn, deteriorates insulin sensitivity, particularly when the excess of body fat is located in abdominal region. Nevertheless the link between fat intake and overweight is not limited to the high-energy content of fatty foods; the ability to oxidize dietary fat is impaired in some individuals genetically predisposed to obesity. Insulin sensitivity is also affected by the quality of dietary fat, independently of its effects on body weight. Epidemiological evidence and intervention studies clearly show that in humans saturated fat significantly worsen insulin-resistance, while monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids improve it through modifications in the composition of cell membranes which reflect at least in part dietary fat composition. A recent multicenter study (KANWU) has shown that shifting from a diet rich in saturated fatty acids to one rich in monounsaturated fat improves insulin sensitivity in healthy people while a moderate alpha-3 fatty acids supplementation does not affect insulin sensitivity. There are also other features of the metabolic syndrome that are influenced by different types of fat, particularly blood pressure and plasma lipid levels. Most studies show that alpha-3 fatty acids reduce blood pressure in hypertensive but not in normotensive subjects while shifting from saturated to monounsaturated fat intake reduces diastolic blood pressure. In relation to lipid abnormalities alpha-3 fatty acids reduce plasma triglyceride levels but in parallel, increase LDL cholesterol. Substitution of unsaturated fat for saturated fat not only reduces LDL cholesterol but contributes also to reduce plasma triglycerides in insulin resistant individuals. In conclusion, there is evidence available in humans indicating that dietary fat quality influences insulin sensitivity and associated metabolic abnormalities. Therefore, prevention of the metabolic syndrome has to be targeted: (1) to correct overweight by reducing the energy density of the habitual diet (i.e., fat intake) and (2) to improve insulin sensitivity and associated metabolic abnormalities through a reduction of dietary saturated fat, partially replaced, when appropriate, by monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.

Hypertension is related to the degradation of dietary frying oils

BACKGROUND

The family kitchen resembles an uncontrolled laboratory experiment, and some discrepancies in the relation between the risk of hypertension and dietary fat may be partly due to the manipulation to which the fats were subjected.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether deterioration in the quality of the cooking oils in the family household contributes to the risk of high blood pressure.

DESIGN

The study was cross-sectional. Anthropometric measurements were obtained for 1226 persons aged 18-65 y who were selected randomly from the municipal census of Pizarra, Spain. An oral-glucose-tolerance test was given to 1020 of these persons. Samples of the cooking oil being used were taken from the kitchens of a random subset of 538 persons. The concentrations of polar compounds and polymers were used as markers of the deterioration of the oils. The strength of association between variables was measured by calculating the odds ratio from logistic models.

RESULTS

Hypertension was strongly associated with obesity and was influenced by sex, diabetes, and age. The presence of excess polar compounds in the cooking oil and the use of sunflower oil were related to the risk of hypertension, whereas the concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids in the serum phospholipids was negatively related to this risk. These associations remained after inclusion in the models of age, sex, obesity, and the presence of carbohydrate metabolism disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of hypertension is positively and independently associated with the intake of cooking oil polar compounds and inversely related to blood concentrations of monounsaturated fatty acids.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus in youth

In the United States, the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) in children and adolescents has been increasing at an alarming rate. Early recognition and intervention can delay the onset of type 2 DM and prevent the long-term complications. School nurses have an essential role in implementing the American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommended screening guidelines to identify youth at high risk for type 2 DM and in implementing student health programs that focus positively on the importance of physical activity and healthy eating habits. The purpose of this article is to present an overview of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, complications, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as the recommended screening guidelines for type 2 DM in the pediatric age group. The information provided will enhance awareness, promote screening, and empower the school nurse to more effectively promote healthy lifestyle education.

Protein nutrition for ruminants in European countries, in the light of animal feeding regulations linked to bovine spongiform encephalopathy

The outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and the discovery of the central role played by meat-and-bone meal (MBM) as the vehicle of infection resulted, from the late 1980s onwards, in the implementation of new regulations on the incorporation of animal proteins, and then of most fats of animal origin, into diets fed to ruminants and other farmed animals. The BSE-related feed ban, which has gradually been reinforced over time, has led to the investigation of cost-effective routes for adequately replacing MBM and tallow by new sources of dietary proteins, minerals and lipids in the formulation of manufactured concentrates. As far as the technical fulfilment of the nutritive requirements of growing and lactating ruminants is concerned, efficient alternative solutions, based principally on recourse to food materials from vegetals already exist or hopefully will soon be available in most of the situations prevailing in Europe. However, related aspects, such as animal feed-processing, availability and traceability of certain food materials, quality of animal products, environmental constraints or disposal of animal waste from the meat industry give cause for concern. The expected consequences of the BSE-related feeding regulations on the organisational and economic framework of animal and crop production sectors throughout Europe and at world level must also be evaluated.

Dietary modifications and gene polymorphisms alter serum paraoxonase activity in healthy women

Paraoxonase-1 (PON1), a HDL-associated enzyme, may protect against the development of atherosclerosis. Serum PON1 activity and PON1-mediated capacity of HDL to prevent lipoprotein oxidation are modulated by two common polymorphisms at positions 192 (Gln-->Arg) and 55 (Leu-->Met) of the PON1 gene. We studied the effect of dietary modifications on PON1 activity and the role of PON1 gene polymorphisms in the response. A controlled, crossover dietary intervention of two 5-wk periods was conducted in 37 healthy, nonsmoking women. The two study diets were either low or high in vegetables, and thus in natural antioxidants, with some differences in fatty acid contents. The mean plasma total (-8%, P < 0.001), LDL (-7%, P < 0.01) and HDL (-7%, P < 0.001%) cholesterol, and apolipoprotein A-I (-8%, P < 0.001) concentrations were lower after the high vegetable diet period than after the low vegetable diet period. Also, the serum PON1 activity was lower (P < 0.05) after the high vegetable compared with the low vegetable diet period. The reduction of PON1 activity correlated with the reduction in HDL cholesterol (r = 0.35, P < 0.05). High baseline PON1 activity was related to the presence of the PON1(192Arg) allele (P < 0.001) and PON1(55Leu/Leu) genotype (P < 0.001). The reduction of PON1 activity due to the high vegetable diet was greatest among the women with the PON1(192Arg) allele (P < 0.05) and PON1(55Leu/Leu) genotype (P < 0.05). In conclusion, a diet high in vegetables, berries and fruit reduces PON1 activity, and the response is modulated by the genetic variance of PON1.

Ten-year trends of dietary intake in a middle-aged French population: relationship with educational level

OBJECTIVE

To compare dietary intakes at a 10 y interval of a population aged 35-64 living in France. Trends in nutrient intake and food consumption were examined with a special emphasis on the relationships between educational level and dietary behaviour.

DESIGN

Two independent surveys conducted in 1985-1987 (S1) and 1995-1997 (S2) in the framework of the WHO MONICA project. Dietary intake was assessed with a 3-day record method and a food frequency questionnaire. The samples analysed included 416 men and 446 women for S1, 393 men and 409 women for S2.

RESULTS

A significant improvement of the quality of fat intake was observed between S1 and S2, independently of educational level, with an increase of the age adjusted P/S ratio from 0.42 to 0.50 in men (P=10(-4)) and from 0.41 to 0.50 in women (P=10(-4)), whereas the daily cholesterol intake dropped from 552.0 to 466.9 mg and from 447.2 to 384.6 mg in men and women, respectively (P=10(-4)). These variations were associated with a decrease in the consumption of high-fat foods and an increase in that of low-fat products (poultry, low-fat dairy foods, fish) in all educational classes. By contrast, the consumption of fruit and vegetables, which was highly associated with educational level, varied little over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate slight improvement in fat quality, independently of educational level, while fruit and vegetable intake, which appeared more dependent on educational level, was only poorly modified over the 10 y interval.

Technical constraints in the development of reduced-fat bakery products

The present study was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, its aim being to identify the technical barriers to the development of reduced-fat alternatives for bakery products. Using National Food Survey (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1998) statistics on dietary consumption within the home, biscuits, cakes and pastries were identified as contributing significant amounts of fat to the population's dietary intake. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with contacts in the technical community of the baking industry, who were usually working in technical and new-product development functions. A discussion guide was developed to cover the main lines of enquiry. The companies selected were ingredient suppliers (eight), manufacturers (twelve) and retailers (four) and so represented each step of the food supply chain. In brief, results showed that current labelling rules were too stringent, and constrained development of reduced-fat bakery products. Products with lower fat levels are harder to make due to altered handling and processing properties. Their quality is usually poorer than standard products, particularly for flavour, texture and mouthfeel. The perception of freshness is reduced and product shelf-life may consequently be shorter. For the product developer, there are relatively few ingredients that can be used in place of fat, and knowledge of how they work is limited, which inhibits product development. There is no identifiable source of technical knowledge in this field. Consumers perceive reduced-fat bakery products to be of lower quality and are generally unwilling to pay higher prices than for standard products.

Reference materials--a view from a small country

ISO/IEC 17025 has an increased emphasis on traceability and estimation of uncertainty of measurement compared with ISO Guide 25. Demonstration of traceability is a new concept in analytical chemistry and depends on access to relevant reference materials or use of reference methods. Until now most reference materials used in New Zealand have been imported, because they offered international comparability. New Zealand is currently starting to develop the required infrastructure so that it will be able to produce unique reference materials that will contribute to the total international effort in improving the reliability of analytical chemistry.

[Standards for human physiological requirements in food substances and energy: a retrospective analysis and a developmental outlook]

The retrospective analysis of 4 variants of norms of human physiological needs in food substances and energy accepted in 1951, 1968, 1982 and 1991 is given. Dynamics of the scientifically proved specification of value of needs is revealed and the necessity of permanent development of conceptual base of normalization is determined. Last one is based on two natural laws of a balanced diet: 1) compulsion of conformity energy expense and energy consumption; 2) the value of consumption of the basic food substances (fibers, fats, carbohydrates) should be in limits of physiologically necessary quantity proportion and be accompanied by satisfaction of human needs in different nutrients.

Dietary guidelines for chronic disease prevention

In developed nations, diet is related directly or indirectly to the most prevalent chronic diseases. Research has helped clarify diet-disease relationships and enabled the promulgation of dietary recommendations for chronic disease prevention. We reviewed epidemiologic study results, clinical trial data, and general dietary recommendations from various agencies to develop a set of overall dietary guidelines for the prevention of the most common chronic diseases in the United States, including coronary heart disease, hypertension, cancer, and osteoporosis. Intake of monounsaturated fats, fiber, calcium, vegetables and fruits, and whole grains should be promoted. Consumption of saturated and trans fats, sodium, and refined grains should be minimized. Moderation in alcohol and caloric intake should be encouraged. Although research into associations between diet and disease is constantly in flux, our guidelines are based on replicated findings and provide a starting point for assisting patients in improving their diets.

[Principles of dietary treatment of obesity]

One of the first steps in a clinical approach to any obese subject should be focused on the reduction and/or normalization of any potential or existing metabolic abnormality. Overeating and/or unbalanced food intake remains the major element in the origin and maintenance of obesity. The reduction of energy intake is the basis of successful weight loss. In obese subjects there are huge amounts of energy stored, mainly in the adipose tissue, which are mobilized according to the size and duration of an energy deficit. Considerable studies have been devoted to finding the optimal dietary approach that would promote rapid weight loss while maximizing the depletion of adipose tissue and conserving body protein. During fasting adipose tissue lipolysis rate increases and liberated unesterified fatty acids are oxidized in muscle and liver. The liver produces ketones which are oxidized in muscle and brain. The energy need of the brain is not sufficiently covered by ketone oxidation, therefore additional glucose must be provided. The liver produces glucose by gluconeogenesis using amino acids from muscle protein. Because of limited protein sources, protein must be given during energy restricted diet. Besides protein also vitamins, minerals, trace elements, fiber, and linoleic acid must be substituted during fasting and during treatment with very low calorie diets. Meal replacements are helpful to fulfil all the requirements. There is consensus that the first step in dietary treatment is an energy restricted diet with a calorie deficit of at least 600 Kcal/day, but more than 800 Kcal/day must be provided, with all essential nutrients. Observing the regulations, weight reduction with appropriate diet plans improves metabolic disturbances.

Food sources of added sweeteners in the diets of Americans

OBJECTIVE

To identify food sources of added sweeteners in the US diet.

DESIGN

A descriptive study using data from the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1994-1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals. Each subject provided one 24-hour dietary recall. Intake of added sweeteners was calculated using the USDA Food Guide Pyramid servings database.

SUBJECTS/SETTING

A national sample of noninstitutionalized persons aged 2 years and older (N = 15,010).

STATISTICAL ANALYSES

Mean intakes of added sweeteners from all food sources and from specific food categories; percentage contribution of added sweeteners to total energy intake; and percentage contribution of each food category to total intake of added sweeteners. All analyses were conducted for the total sample and for 12 age-gender groups.

RESULTS

During 1994 to 1996, Americans aged 2 years and older consumed the equivalent of 82 g carbohydrate per day from added sweeteners, which accounted for 16% of total energy intake. In absolute terms, adolescent males consumed the most; as a percentage of energy, male and female adolescents had the highest intakes (averaging 20% of total energy from added sweeteners). The largest source of added sweeteners was regular soft drinks, which accounted for one third of intake. Other sources were table sugars, syrups, and sweets; sweetened grains; regular fruitades/drinks; and milk products.

APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS

Intakes of added sweeteners exceed levels compatible with meeting current dietary recommendations. Knowing food sources of added sweeteners for the overall population and for specific age-gender groups can help dietitians provide appropriate nutrition education.

Development of substituted fatty acid food composition table for the use in nutritional epidemiologic studies for Japanese populations: its methodological backgrounds and the evaluation

Results of dietary assessment are influenced by quality of food composition tables used for nutrient calculation. The Japanese food composition table has considerable missing values for fatty acid compositions. Substitution is often used for filling missing values. We examined reliability of the following 4 major substitution methods using available values of arbitrarily selected 83 sets of foods from the published fatty acid composition table of Japanese foods: by a different part of the same specie, by a similar specie, by a same specie in the United States' Department of Agriculture food composition table, and by recipe. The mean correlation coefficients of food pairs were 0.97, 0.96, 0.84, and 0.80 respectively. Next, we substituted fatty acid compositions for the 794 missing foods using the 4 substitution methods, and developed the table with 1245 foods including those listed in the original (non-substituted) fatty acid composition table. Lastly, we calculated fatty acid intake levels with the original (non-substituted) and the developed (substituted) tables using 28- or 14-day dietary records of 211 men and women as a sample data, and compared the results. The intakes of all five fatty acid groups increased. The increase was most marked in saturated fatty acids (26% in men and 31% in women in crude values). As a consequence, polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio decreased from 1.15 to 1.01 in men and from 1.13 to 0.96 in women. The use of the developed fatty acid food composition table may increase the reliability on nutrition-disease association in future nutritional epidemiologic studies for Japanese populations.

[Comparison of methods to characterise thermally altered frying fats and oils]

During the process of deep fat frying the fat or oil undergoes several chemical and physical changes. To guarantee an effective quality control for used frying fats simple and rapid methods for the measurement of heat abuse are needed. Therefore several frying oils were heated with and without foodstuff and the change of polar parts, acid number, colour acid number, specific absorption and dielectric properties with prolonged heating time were determined. It could be shown that under usual frying conditions acid number and colour acid number, which are often used in praxis, as well as the specific absorption are not unrestrictedly useful to characterise heated frying fats. It turned out, however, that the determination of the dielectric properties with a foodoil-sensor is a useful tool to investigate heat abuse of frying fats and oils in routine analysis.

History of recommendations to the public about dietary fat

Recommendations to Americans concerning dietary fat and heart disease began to appear in the late 1950s. This followed the publications of Gofman et al. (1950) and Keys (1953) relating to techniques for separating plasma lipoprotein fractions and the epidemiologic correlations between dietary fat, serum cholesterol and heart disease, respectively. Advice to the public after 40 years is similar to that given originally, namely, to reduce total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol intake, although cholesterol intake per se is not correlated strongly with cholesterolemia. Newer players on the heart disease stage are homocysteinemia, chlamydia infection and cytomegalovirus. These findings, when amplified, may alter the thrust of medical and dietary advice. In the meantime, since 1950, deaths from all causes in the U.S. (per 100,000, age-adjusted) have fallen by 40% and deaths from heart disease and stroke have fallen by 53 and 70%, respectively.

The relationship between breakfast and whole diet energy profiles in a group of preschool children

The energy profile of the diet of the Spanish population is imbalanced, showing excessive intake of fats and protein and insufficient intake of carbohydrates. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether this imbalance also existed in 110 preschool children between 2 and 6 years of age, and to examine the relationship between their breakfast and whole diet energy profiles. The results obtained show that subjects who consumed less carbohydrate (< 50% of energy intake) or more fat (> 35% of total intake) at breakfast showed poorer energy profiles and poorer fat quality over their whole diet. Significant and positive correlations were found between energy supplied at breakfast by protein, fats, carbohydrates, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the same parameters measured for the whole diet.

Low linolenate and commercial soybean oils diminish serum HDL cholesterol in young free-living adult females

OBJECTIVE

A mutant soybean line (A16) low in linolenic acid content (2% of oil by weight) was developed to increase oil oxidative stability. It was unknown whether serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in humans would be affected should A16 soybean oil (A16 oil) replace commercial soybean oil in diets. This study was conducted to examine the hypothesis that in free-living normolipidemic women, the consumption of A16 oil at approximately 10% of energy intake (en%) would not affect serum lipids and lipoproteins differently than would the consumption of the same amount of a commercial soybean oil with 7% of linolenic acid content.

DESIGN

Fifteen free-living female college students consumed the soybean oil daily with regular meals for 9 weeks in different orders, with each test oil being eaten for 3 weeks. During the study, 13 en% was provided by each test oil and a total of 35 en% was from dietary fat. Serum concentrations of total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL cholesterol), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL cholesterol) and triacylglycerides (TAG) were measured. Serum total fatty acid patterns were analyzed as well.

RESULTS

Each of the three test oils decreased serum total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and TAG concentrations from the baseline values. The feeding of A16 and commercial soybean oils decreased serum HDL cholesterol significantly compared with coconut oil (p < 0.05). Dietary inclusion of coconut oil increased serum myristic acid significantly more than did either soybean oil (p < 0.01). Serum arachidonic acid concentrations were significantly greater with A16 consumption than with commercial soybean oil consumption (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

A16 and commercial soybean oils both diminished serum HDL cholesterol. Although the fatty acid composition differed between the two soybean oils, A16 oil and commercial oil had similar effects on serum concentrations of lipoproteins and lipids. With increased oxidative stability, A16 oil is a good alternative to commercial soybean oil.

Regulating the use of degraded oil/fat in deep-fat/oil food frying

During frying, the degradation of oil produces harmful compounds. Improper monitoring of oil-discard times in restaurants either risks the public health or causes financial losses to industries. Measuring the oil quality is a complex problem and an online sensor is needed. The process of frying reviewed includes moisture, heat and fat/oil transfer, crust formation and various structural, textural and chemical changes in the product, and degradation of frying medium. Some of the European nations and the U.S. have specific regulations against the use of deteriorated frying oils. Due to the absence of a suitable online frying oil quality sensor for restaurant situations, it is difficult to implement any regulation against the use of deteriorated frying oil. Based on various regulations, a model regulation to increase the safety and quality of fried foods is discussed. Background and requirements for developing an online sensor to measure frying oil quality are discussed. Other related areas reviewed in this article are factors affecting oil penetration and absorption by the food, surfactant theory of frying, analytical indices, quick tests and acceptability of frying oil.

Decreasing traditional food use affects diet quality for adult Dene/Métis in 16 communities of the Canadian Northwest Territories

We assessed diets in 16 Dene/Métis communities in the Canadian Arctic. We described nutrient intakes and identified nutrients at risk among adult Dene/Métis, evaluated the influence of traditional food on diet quality, and examined the direction of dietary change by comparing intergenerational and between-community differences in dietary intake. Diet varied according to sex, age and community. Nutrients of possibly inadequate intake (irrespective of subject sex, age or community) included calcium, vitamin A and folic acid. Dietary fiber intake was also of concern. Traditional food (animals and plants harvested from the local environment) was consumed on 65. 4% of interview days; on those days intakes of iron, zinc and potassium were higher (P < 0.05) and those of sodium, fat, saturated fat and sucrose were lower (P < 0.05) than on days when market food only was consumed. In this population, the shift away from traditional food towards a diet composed exclusively of market food was characterized by an increase (P < 0.05) in absolute energy intake and an increase (P < 0.01) in the relative contributions of carbohydrate (particularly sucrose), fat and saturated fat. This pattern of change calls for initiatives to document the current health status of this population and to prevent potential negative health consequences of dietary change.