Structure of the chloroplast ribosome with chl-RRF and hibernation-promoting factor

Oxygenic photosynthesis produces oxygen and builds a variety of organic compounds, changing the chemistry of the air, the sea and fuelling the food chain on our planet. The photochemical reactions underpinning this process in plants take place in the chloroplast. Chloroplasts evolved ~1.2 billion years ago from an engulfed primordial diazotrophic cyanobacterium, and chlororibosomes are responsible for synthesis of the core proteins driving photochemical reactions. Chlororibosomal activity is spatiotemporally coupled to the synthesis and incorporation of functionally essential co-factors, implying the presence of chloroplast-specific regulatory mechanisms and structural adaptation of the chlororibosome^1,2. Despite recent structural information^3-6, some of these aspects remained elusive. To provide new insights into the structural specialities and evolution, we report a comprehensive analysis of the 2.9-3.1 Å resolution electron cryo-microscopy structure of the spinach chlororibosome in complex with its recycling factor and hibernation-promoting factor. The model reveals a prominent channel extending from the exit tunnel to the chlororibosome exterior, structural re-arrangements that lead to increased surface area for translocon binding, and experimental evidence for parallel and convergent evolution of chloro- and mitoribosomes.

Dynamic feedback of the photosystem II reaction centre on photoprotection in plants

Photosystem II of higher plants is protected against light damage by thermal dissipation of excess excitation energy, a process that can be monitored through non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence. When the light intensity is lowered, non-photochemical quenching largely disappears on a time scale ranging from tens of seconds to many minutes. With the use of picosecond fluorescence spectroscopy, we demonstrate that one of the underlying mechanisms is only functional when the reaction centre of photosystem II is closed, that is when electron transfer is blocked and the risk of photodamage is high. This is accompanied by the appearance of a long-wavelength fluorescence band. As soon as the reaction centre reopens, this quenching, together with the long-wavelength fluorescence, disappears instantaneously. This allows plants to maintain a high level of photosynthetic efficiency even in dangerous high-light conditions.

Is There Excitation Energy Transfer between Different Layers of Stacked Photosystem-II-Containing Thylakoid Membranes?

We have compared picosecond fluorescence decay kinetics for stacked and unstacked photosystem II membranes in order to evaluate the efficiency of excitation energy transfer between the neighboring layers. The measured kinetics were analyzed in terms of a recently developed fluctuating antenna model that provides information about the dimensionality of the studied system. Independently of the stacking state, all preparations exhibited virtually the same value of the apparent dimensionality, d = 1.6. Thus, we conclude that membrane stacking does not affect the efficiency of the delivery of excitation energy toward the reaction centers but ensures a more compact organization of the thylakoid membranes within the chloroplast and separation of photosystems I and II.

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) modulates its proteome differentially in response to salinity, cadmium and their combination stress

Cadmium (Cd) contamination and salinity are common stressors in agricultural soils all over the globe. Sensitivity and modulation of plant proteome lead to proper signal execution and adaptation to abiotic stress via molecular responses, which strengthen plant defence system. A comparative proteomic study, employing 2DE-MALDI TOF/TOF MS, of Spinacia oleracea plants exposed to cadmium (50 μg CdCl2 g(-1) soil), salinity (10 mg NaCl g(-1) soil) and their combination (NaCl + Cd) was conducted to understand the minimum common adaptation to multiple stress. Analysis of 2D gel maps showed significant increase and decrease in relative abundance of 14 and 39 proteins by Cd; 11 and 46 by salinity and 22 and 37 by combined stress of Cd and salinity, respectively. Peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) helped in the identification of maturase K and PPD4 with increased relative abundance under all stresses; whereas salinity stress and combination stress silenced the presence of one protein (polycomb protein EZ2) and two proteins (cellulose synthase-like protein and ubiquitin conjugation factor E4), respectively. The identified proteins were functionally associated with signal transduction (15%), protein synthesis (16%), stress response and defence (33%), photosynthesis (13%), plant growth/cell division (9%), energy generation (4%), transport (4%), secondary metabolism (3%), and cell death (3%); clearly indicating the importance and necessity of keeping a higher ratio of defence and disease-responsive proteins. The results suggest that plant may increase the abundance of defence proteins and may also lower the abundance of catabolic proteins. Proteins with altered ratios of abundance belonged to different functional categories, suggesting that plants have differential mechanisms to respond to Cd, salinity, and their combined stress, but with unique sets of proteins.

CARBONIC ANHYDRASE ACTIVITY OF INTEGRAL-FUNCTIONAL COMPLEXES OF THYLAKOID MEMBRANES OF SPINACH CHLOROPLASTS

Isolated thylakoid membranes were disrupted by treatment with nonionic detergents digitonin or dodecyl maltoside. Solubilized polypeptide complexes were separated by native gel charge shift electrophoresis. The position of ATP-synthase complex and its isolated catalytic part (CF1) within gel was determined using the color reaction for ATPase activity. Due to the presence of cytochromes, the red band in unstained gels corresponded to the cytochrome b6f complex. Localization of the cytochrome b6f complex, ATP synthase and coupling CF1 in the native gel was confirmed by their subunit composition determined after SDS-electrophoretic analysis. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity in polypeptide zones of PS II, cytochrome b6f complex, and ATP-synthase CF1 was identified in native gels using indicator bromothymol blue. CA activity of isolated CF1 in solution was determined by infrared gas analysis as the rate of bicarbonate dehydration. The water-soluble acetazolamide, an inhibitor of CA, unlike lipophilic ethoxyzolamide inhibited CA activity of CF1 Thus, it was shown for the first time that ATP-synthase has a component which is capable of catalyzing the interconversion of forms of carbonic acid associated with proton exchange. The data obtained suggest the presence of multiple forms of carbonic anhydrase in the thylakoid membranes of spinach chloroplasts and confirm their involvement in the proton transfer to the ATP synthase.

Frequency of Verticillium Species in Commercial Spinach Fields and Transmission of V. dahliae from Spinach to Subsequent Lettuce Crops

Verticillium wilt caused by V. dahliae is a devastating disease of lettuce in California (CA). The disease is currently restricted to a small geographic area in central coastal CA, even though cropping patterns in other coastal lettuce production regions in the state are similar. Infested spinach seed has been implicated in the introduction of V. dahliae into lettuce fields but direct evidence linking this inoculum to wilt epidemics in lettuce is lacking. In this study, 100 commercial spinach fields in four coastal CA counties were surveyed to evaluate the frequency of Verticillium species recovered from spinach seedlings and the area under spinach production in each county was assessed. Regardless of the county, V. isaacii was the most frequently isolated species from spinach followed by V. dahliae and, less frequently, V. klebahnii. The frequency of recovery of Verticillium species was unrelated to the occurrence of Verticillium wilt on lettuce in the four counties but was related to the area under spinach production in individual counties. The transmission of V. dahliae from infested spinach seeds to lettuce was investigated in microplots. Verticillium wilt developed on lettuce following two or three plantings of Verticillium-infested spinach, in independent experiments. The pathogen recovered from the infected lettuce from microplots was confirmed as V. dahliae by polymerase chain reaction assays. In a greenhouse study, transmission of a green fluorescence protein-tagged mutant strain of V. dahliae from spinach to lettuce roots was demonstrated, after two cycles of incorporation of infected spinach residue into the soil. This study presents conclusive evidence that V. dahliae introduced via spinach seed can cause Verticillium wilt in lettuce.

The fungal phytotoxin alternariol 9-methyl ether and some of its synthetic analogues inhibit the photosynthetic electron transport chain

Alternariol and monomethylalternariol are natural phytotoxins produced by some fungal strains, such as Nimbya and Alternaria. These substances confer virulence to phytopathogens, yet no information is available concerning their mode of action. Here we show that in the micromolar range alternariol 9-methyl ether is able to inhibit the electron transport chain (IC50 = 29.1 ± 6.5 μM) in isolated spinach chloroplasts. Since its effectiveness is limited by poor solubility in water, several alternariol analogues were synthesized using different aromatic aldehydes. The synthesized 6H-benzo[c]cromen-6-ones, 5H-chromene[4,3-b]pyridin-5-one, and 5H-chromene[4,3-c]pyridin-5-one also showed inhibitory properties, and three 6H-benzo[c]cromen-6-ones were more effective (IC50 = 12.8-22.8 μM) than the lead compound. Their addition to the culture medium of a cyanobacterial model strain was found to inhibit algal growth, with a relative effectiveness that was consistent with their activity in vitro. In contrast, the growth of a nonphotosynthetic plant cell culture was poorly affected. These compounds may represent a novel lead for the development of new active principles targeting photosynthesis.

Kinetics of structural reorganizations in multilamellar photosynthetic membranes monitored by small-angle neutron scattering

We demonstrate the power of time-resolved small-angle neutron scattering experiments for the investigation of the structure and structural reorganizations of multilamellar photosynthetic membranes. In addition to briefly summarizing our results on thylakoid membranes isolated from higher plants and in unicellular organisms, we discuss the advantages and technical and methodological limitations of time-resolved SANS. We present a detailed and more systematical investigation of the kinetics of light-induced structural reorganizations in isolated spinach thylakoid membranes, which show how changes in the repeat distance and in the long-range order of the multilamellar membranes can be followed with a time resolution of seconds. We also present data from comparative measurements performed on thylakoid membranes isolated from tobacco.

Microdissection and painting of the Y chromosome in spinach (Spinacia oleracea)

Spinach has long been used as a model for genetic and physiological studies of sex determination and expression. Although trisomic analysis from a cross between diploid and triploid plants identified the XY chromosome as the largest chromosome, no direct evidence has been provided to support this at the molecular level. In this study, the largest chromosomes of spinach from mitotic metaphase spreads were microdissected using glass needles. Degenerate oligonucleotide primed polymerase chain reaction was used to amplify the dissected chromosomes. The amplified products from the Y chromosome were identified using the male-specific marker T11A. For the first time, the largest spinach chromosome was confirmed to be a sex chromosome at the molecular level. PCR products from the isolated chromosomes were used in an in situ probe mixture for painting the Y chromosome. The fluorescence signals were mainly distributed on all chromosomes and four pair of weaker punctate fluorescence signal sites were observed on the terminal region of two pair of autosomes. These findings provide a foundation for the study of sex chromosome evolution in spinach.

Norovirus surrogate survival on spinach during preharvest growth

Produce can become contaminated with human viral pathogens in the field through soil, feces, or water used for irrigation; through application of manure, biosolids, pesticides, and fertilizers; and through dust, insects, and animals. The objective of this study was to assess the survival and stability of human noroviruses and norovirus surrogates (Murine norovirus [MNV] and Tulane virus [TV]) on foliar surfaces of spinach plants in preharvest growth conditions. Spinach plants were housed in a biocontrol chamber at optimal conditions for up to 7 days and infectivity was determined by plaque assay. Virus inoculation location had the largest impact on virus survival as viruses present on adaxial leaf surfaces had lower decimal reduction time (D values) than viruses present on abaxial leaf surfaces. Under certain conditions, spinach type impacted virus survival, with greater D values observed from survival on semi-savoy spinach leaves. Additional UVA and UVB exposure to mimic sunlight affected virus survival on adaxial surfaces for both semi-savoy and smooth spinach plants for both viruses. Human GII norovirus inoculated onto semi-savoy spinach had an average D value that was not statistically significant from MNV and TV, suggesting that these surrogates may have similar survival on spinach leaves compared with human noroviruses. An understanding of the behavior of enteric viruses on spinach leaves can be used to enhance growers' guidelines and for risk assessment with certain growing conditions.

The endophytic lifestyle of Escherichia coli O157:H7: quantification and internal localization in roots

The foodborne pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 is increasingly associated with fresh produce (fruit and vegetables). Bacterial colonization of fresh produce plants can occur to high levels on the external tissue but bacteria have also been detected within plant tissue. However, questions remain about the extent of internalization, its molecular basis, and internal location of the bacteria. We have determined the extent of internalization of E. coli O157:H7 in live spinach and lettuce plants and used high-resolution microscopy to examine colony formation in roots and pathways to internalization. E. coli O157:H7 was found within internal tissue of both produce species. Colonization occurred within the apoplast between plant cells. Furthermore, colonies were detected inside the cell wall of epidermal and cortical cells of spinach and Nicotiana benthamiana roots. Internal colonization of epidermal cells resembled that of the phytopathogen Pectobacterium atrosepticum on potato. In contrast, only sporadic cells of the laboratory strain of E. coli K-12 were found on spinach, with no internal bacteria evident. The data extend previous findings that internal colonization of plants appears to be limited to a specific group of plant-interacting bacteria, including E. coli O157:H7, and demonstrates its ability to invade the cells of living plants.

Transfer of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to spinach by house flies, Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae)

Filth flies are known mechanical vectors of pathogenic bacteria in hospital and restaurant settings, but their role as vectors for disseminating microbes to plants has not been demonstrated. Escherichia coli O157:H7 deposition by flies onto spinach was studied using molecular, microbiological, and microscopy techniques. Relative quantitative polymerase chain reaction studies showed that bacteria acquired by flies from contaminated cattle manure and deposited in regurgitation spots on leaves survived and multiplied. Scanning electron microscopy of the regurgitation spots of flies exposed to manure inoculated with E. coli suggested the multiplication of bacteria-like organisms within the spots. This finding implies that the bacteria were active and is consistent with a hypothesis that regurgitation spots serve as a nutrition source allowing E. coli O157:H7 to survive on the spinach phylloplane. E. coli O157:H7 persisted on fly body surfaces up to 13 days after exposure to acquisition sources, suggesting that fly cuticular surfaces are conducive to the growth of this pathogen. These results are consistent with the hypothesis of bioenhanced transmission of human pathogens by house flies and suggest that filth flies may affect the microbial safety of fresh produce.

Texture, composition and anatomy of spinach leaves in relation to nitrogen fertilization

BACKGROUND

The postharvest quality and shelf life of spinach are greatly influenced by cultural practices. Reduced spinach shelf life is a common quandary in the Salinas Valley, California, where current agronomic practices depend on high nitrogen (N) rates. This study aimed to describe the postharvest fracture properties of spinach leaves in relation to N fertilization, leaf age and spinach cultivar.

RESULTS

Force-displacement curves, generated by a puncture test, showed a negative correlation between N fertilization and the toughness, stiffness and strength of spinach leaves (P > 0.05). Younger leaves (leaves 12 and 16) from all N treatments were tougher than older leaves (leaves 6 and 8) (P > 0.05). Leaves from the 50 and 75 ppm total N treatments irrespective of spinach cultivar had higher fracture properties and nutritional quality than leaves from other N treatments (P > 0.05). Total alcohol-insoluble residues (AIR) and pectins were present at higher concentrations in low-N grown plants. These plants also had smaller cells and intercellular spaces than high-N grown leaves (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Observed changes in physicochemical and mechanical properties of spinach leaves due to excess nitrogen fertilization were significantly associated with greater postharvest leaf fragility and lower nutritional quality.

The core of chloroplast nucleoids contains architectural SWIB domain proteins

A highly enriched fraction of the transcriptionally active chromosome from chloroplasts of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) was analyzed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry to identify proteins involved in structuring of the nucleoid core. Among such plastid nucleoid-associated candidate proteins a 12-kD SWIB (SWI/SNF complex B) domain-containing protein was identified. It belongs to a subgroup of low molecular mass SWIB domain proteins, which in Arabidopsis thaliana has six members (SWIB-1 to SWIB-6) with predictions for localization in the two DNA-containing organelles. Green/red fluorescent protein fusions of four of them were shown to be targeted to chloroplasts, where they colocalize with each other as well as with the plastid envelope DNA binding protein in structures corresponding to plastid nucleoids. For SWIB-6 and SWIB-4, a second localization in mitochondria and nucleus, respectively, could be observed. SWIB-4 has a histone H1 motif next to the SWIB domain and was shown to bind to DNA. Moreover, the recombinant SWIB-4 protein was shown to induce compaction and condensation of nucleoids and to functionally complement a mutant of Escherichia coli lacking the histone-like nucleoid structuring protein H-NS.

Humidity-controlled preparation of frozen-hydrated biological samples for cryogenic coherent x-ray diffraction microscopy

Coherent x-ray diffraction microscopy (CXDM) has the potential to visualize the structures of micro- to sub-micrometer-sized biological particles, such as cells and organelles, at high resolution. Toward advancing structural studies on the functional states of such particles, here, we developed a system for the preparation of frozen-hydrated biological samples for cryogenic CXDM experiments. The system, which comprised a moist air generator, microscope, micro-injector mounted on a micromanipulator, custom-made sample preparation chamber, and flash-cooling device, allowed for the manipulation of sample particles in the relative humidity range of 20%-94%rh at 293 K to maintain their hydrated and functional states. Here, we report the details of the system and the operation procedure, including its application to the preparation of a frozen-hydrated chloroplast sample. Sample quality was evaluated through a cryogenic CXDM experiment conducted at BL29XUL of SPring-8. Taking the performance of the system and the quality of the sample, the system was suitable to prepare frozen-hydrated biological samples for cryogenic CXDM experiments.

Role of curli and cellulose expression in adherence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to spinach leaves

Shiga-toxigenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks have been linked to consumption of fresh produce. It is generally recognized that bacterial attachment to vegetal matrices constitutes the first step in contamination of fresh produce. Cellular appendages, such as curli fibers, and cellulose, a constituent of extracellular matrix, have been suggested to be involved in E. coli attachment and persistence in fresh produce. A comparative evaluation was conducted on the ability of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli O157:H7 strains EDL933 and 86-24, linked to two independent foodborne disease outbreaks in humans, and their mutants deficient in curli and/or cellulose expression to colonize and to firmly attach to spinach leaf. Inoculated spinach leaves were incubated at 22°C, and at 0, 24, and 48 h after incubation loosely and strongly attached E. coli O157:H7 populations were determined. Curli-expressing E. coli O157:H7 strains developed stronger association with leaf surface, whereas curli-deficient mutants attached to spinach at significantly (p<0.01) lower numbers. Attachment of cellulose-impaired mutants to spinach leaves was not significantly different from that of curliated strains. The relative attachment strength of E. coli O157:H7 to spinach increased with incubation time for the curli-expressing strains. Laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) analysis of inoculated leaves revealed that curli-expressing E. coli O157:H7 were surrounded by extracellular structures strongly immunostained with anti-curli antibodies. Production of cellulose was not required to develop strong attachment to spinach leaf. These results indicate that curli fibers are essential for strong attachment of E. coli O157:H7 to spinach whereas cellulose is dispensable.

Actin-dependent chloroplast anchoring is regulated by Ca(2+)-calmodulin in spinach mesophyll cells

Chloroplasts are actively anchored at the appropriate intracellular regions to maintain advantageous distribution patterns under specific environmental conditions. Redistribution of chloroplasts is accompanied by their de-anchoring and re-anchoring, respectively, from and to the cortical cytoplasm. In spinach mesophyll cells, high-intensity blue light and Ca(2+) treatment induced the disappearance of the meshwork-like array of actin filaments surrounding chloroplasts, which was suppressed by a calmodulin antagonist. Regulatory mechanisms of chloroplast anchoring were investigated using plasma membrane (PM) ghosts, on which the cortical cytoplasm underlying the PM was exposed. Addition of an actin-depolymerizing reagent or > 1 µM Ca(2+) induced detachment of a substantial number of chloroplasts from the PM ghosts concomitant with disordered actin organization. Calmodulin antagonists and anti-calmodulin antibodies negated the effects of Ca(2+). In addition, Ca(2+)-induced detachment of chloroplasts was no longer evident on the calmodulin-depleted PM ghosts. We propose that chloroplasts are anchored onto the cortical cytoplasm through interaction with the actin cytoskeleton, and that Ca(2+)-calmodulin-sensitized de-anchoring of chloroplasts is a critical early step in chloroplast redistribution induced by environmental stimuli.

Resource partitioning to male and female flowers of Spinacia oleracea L. in relation to whole-plant monocarpic senescence

Male plants of spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) senesce following flowering. It has been suggested that nutrient drain by male flowers is insufficient to trigger senescence. The partitioning of radiolabelled photosynthate between vegetative and reproductive tissue was compared in male (staminate) versus female (pistillate) plants. After the start of flowering staminate plants senesce 3 weeks earlier than pistillate plants. Soon after the start of flowering, staminate plants allocated several times as much photosynthate to flowering structures as did pistillate plants. The buds of staminate flowers with developing pollen had the greatest draw of photosynthate. When the staminate plants begin to show senescence 68% of fixed C was allocated to the staminate reproductive structures. In the pistillate plants, export to the developing fruits and young flowers remained near 10% until mid-reproductive development, when it increased to 40%, declining to 27% as the plants started to senesce. These differences were also present on a sink-mass corrected basis. Flowers on staminate spinach plants develop faster than pistillate flowers and have a greater draw of photosynthate than do pistillate flowers and fruits, although for a shorter period. Pistillate plants also produce more leaf area within the inflorescence to sustain the developing fruits. The (14)C in the staminate flowers declined due to respiration, especially during pollen maturation; no such loss occurred in pistillate reproductive structures. The partitioning to the reproductive structures correlates with the greater production of floral versus vegetative tissue in staminate plants and their more rapid senescence. As at senescence the leaves still had adequate carbohydrate, the resources are clearly phloem-transported compounds other than carbohydrates. The extent of the resource redistribution to reproductive structures and away from the development of new vegetative sinks, starting very early in the reproductive phase, is sufficient to account for the triggering of senescence in the rest of the plant.

Isolation of photosystem II-enriched membranes and the oxygen-evolving complex subunit proteins from higher plants

We describe methods to isolate highly active oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) membranes and core complexes from higher plants, and to purify subunits of the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC). The membrane samples used as the material for various in vitro studies of PSII are prepared by solubilizing thylakoid membranes with the nonionic detergent Triton X-100, and the core complexes are prepared by further solubilization of the PSII membranes with n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside (β-DDM). The OEC subunit proteins are dissociated from the PSII-enriched membranes by alkaline or salt treatment, and are then purified by ion-exchange chromatography using an automated high performance liquid chromatography system.

Direct detection of free radicals and reactive oxygen species in thylakoids

In plants, reactive oxygen species (ROS), also known as active oxygen species (AOS), are associated with normal, physiologic processes as well as with responses to adverse conditions. ROS are connected to stress in many ways: as primary elicitors, as products and propagators of oxidative damage, or as signal molecules initiating defense or adaptation. The photosynthetic electron transport is a major site of oxidative stress by visible or ultraviolet light, high or low temperature, pollutants or herbicides. ROS production can be presumed from detecting oxidatively damaged lipids, proteins, or pigments as well as from the alleviating effects of added antioxidants. On the contrary, measuring ROS by special sensor molecules provides more direct information. This chapter focuses on the application of spin trapping electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy for detecting ROS: singlet oxygen and oxygen free radicals in thylakoid membrane preparations.

[Fluorescence used to investigate the sensitivity of spinach chloroplast membrane to low intensity electromagnetic radiation]

A system for studying biological effect of radio frequency electromagnetic field was developed. The system can form an area where electromagnetic wave with large frequency range is well distributed. The strength of electromagnetic wave was measured easily. Electromagnetic wave in the system did not have effect on environment. The sensitivity of spinach chloroplast membrane to low intensity electromagnetic radiation of 300 MHz under power density of 5 mW x cm(-2) was studied by the spectral analysis method of fluorescence of 8-anilino-1-naphthalene-sulfonic acid (ANS) and the changes in chlorophyll a (Chla) fluorescence parameters of spinach chloroplast membrane. The result showed that the position of spectrum of ANS fluorescence of spinach chloroplast membrane did not change, but the intensity of ANS fluorescence was obviously increased under the action of electromagnetic radiation with power density of 1-5 mW x cm(-2). There was an increase in the intensity of ANS fluorescence with the increase in electromagnetic radiation. The increase of ANS fluorescence of spinach chloroplast membrane showed that low level electromagnetic field induced the decrease in fluidity of chloroplast membrane compared with control experiment. The cause of the change in the fluidity could be related to the polarization of chloroplast membrane under the electromagnetic field. The analysis of Chla fluorescence parameters of spinach chloroplast membrane indicated that low level electromagnetic field of 300 MHz made the fluorescence parameters F0 and F(VI/)F(V) decrease, and F(V)/Fo, Fv/F(m) and deltaF(V)/T increase. It was showed that low level electromagnetic field caused the change of non-active center of photosystem II of spinach chloroplast membrane to active center and the increase in potential active and photochemical efficiency of PSII, and promoted the transmit process of electron in photosynthesis of chloroplast membrane of photosynthesis cell in spinach leaf. The study confirmed that low level electromagnetic field has non--thermal effects on photosynthesis system of spinach chloroplast membrane. The cell in spinach leaf can keep the photosynthesis through the change in heterogeneity of photosystem II and adapt to the environment of electromagnetic radiation increase.

Liquid-chromatography-mass spectrometry of thylakoid membrane proteins

The present chapter describes methods for the separation and identification of photosynthetic proteins of thylakoid membranes present in chloroplasts by using different detergents, high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Thylakoid membranes represent a good model for setting up analytical methods suitable for membrane protein characterization.The first step in the procedure is the preparation of purified membrane fractions from plant tissues, followed by the fractionation of membrane proteins by differential solubilization using different detergents. Thus, several protein complexes can be isolated, collected, separated by ion-pair reversed-phase chromatography and detected online by UV-absorption and/or mass spectrometry. Finally, identification of the eluting proteins is accomplished by comparing the molecular mass determined in silico with the molecular mass measured by mass spectrometry.

Two distinct proton binding sites in the ATP synthase family

The F1F0 ATP synthase utilizes energy stored in an electrochemical gradient of protons (or Na+ ions) across the membrane to synthesize ATP from ADP and phosphate. Current models predict that the protonation/deprotonation of specific acidic c ring residues is at the core of the proton translocation mechanism by this enzyme. To probe the mode of proton binding, we measured the covalent modification of the acidic c ring residues with the inhibitor dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) over the pH range from 5 to 11. With the H+-translocating ATP synthase from the archaeum Halobacterium salinarium or the Na+-translocating ATP synthase from Ilyobacter tartaricus, the pH profile of DCCD labeling followed a titration curve with a pKa around neutral, reflecting protonation of the acidic c ring residues. However, with the ATP synthases from Escherichia coli, mitochondria, or chloroplasts, a clearly different, bell-shaped pH profile for DCCD labeling was observed which is not compatible with carboxylate protonation but might be explained by the coordination of a hydronium ion as proposed earlier [Boyer, P. D. (1988) Trends Biochem. Sci. 13, 5-7]. Upon site-directed mutagenesis of single binding site residues of the structurally resolved c ring, the sigmoidal pH profile for DCCD labeling could be converted to a more bell-shaped one, demonstrating that the different ion binding modes are based on subtle changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein. The concept of two different binding sites in the ATP synthase family is supported by the ATP hydrolysis pH profiles of the investigated enzymes.

Effects of Nanoanatase TiO2 on photosynthesis of spinach chloroplasts under different light illumination

With a photocatalyzed characteristic, nanoanatase TiO2 under light could cause an oxidation-reduction reaction. Our studies had proved that nano-TiO2 could promote photosynthesis and greatly improve spinach growth. However, the mechanism of nano-TiO2 on promoting conversion from light energy to electron energy and from electron energy to active chemistry energy remains largely unclear. In this study, we report that the electron transfer, oxygen evolution, and photophosphorylation of chloroplast (Chl) from nanoanatase-TiO2-treated spinach were greatly increased under visible light and ultraviolet light illumination. It was demonstrated that nanoanatase TiO2 could greatly improve whole chain electron transport, photoreduction activity of photosystem II, O2-evolving and photophosphorylation activity of spinach Chl not only under visible light, but also energy-enriched electron from nanoanatase TiO2, which entered Chl under ultraviolet light and was transferred in photosynthetic electron transport chain and made NADP+ be reduced into NADPH, and coupled to photophosphorylation and made electron energy be transformed to ATP. Moreover, nanoanatase h+, which photogenerated electron holes, captured an electron from water, which accelerated water photolysis and O2 evolution.

Effects of nano-anatase TiO2 on absorption, distribution of light, and photoreduction activities of chloroplast membrane of spinach

The effects of nano-anatase TiO2 on light absorption, distribution, and conversion, and photoreduction activities of spinach chloroplast were studied by spectroscopy. Several effects of nano-anatase TiO2 were observed: (1) the absorption peak intensity of the chloroplast was obviously increased in red and blue region, the ratio of the Soret band and Q band was higher than that of the control; (2) the great enhancement of fluorescence quantum yield near 680 nm of the chloroplast was observed, the quantum yield under excitation wavelength of 480 nm was higher than the excitation wavelength of 440 nm; (3) the excitation peak intensity near 440 and 480 nm of the chloroplast significantly rose under emission wavelength of 680 nm, and F 480 / F 440 ratio was reduced; (4) when emission wavelength was at 720 nm, the excitation peaks near 650 and 680 nm were obviously raised, and F 650 / F 680 ratio rose; (5) the rate of whole chain electron transport, photochemical activities of PSII DCPIP photoreduction and oxygen evolution were greatly improved, but the photoreduction activities of PSI were a little changed. Together, the studies of the experiments showed that nano-anatase TiO2 could increase absorption of light on spinach chloroplast and promote excitation energy to be absorbed by LHCII and transferred to PSII and improve excitation energy from PSI to be transferred to PSII, thus, promote the conversion from light energy to electron energy and accelerate electron transport, water photolysis, and oxygen evolution.

Involvement of NADPH oxidase in sulfur dioxide-induced oxidative stress in plant cells

Bisulfite, a major form of SO2 in aqueous phase of apoplast, may reduce photosynthesis rate and thereby crop yield through inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, ROS production was directly detected in a living cell of leaf of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) using laser scanning confocal microscopes with the assistance of the fluorescence probe dichlorofluorescin diacetate (H2DCF-DA). Results showed that, under bisulfite stress, a large quantity of ROS indicated by DCF fluorescence was produced in epidermic tissue. The role of plasma membrane (PM) NADPH oxidase in bisulfite-induced ROS production was also investigated. Treatment with bisulfite resulted in a significant increase in the content of ROS and the activity of PM NADPH oxidase in spinach leaves. The effects caused by bisulfite were inhibited pronouncedly by pretreatment with two widely used NADPH oxidase inhibitors (diphenyleneiodonium and quinacrine). Moreover, the change patterns of the bisulfite-induced increase and inhibitor-caused decrease in the two parameters were quite similar. Additionally, only a small amount of ROS could be observed on in vitro chloroplasts under bisulfite stress. Based on all the results, we conclude that ROS is involved in bisulfite-induced stress, and the bisulfite-induced enhancements in levels of ROS originate mainly from PM NADPH oxidase.

Possible association of actin filaments with chloroplasts of spinach mesophyll cells in vivo and in vitro

In palisade mesophyll cells of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) kept under low-intensity white light, chloroplasts were apparently immobile and seemed to be surrounded by fine bundles of actin filaments. High-intensity blue light induced actin-dependent chloroplast movement concomitant with the appearance of a couple of long, straight bundles of actin filaments in each cell, whereas high-intensity red light was essentially ineffective in inducing these responses. The actin organization observed under low-intensity white light has been postulated to function in anchoring chloroplasts at proper intracellular positions through direct interaction with the chloroplasts. Intact chloroplasts, which retained their outer envelopes, were isolated after homogenization of leaves and Percoll centrifugation. No endogenous actin was detected by immunoblotting in the final intact-chloroplast fraction prepared from the leaves kept under low-intensity white light or in darkness. In cosedimentation assays with exogenously added skeletal muscle filamentous actin, however, actin was detected in the intact-chloroplast fraction precipitated after low-speed centrifugation. The association of actin with chloroplasts was apparently dependent on incubation time and chloroplast density. After partial disruption of the outer envelope of isolated chloroplasts by treatment with trypsin, actin was no longer coprecipitated. The results suggest that chloroplasts in spinach leaves can directly interact with actin, and that this interaction may be involved in the regulation of intracellular positioning of chloroplasts.

Trapping of the S2 to S3 state intermediate of the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II

Photosystem II preparations poised in the S(2)...Q(A) state produce no detectable intermediate during straightforward illumination at liquid helium temperatures. However, upon flash illumination in the range of 77-190 K, they produce a transient state which at -10 degrees C advances to S(3) or after rapid cooling to 10 K gives rise to a 116 G wide metalloradical EPR signal. The latter decays with half-times on the order of a few minutes, presumably by charge recombination, and can be regenerated repeatedly by illumination at 10 K. The constraints for Tyr Z oxidation are attributed to the presence of excess positive charge in S(2). Elevated temperatures are required presumably to overcome a thermal barrier in the deprotonation of Tyr Z(+) or most likely to allow secondary proton transfer away from the base partner of Tyr Z. Treatment with 5% (v/v) MeOH appears to remove the constraints for Tyr Z oxidation, and a 160 G wide metalloradical EPR signal is produced by illumination at 10 K, which decays with a half-time of ca. 80 s. Formation of the metalloradical signals is accompanied by reversible changes in the Mn multiline signal. The intermediates are assigned to Tyr Z(*) magnetically interacting with the Mn cluster in S(2), S(2)Y(Z)(*). A molecular model which extends an earlier suggestion and provides a plausible explanation of a number of observations, including the binding of small molecules to the Mn cluster, is presented.

An inserted loop region of stromal ascorbate peroxidase is involved in its hydrogen peroxide-mediated inactivation

Ascorbate peroxidase isoforms localized in the stroma and thylakoid of higher plant chloroplasts are rapidly inactivated by hydrogen peroxide if the second substrate, ascorbate, is depleted. However, cytosolic and microbody-localized isoforms from higher plants as well as ascorbate peroxidase B, an ascorbate peroxidase of a red alga Galdieria partita, are relatively tolerant. We constructed various chimeric ascorbate peroxidases in which regions of ascorbate peroxidase B, from sites internal to the C-terminal end, were exchanged with corresponding regions of the stromal ascorbate peroxidase of spinach. Analysis of these showed that a region between residues 245 and 287 was involved in the inactivation by hydrogen peroxide. A 16-residue amino acid sequence (249-264) found in this region of the stromal ascorbate peroxidase was not found in other ascorbate peroxidase isoforms. A chimeric ascorbate peroxidase B with this sequence inserted was inactivated by hydrogen peroxide within a few minutes. The sequence forms a loop that binds noncovalently to heme in cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase of pea but does not bind to it in stromal ascorbate peroxidase of tobacco, and binds to cations in both ascorbate peroxidases. The higher susceptibility of the stromal ascorbate peroxidase may be due to a distorted interaction of the loop with the cation and/or the heme.

Tyrosine Residues of the Extrinsic 23 kDa Protein Are Important for Its Interaction with Spinach PSII Membranes

The 1, 4, and 8 tyrosine (Tyr) residues on the PSII extrinsic 23 kDa protein were modified with 5, 10 or 40 mM N-acetylimidazole (NAI) respectively. The amount of rebound NAI-modified extrinsic 23 kDa protein was 98%, 80%, and 5% of that in the unmodified protein, respectively. These results indicate that the Tyr residues are absolutely essential to reconstitution ability. Further, the fluorescence and circular dichroism spectra among native and NAI-modified extrinsic 23 kDa proteins were similar, suggesting that the modification by NAI did not markedly influence the basic secondary structure of the native conformation. Thus, we have concluded that the tyrosine residues in the extrinsic 23 kDa protein are important for interaction with PSII membranes. In addition, we found that the structure of the extrinsic 23 kDa protein is stable in suspension (pH 4-9 or Tm 25-55 degrees C).

TCP34, a nuclear-encoded response regulator-like TPR protein of higher plant chloroplasts

We describe the identification of a novel chloroplast protein, designated TCP34 (tetratricopeptide-containing chloroplast protein of 34 kDa) due to the presence of three tandemly arranged tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) arrays. The presence of the genes encoding this protein only in the genomes of higher plants but not in photosynthetic cyanobacterial prokaryotes suggests that TCP34 evolved after the separation of the higher plant lineage. The in vitro translated precursor could be imported into intact spinach chloroplasts and the processed products showed stable association with thylakoid membranes. Using a specific polyclonal antiserum raised against TCP34, three protein variants were detected. Two forms, T(1) and T(2), were associated with the thylakoid membranes and one, S(1), was found released in the stroma. TCP34 protein was not present in etioplasts and appeared only in developing chloroplasts. The ratio of membrane-bound and soluble forms was maximal at the onset of photosynthesis. The high molecular mass thylakoid TCP34 variant was found in association with a transcriptionally active protein/DNA complex (TAC) from chloroplasts and recombinant TCP34 showed specific binding to Spinacia oleracea chloroplast DNA. Two TCP34 forms, T(1) and S(1), were found to be phosphorylated. An as yet unidentified phosphorelay signal may modulate its capability for plastid DNA binding through the phosphorylation state of the putative response regulator-like domain. Based on the structural properties and biochemical analyses, we discuss the putative regulatory function of TCP34 in plastid gene expression.

Micro pulsed radio-frequency electroporation chips

Electroporation (EP) is one of the most important physical methods in biotechnology, which employs electrical pulses to transiently permeabilize cell membranes. In this study, a new micro pulsed radio-frequency electroporation cell (microPREP) chip was fabricated using a lift-off technique and SU-8 photolithography. The biological tests were carried out using three different plant protoplasts (cabbage, spinach and oil rape) on the micro EP chip and a pulsed RF electric field was applied to the microchip. The variations of fluorescent intensity and cell viability as functions of the electric pulse amplitude and duration time during the electroporation process were studied in detail at the single-cell level. Using such chip design and test method, one can easily optimize the efficiency and cell viability. Also, a large amount of statistical data can be quickly obtained. Finally, results of this parametric study were presented in the "phase diagram", from which the critical electric field for inducing single-cell electroporation under different conditions can be clearly determined.

Do polyamines contribute to plant cell wall assembly by forming amide bonds with pectins?

Two new reducing glycoconjugates [N-D-galacturonoyl-putrescinamide (GalA-Put) and N,N'-di-D-galacturonoyl-putrescinamide (GalA-Put-GalA)] and homogalacturonan-putrescine (GalAn-Put) conjugates were synthesised as model compounds representing possible amide (isopeptide) linkage points between a polyamine and either one or two pectic galacturonate residues. The amide bond(s) were stable to cold acid and alkali (2M TFA and 0.1M NaOH at 25 degrees C) but rapidly hydrolysed by these agents at 100 degrees C. The amide bond(s) were resistant to Driselase and to all proteinases tested, although Driselase digested GalAn-Put, releasing fragments such as GalA3-Put-GalA3. To trace the possible formation of GalA-polyamine amide bonds in vivo, we fed Arabidopsis and rose cell-cultures and chickpea internodes with [14C]Put. About 20% of the 14C taken up was released as 14CO2, indicating some catabolism. An additional approximately 73% of the 14C taken up (in Arabidopsis), or approximately 21% (in rose), became ethanol-insoluble, superficially suggestive of polysaccharide-Put covalent bonding. However, much of the ethanol-inextractable 14C was subsequently extractable by acidified phenol or by cold 1M TFA. The small proportion of radioactive material that stayed insoluble in both phenol and TFA was hydrolysable by Driselase or hot 6M HCl, yielding 14C-oligopeptides and/or amino acids (including Asp, Glu, Gly, Ala and Val); no free 14C-polyamines were released by hot HCl. We conclude that if pectin-polyamine amide bonds are present, they are a very minor component of the cell walls of cultured rose and Arabidopsis cells and chickpea internodes.

The novel herbicide oxaziclomefone inhibits cell expansion in maize cell cultures without affecting turgor pressure or wall acidification

Oxaziclomefone [OAC; IUPAC name 3-(1-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-1-methylethyl)-3,4-dihydro-6-methyl-5-phenyl-2H-1,3-oxazin-4-one] is a new herbicide that inhibits cell expansion in grass roots. Its effects on cell cultures and mode of action were unknown. In principle, cell expansion could be inhibited by a decrease in either turgor pressure or wall extensibility. Cell expansion was estimated as settled cell volume; cell division was estimated by cell counting. Membrane permeability to water was measured by a novel method involving simultaneous assay of the efflux of (3)H(2)O and [(14)C]mannitol from a 'bed' of cultured cells. Osmotic potential was measured by depression of freezing point. OAC inhibited cell expansion in cultures of maize (Zea mays), spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and rose (Rosa sp.), with an ID(50) of 5, 30 and 250 nm, respectively. In maize cultures, OAC did not affect cell division for the first 40 h. It did not affect the osmotic potential of cell sap or culture medium, nor did it impede water transport across cell membranes. It did not affect cells' ability to acidify the apoplast (medium), which may be necessary for 'acid growth'. As OAC did not diminish turgor pressure, its ability to inhibit cell expansion must depend on changes in wall extensibility. It could be a valuable tool for studies on cell expansion.

Evidence That Azide Occupies the Chloride Binding Site near the Manganese Cluster in Photosystem II

The effect of adding azide to photosystem II (PS II) membrane samples (BBY preparation), with or without chloride, has been investigated using continuous wave (CW) and pulsed EPR spectroscopy. In the BBY samples with 25 mM chloride, we observed that the inhibition induced by azide is partly recovered by the addition of bicarbonate. Electron spin-echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) was used to search for spin transitions of 15N nuclei magnetically coupled to the S2 state Mn cluster (multiline EPR signal form) in 15N (single terminal label) azide-treated samples with negative results. However, an 15N ESEEM peak was observed in parallel chloride-depleted PS II samples when the 15N-labeled azide is added. However, this peak is absent in chloride-depleted samples incubated in buffer containing both chloride and [15N]azide. Thus these results demonstrate an azide binding site in the immediate vicinity of the Mn cluster, and since this site appears to be competitive with chloride, these results provide further evidence that chloride is bound proximal to the Mn cluster as well. Discussion on the possible interplay between azide, chloride, and bicarbonate is provided.

Global Changes of Chlorophyll Excitonic Interactions in Photosystem II During Thermal Denaturation

Photosystem II (PSII) is a multisubunit chlorophyll-binding enzyme that absorbs light to catalyze water oxidation and plastoquinone reduction. Chlorophyll excitonic interaction changes in PSII were studied by absorption and circular dichroism spectra from 25 degrees C to 80 degrees C, and protein subunit denaturation was monitored by differential scanning calorimetry. A four-stage process of chlorophyll excitonic interaction change was observed being correlated with the denaturation of protein subunits.

Influence of state-2 transition on the proton motive force across the thylakoid membrane in spinach chloroplasts

The proton motive force (pmf) across the thylakoid membrane is composed of the proton gradient and the membrane potential, which promotes millisecond-delayed light emission (ms-DLE). In this study, the time courses of LHC II phosphorylation and ms-DLE were investigated in spinach chloroplast during State-2 transition. Red light illumination resulted in an exponential rise in LHC II phosphorylation and a biphasic time course of ms-DLE. The phospho-LHC II appeared upon approximately 1 min illumination. The phosphorylation level increased exponentially when illumination was elongated to 20 min. The t((1/2) )of saturated LHC II phosphorylation was estimated 4-5 min under present illumination. During this process, the amplitudes of ms-DLE increased transiently to a maximal amplitude within 0.5 min illumination, and the reached maximum of the fast phase of ms-DLE was approximately 140% of the dark control. Then, ms-DLE decreased from the maximum. After > or =3 min illumination, ms-DLE decreased to a lower level than the dark control. In the presence of uncouplers and inhibitors, the transient increase in the biphasic time course of ms-DLE was removed by nigericin and DCMU, and the sequential decrease was delayed by DCCD. The time course was not affected significantly by valinomycin and DBMIB. Moreover, the level of LHC II phosphorylation was enhanced by nigericin, valinomycin and DCCD, and was inhibited completely by DCMU and partially by DBMIB. Taken together, we proposed that the PS II photochemical activity remained unaffected even with a higher level of LHC II phosphorylation, which was reflected by the effect of DCCD on the time course of ms-DLE. Probably, the evidence of LHC II phosphorylation is the rearrangement of LHC II-PS II complex and the thylakoid, a feedback to light-exposure, rather than the redistribution of excitation energy from PS II to PS I.

Effect of exogenous histidine on restoration of electron transfer on the donor side of photosystem II depleted of Mn

It is shown that restoration of photoinduced electron flow with added Mn2+ (measured by photoreduction of DCPIP and photoinduced change of chlorophyll fluorescence yield) in Mn-depleted Photosystem II (PS II) membrane fragments isolated from spinach chloroplasts, is considerably increased by exogenous histidine (His). The stimulating effect of His is not observed if other electron donors (NH2OH or diphenylcarbazide) are used instead of Mn2+. His added alone does not induce electron transfer in Mn-depleted PS II preparations. Investigation of pH dependence of the stimulating effect of 2 mM His shows that the effect is observed only at pH > 5.0, it gives a 50% activation around pH 6.0 and saturates at pH 7.0-7.5. Nearly 200 microM His is required for a 50 effect at pH 7.0. It is suggested that the added His can be involved in stimulation of electron transfer on the donor side of PS II through direct interaction of Mn2+ with deprotonated form(s) of His resulting in formation of Mn-His complexes capable of efficient electron donation to PS II (though it is not excluded that His serves as a base that takes part in proton exchange coupled with redox reactions on the donor side of PS II or as an electron donor to the oxidized Mn).

“Respirasome”-like Supercomplexes in Green Leaf Mitochondria of Spinach

Higher plant mitochondria have many unique features compared with their animal and fungal counterparts. This is to a large extent related to the close functional interdependence of mitochondria and chloroplasts, in which the two ATP-generating processes of oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis, respectively, take place. We show that digitonin treatment of mitochondria contaminated with chloroplasts from spinach (Spinacia oleracea) green leaves at two different buffer conditions, performed to solubilize oxidative phosphorylation supercomplexes, selectively extracts the mitochondrial membrane protein complexes and only low amounts of stroma thylakoid membrane proteins. By analysis of digitonin extracts from partially purified mitochondria of green leaves from spinach using blue and colorless native electrophoresis, we demonstrate for the first time that in green plant tissue a substantial proportion of the respiratory complex IV is assembled with complexes I and III into "respirasome"-like supercomplexes, previously observed in mammalian, fungal, and non-green plant mitochondria only. Thus, fundamental features of the supramolecular organization of the standard respiratory complexes I, III, and IV as a respirasome are conserved in all higher eukaryotes. Because the plant respiratory chain is highly branched possessing additional alternative enzymes, the functional implications of the occurrence of respiratory supercomplexes in plant mitochondria are discussed.

Purification and crystallization of the cytochrome b6f complex in oxygenic photosynthesis

The cytochrome b6f complex from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Mastigocladus laminosus and spinach chloroplasts has been purified as a dimeric species. It was found by electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy to contain eight and nine subunits, respectively, and dimeric masses of 217,070 and 286,454 Da. The subunits common to the complex from both sources are petA (cytochrome f), B (cytochrome b6), C (Rieske iron-sulfur protein), D (subunit IV), and small 3.2-4.2 kDa polypeptides petG,L,M, and N. The ninth polypeptide, the 35 kDa petH poly-peptide in the spinach complex, was identified as ferredoxin NADP reductase (FNR), which binds to the complex tightly at a stoichiometry of approx 0.9 (cyt f)-1. The spinach complex contains diaphorase activity diagnostic of FNR, and is active in facilitating ferredoxin-dependent electron transfer from NADPH to the cytochrome b6f complex. The purified cytochrome b6f complex contains stoichiometrically bound chlorophyll a and beta-carotene at a ratio of one per cytochrome f, and bound lipid, in which MGDG and PG are the most abundant species. The delipidated highly purified complexes are active immediately after preparation and for approx 1 wk if left on ice, transferring 300-350 electrons/cyt f/s. Both complexes are subject to proteolysis and associated loss of activity if left for extended periods (>1 wk) at room temperature. Addition of pure synthetic lipid to the delipidated M. laminosus complex (the "lipid augmentation" technique) allows rapid and ready formation of large (>0.2 mm) crystals suitable for x-ray diffraction analysis and structure determination, which diffract with good statistics to 3.0 A.

Extraction of the functional manganese and calcium from photosystem II

Manganese (Mn) and calcium (Ca) are both metal cofactors required for photosynthetic oxygen evolution. The functional roles for these ions in the O2-evolving reactions are not completely known. They are studied by comparative spectroscopic measurements between intact and metal-depleted samples. In this chapter, we outline three experimental procedures used for the various removal of Mn and Ca from photosystem (PS) II-containing (i.e,. O2-evolving) preparations: the complete Mn extraction using a strong alkaline Ches buffer (pH 9.4)/MgCl2 wash, partial Mn extraction using a mild hydroxylamine (pH 6.8) wash, and specific Ca extraction through a low pH/citrate (pH 3) wash. The O2 evolution activities (measured by a Clarke-type oxygen electrode), protein composition (determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate- polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis), and the relative Mn and Ca content (measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy) are reported for each extraction procedure.

FAD assembly and thylakoid membrane binding of ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase in chloroplasts

We investigated the process of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) incorporation into the ferredoxin (Fd):NADP(+) oxidoreductase (FNR) polypeptide during FNR biosynthesis, using pull-down assay with resin-immobilized Fd which bound strongly to FAD-assembled holo-FNR, but hardly to FAD-deficient apo-FNR. After FNR precursor was imported into isolated chloroplasts and processed to the mature size, the molecular form pulled down by Fd-resin increasingly appeared. The mature-sized FNR (mFNR) accumulated transiently in the stroma as the apo-form, and subsequently bound on the thylakoid membranes as the holo-form. Thus, FAD is incorporated into the mFNR inside chloroplasts, and this assembly process is followed by the thylakoid membrane localization of FNR.

Morphological and quantitative data of plastids and mitochondria within drought-stressed spinach leaves

Selected cell organelles were investigated at a high level of resolution with the transmission electron microscope, using ultrathin serial sections to create three-dimensional reconstructions. On the basis of these reconstructions, morphological data of chloroplast fine structures, mitochondria, and peroxisomes from control and drought-stressed spinach leaves were evaluated and compared. Mesophyll cell chloroplasts of control plants contained 60% stroma, 23% thylakoids, and 16% starch. In drought-stressed plants, the volume of both the stroma and the thylakoids increased to 68% and 32%, respectively. The amount of plastoglobuli was about 0.3% in both samples. Chloroplasts of stressed plants differed from control plants not only in the thylakoid and stroma values but also in the lack of starch grains. Mitochondria occurred in variable forms in control and stressed samples. In stressed plants, mitochondria had only 65% of the volume compared with control plants. Peroxisomes were inconspicuous.

Thioredoxin links redox to the regulation of fundamental processes of plant mitochondria

Mitochondria contain thioredoxin (Trx), a regulatory disulfide protein, and an associated flavoenzyme, NADP/Trx reductase, which provide a link to NADPH in the organelle. Unlike animal and yeast counterparts, the function of Trx in plant mitochondria is largely unknown. Accordingly, we have applied recently devised proteomic approaches to identify soluble Trx-linked proteins in mitochondria isolated from photosynthetic (pea and spinach leaves) and heterotrophic (potato tubers) sources. Application of the mitochondrial extracts to mutant Trx affinity columns in conjunction with proteomics led to the identification of 50 potential Trx-linked proteins functional in 12 processes: photorespiration, citric acid cycle and associated reactions, lipid metabolism, electron transport, ATP synthesis/transformation, membrane transport, translation, protein assembly/folding, nitrogen metabolism, sulfur metabolism, hormone synthesis, and stress-related reactions. Almost all of these targets were also identified by a fluorescent gel electrophoresis procedure in which reduction by Trx can be observed directly. In some cases, the processes targeted by Trx depended on the source of the mitochondria. The results support the view that Trx acts as a sensor and enables mitochondria to adjust key reactions in accord with prevailing redox state. These and earlier findings further suggest that, by sensing redox in chloroplasts and mitochondria, Trx enables the two organelles of photosynthetic tissues to communicate by means of a network of transportable metabolites such as dihydroxyacetone phosphate, malate, and glycolate. In this way, light absorbed and processed by means of chlorophyll can be perceived and function in regulating fundamental mitochondrial processes akin to its mode of action in chloroplasts.

Release and reactive-oxygen-mediated damage of the oxygen-evolving complex subunits of PSII during photoinhibition

Under photoinhibitory illumination of spinach PSII membranes, the oxygen-evolving complex subunits, OEC33, 24 and 18, were released from PSII. The liberated OEC33 and also OEC24 to a lesser extent were subsequently damaged and then exhibited smeared bands in SDS/urea-PAGE. Once deteriorated, OEC33 could not bind to PSII. The effects of scavengers and chelating reagents on the damage indicated that hydroxyl radicals generated from superoxide in the presence of metal ions were responsible for the damage. These results suggest that, like the D1 protein of the PSII reaction center complex, OEC subunits suffer oxidative damage and turnover under illumination.

Assay of photoinhibition of photosystem II and protease activity

Under light-stress conditions, the photosystem (PS)II reaction center D1 protein is photo-damaged. The damage to the D1 protein is induced by singlet oxygen molecules and endogenous free radicals generated by the photochemical reactions of PSII. To maintain PSII activity, the oxidatively damaged D1 protein is replaced by a newly synthesized protein. Thus, degradation and removal of the photodamaged D1 protein in PSII are essential steps for maintaining the viability of PSII. In the present chapter, we describe the method to induce photoinhibition of PSII both in vitro and in vivo, and also the method to assay the processes closely related to the photoinhibition, including degradation of the damaged D1 protein and its crosslinking with the neighboring polypeptides. The method to analyze the protease activity in the stroma that recognizes and digests the crosslinked products of the D1 protein generated by the light stress is also described.

Isolation and characterization of lamellar aggregates of LHCII and LHCII-lipid macro-assemblies with light-inducible structural transitions

In this chapter we describe isolation of loosely stacked lamellar aggregates of LHCII that are capable of undergoing light-induced reversible structural changes, similar to those in granal thylakoid membranes (LHCII, the main chlorophyll a/b light-harvesting antenna complex of photosystem II). This unexpected structural flexibility of the antenna complexes depends largely on the lipid content retained during the isolation. The essence of the procedure is to adjust-for the plant material used-the proper conditions of detergent solubilization and purification mild enough for the associated lipids but also provide sufficient purity. Microcrystals and most other LHCII preparations, which are more delipidated, are not capable of similar changes. The light-induced structural reorganizations can be enhanced by the addition of different thylakoid lipids, which depending on the lipid species, also lead to the transformation of the lamellar structure. The preparation of different LHCII-lipid macro-assemblies is also described. In structurally flexible LHCII preparations and in thylakoids, the changes originate from a thermo-optic effect: fast local thermal transients, T-jumps, resulting from dissipation of the (excess) excitation energy that lead to elementary structural transitions in the vicinity of the dissipating centers. This can occur because thylakoids and structurally flexible LHCII assemblies but, for example, not the microcrystals, exhibit a thermal instability below the denaturation temperature, and thus (local) heating lead to reorganizations without the loss of the molecular architecture of the constituents. We also list the main biochemical and biophysical techniques that can be used for testing the structural flexibility of LHCII, and discuss the potential physiological significance of the structural changes in light adaptation and photoprotection of plants.

Cloning of a nitrate reductase inactivator (NRI) cDNA from Spinacia oleracea L. and expression of mRNA and protein of NRI in cultured spinach cells

The spinach ( Spinacia oleracea L. (cv. Hoyo) nitrate reductase inactivator (NRI) is a novel protein that irreversibly inactivates NR. Using degenerate primers based on an N-terminal amino acid sequence of NRI purified from spinach leaves and a cDNA library, we isolated a full-length NRI cDNA from spinach that contains an open reading frame encoding 479 amino acid residues. This protein shares 67.4% and 51.1-68.3% amino acid sequence similarities with a nucleotide pyrophosphatase (EC 3.6.1.9) from rice and three types of the nucleotide pyrophosphatase-like protein from Arabidopsis thaliana, respectively. Immunoblot analysis revealed that NRI was constitutively expressed in suspension-cultured spinach cells; however, its expression level is quite low in 1-day-subcultured cells. Moreover, northern blot analysis indicated that this expression was regulated at the mRNA level. These results suggest that NRI functions in mature cells.

H+/ATP ratio of proton transport-coupled ATP synthesis and hydrolysis catalysed by CF0F1-liposomes

The H(+)/ATP ratio and the standard Gibbs free energy of ATP synthesis were determined with a new method using a chemiosmotic model system. The purified H(+)-translocating ATP synthase from chloroplasts was reconstituted into phosphatidylcholine/phosphatidic acid liposomes. During reconstitution, the internal phase was equilibrated with the reconstitution medium, and thereby the pH of the internal liposomal phase, pH(in), could be measured with a conventional glass electrode. The rates of ATP synthesis and hydrolysis were measured with the luciferin/luciferase assay after an acid-base transition at different [ATP]/([ADP][P(i)]) ratios as a function of deltapH, analysing the range from the ATP synthesis to the ATP hydrolysis direction and the deltapH at equilibrium, deltapH (eq) (zero net rate), was determined. The analysis of the [ATP]/([ADP][P(i)]) ratio as a function of deltapH (eq) and of the transmembrane electrochemical potential difference, delta micro approximately (H)(+) (eq), resulted in H(+)/ATP ratios of 3.9 +/- 0.2 at pH 8.45 and 4.0 +/- 0.3 at pH 8.05. The standard Gibbs free energies of ATP synthesis were determined to be 37 +/- 2 kJ/mol at pH 8.45 and 36 +/- 3 kJ/mol at pH 8.05.

Short-term and long-term effects of low total pressure on gas exchange rates of spinach

In this study, spinach plants were grown under atmospheric and low pressure conditions with constant O2 and CO2 partial pressures, and the effects of low total pressure on gas exchange rates were investigated. CO2 assimilation and transpiration rates of spinach grown under atmospheric pressure increased after short-term exposure to low total pressure due to the enhancement of leaf conductance. However, gas exchange rates of plants grown at 25 kPa total pressure were not greater than those grown at atmospheric pressure. Stomatal pore length and width were significantly smaller in leaves grown at low total pressure. This result suggested that gas exchange rates of plants grown under low total pressure were not stimulated even with the enhancement of gas diffusion because the stomatal size and stomatal aperture decreased.