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Sakala IG, Honda-Okubo Y, Petrovsky N. Developmental and reproductive safety of Advax-CpG55.2™ adjuvanted COVID-19 and influenza vaccines in mice. Vaccine 2023; 41:6093-6104. [PMID: 37659896 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
SpikoGen® is a recombinant spike protein vaccine against COVID-19 that obtained marketing authorization in the Middle East on October 6th, 2021, becoming the first adjuvanted protein-based COVID-19 vaccine of its type to achieve approval. SpikoGen® vaccine utilizes a unique adjuvant Advax-CpG55.2, which comprises delta inulin and CpG55.2 oligonucleotide, a synthetic human toll-like receptor (TLR)-9 agonist. As part of a safety assessment, developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) studies were undertaken in mice of Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvanted formulations including SpikoGen®, a H7 hemagglutinin influenza vaccine (rH7HA), the bivalent combination of SpikoGen® and rH7HA, and a next-generation quadrivalent spike protein vaccine. In the first study, vaccines were administered intramuscularly to pregnant dams on gestation days (GD) 6.5 and 12.5, and in the second two doses were given in the pre-mating period with a further two doses during gestation. The doses used in the pregnant mice were 250-1000 times the usual human doses on a weight for weight basis. Strong serum antibody responses with neutralizing activity against the relevant virus were seen in the immunized dams and also at the time of weaning in the sera of their pups, consistent with robust maternal antibody transfer. No adverse effects of any of the vaccine formulations were observed in the immunized dams or their pups. Notably, there were no adverse effects of any of the Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvanted vaccines on female mating performance, fertility, ovarian or uterine parameters, embryo-fetal or postnatal survival, fetal growth, or neurofunctional development. No evidence of antigen interference was observed when SpikoGen® vaccine was mixed and co-administered with influenza hemagglutinin vaccine to pregnant dams. Together with the strong safety profile of SpikoGen® vaccine seen in adults and children in human trials, this DART study data supports the safety of Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvanted COVID-19 and influenza vaccine in women of childbearing potential including during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd., Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd., Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
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Honda-Okubo Y, Sakala IG, André G, Tarbet EB, Hurst BL, Petrovsky N. An Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvanted recombinant hemagglutinin vaccine provides immunity against H7N9 influenza in adult and neonatal mice. Vaccine 2023; 41:5592-5602. [PMID: 37532610 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.07.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
There is a major unmet need for strategies to improve the immunogenicity and effectiveness of pandemic influenza vaccines, particularly in poor responder populations such as neonates. Recombinant protein approaches to pandemic influenza offer advantages over more traditional inactivated virus approaches, as they are free of problems such as egg adaptation or need for high level biosecurity containment for manufacture. However, a weakness of recombinant proteins is their low immunogenicity. We asked whether the use of an inulin polysaccharide adjuvant (Advax) alone or combined with a TLR9 agonist (CpG55.2) would enhance the immunogenicity and protection of a recombinant hemagglutinin vaccine against H7N9 influenza (rH7HA), including in neonatal mice. Advax adjuvant induced predominantly IgG1 responses against H7HA, whereas Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvant also induced IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3 responses, consistent with the TLR9 agonist component inducing a Th1 bias. Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvanted rH7HA induced high serum neutralizing antibody titers in adult mice. In newborns it similarly overcame immune hypo-responsiveness and enhanced serum anti-rH7HA IgG levels in 7-day-old BALB/C and C57BL/6 mice. Immunized adult mice were protected against a lethal H7N9 virus challenge. When formulated with Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvant, greater protection was seen with rH7HA than with inactivated H7 whole virus antigen. Advax-CpG55.2 adjuvanted rH7HA represents a promising influenza vaccine platform for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | | | - E Bart Tarbet
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, 5600 Old Main Hill, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Brett L Hurst
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, 5600 Old Main Hill, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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Kaur A, Piplani S, Kaushik D, Fung J, Sakala IG, Honda-Okubo Y, Mehta SK, Petrovsky N, Salunke DB. Stereoisomeric Pam2CS Based TLR2 Agonists: Synthesis, Structural Modelling and Activity as Vaccine Adjuvants. RSC Med Chem 2022; 13:622-637. [PMID: 35694694 PMCID: PMC9132229 DOI: 10.1039/d1md00372k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipopeptides including diacylated Pam2CSK4 as well as triacylated Pam3CSK4 act as ligands of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, a promising target for the development of vaccine adjuvants. The highly investigated Pam2CSK4 and...
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshpreet Kaur
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University Chandigarh India
| | - Sakshi Piplani
- Vaxine Pty Ltd Warradale Australia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University Adelaide Australia
| | - Deepender Kaushik
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University Chandigarh India
| | - Johnson Fung
- Vaxine Pty Ltd Warradale Australia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University Adelaide Australia
| | - Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd Warradale Australia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University Adelaide Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd Warradale Australia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University Adelaide Australia
| | - Surinder K Mehta
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University Chandigarh India
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd Warradale Australia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University Adelaide Australia
| | - Deepak B Salunke
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University Chandigarh India
- National Interdisciplinary Centre of Vaccines, Immunotherapeutics and Antimicrobials, Panjab University Chandigarh India
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Kaur A, Kanwar R, Kaushik D, Sakala IG, Honda-Okubo Y, Petrovsky N, Salunke DB, Mehta SK. Combined delivery of TLR2 and TLR7 agonists by Nanostructured lipid carriers induces potent vaccine adjuvant activity in mice. Int J Pharm 2021; 613:121378. [PMID: 34915144 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.121378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists are promising adjuvants and the combination of TLR agonists enhance immune responses by providing synergistic immune activity via triggering different signalling pathways. However, systematic cytotoxicity due to the immediate release of such immune potentiators from the site of injection hampers its clinical performance. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) offer a possibility to incorporate multiple TLR agonists with high encapsulation efficiency and slow drug release. Herein, we synthesized NLCs from didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (D12DAB) and oleic acid and used these to co-encapsulate a Pam2CS derivative (T-2, TLR2 agonist) with an imidazoquinoline derivative (T-7, TLR7 agonist) as a combination vaccine adjuvant. Hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential of the prepared NLCs were found to be in the range of 200-500 nm and 23-27 mV, respectively. Spherical shape and size of prepared NLCs were also assessed through Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) analysis. In-vitro release studies of T-7 demonstrated sustained release and the addition of lipopeptide T-2 augmented encapsulation efficiency (from 84 to 92.9%) with a slight trigger in the release percentage. All NLC formulations were screened in TLR2/1, TLR2/6, TLR7 and TLR8 reporter cell lines and loaded NLC formulation showed high TLR2 and TLR7 agonistic activity. Adjuvant potency was evaluated through intramuscular immunization of female C57BL/6 mice with recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen and influenza hemagglutinin protein. T-2 and T-7 loaded NLCs induced good protective efficacy in mice challenged with a lethal dose of influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshpreet Kaur
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Rohini Kanwar
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; Mehr Chand Mahajan DAV College for Women, Chandigarh, India
| | - Deepender Kaushik
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, Warradale, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, Warradale, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, Warradale, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia.
| | - Deepak B Salunke
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; National Interdisciplinary Centre of Vaccines, Immunotherapeutics and Antimicrobials, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India.
| | - Surinder K Mehta
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Advanced Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India.
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Baldwin J, Piplani S, Sakala IG, Honda-Okubo Y, Li L, Petrovsky N. Rapid development of analytical methods for evaluating pandemic vaccines: a COVID-19 perspective. Bioanalysis 2021; 13:1805-1826. [PMID: 34645288 PMCID: PMC8516068 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2021-0096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are key in charting a path out of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, development of new vaccines is highly dependent on availability of analytical methods for their design and evaluation. This paper highlights the challenges presented in having to rapidly develop vaccine analytical tools during an ongoing pandemic, including the need to address progressive virus mutation and adaptation which can render initial assays unreliable or redundant. It also discusses the potential of new computational modeling techniques to model and analyze key viral proteins and their attributes to assist vaccine production and assay design. It then reviews the current range of analytical tools available for COVID-19 vaccine application, ranging from in vitro assays for immunogen characterization to assays to measure vaccine responses in vivo. Finally, it provides a future perspective for COVID-19 vaccine analytical tools and attempts to predict how the field might evolve over the next 5-10 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Baldwin
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide, 5046, Australia
| | - Sakshi Piplani
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide, 5046, Australia
- College of Medicine & Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
| | - Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide, 5046, Australia
- College of Medicine & Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide, 5046, Australia
- College of Medicine & Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
| | - Lei Li
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide, 5046, Australia
- College of Medicine & Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide, 5046, Australia
- College of Medicine & Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
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Sakala IG, Honda-Okubo Y, Li L, Baldwin J, Petrovsky N. A M2 protein-based universal influenza vaccine containing Advax-SM adjuvant provides newborn protection via maternal or neonatal immunization. Vaccine 2021; 39:5162-5172. [PMID: 34362601 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite newborns being at increased risk of serious influenza infection, influenza vaccines are currently not recommended for use in infants under 6 months of age. We therefore sought to evaluate the protective efficacy in mice of an M2-based influenza vaccine (CapM2e) formulated with Advax-SM adjuvant. Vaccine protection was assessed via both passive maternal immunization and direct neonatal immunization. METHODS For maternal transfer studies, female mice were immunized 1 week before and after mating. Blood was collected from both mother and offspring during weaning and pups were challenged when they reached 3 weeks of age with lethal doses of H1N1 and homologous reassortment influenza strain H3N2 with conserved M2. For direct immunization studies, newborns were immunized at 1 and 3 weeks of age and blood was collected prior to challenge at 4 weeks of age. RESULTS Maternal immunization with CapM2e + Advax-SM vaccine induced high maternal M2e antibody levels that were passively transferred to their offspring and provided them with protection against both H1N1 and H3N2 influenza strains when challenged at 3 weeks of age. When used for direct immunization of neonatal mice, CapM2e + Advax-SM vaccine similarly induced high serum M2e antibody levels and protected against H1N1 and H3N2 influenza challenges with protection associated with inhibition of virus replication with a significant reduction in lung virus load in immunized pups. CONCLUSION CapM2e + Advax-SM vaccine could be useful for protecting newborns against diverse influenza A strains, with opportunities to achieve protection by passive maternal immunization or active neonatal immunization. This data supports further development of this promising M2e-based vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide 5046, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide 5042, Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide 5046, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide 5042, Australia
| | - Lei Li
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide 5046, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide 5042, Australia
| | - Jeremy Baldwin
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide 5046, Australia
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, 11 Walkley Avenue, Adelaide 5046, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide 5042, Australia.
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Kaushik D, Dhingra S, Patil MT, Piplani S, Khanna V, Honda-Okubo Y, Li L, Fung J, Sakala IG, Salunke DB, Petrovsky N. BBIQ, a pure TLR7 agonist, is an effective influenza vaccine adjuvant. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2020; 16:1989-1996. [PMID: 32298200 PMCID: PMC7482670 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2019.1710409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Better adjuvants are needed for vaccines against seasonal influenza. TLR7 agonists are potent activators of innate immune responses and thereby may be promising adjuvants. Among the imidazoquinoline compounds, 1-benzyl-2-butyl-1H-imidazo[4,5-c]quinolin-4-amine (BBIQ) was reported to be a highly active TLR7 agonist but has remained relatively unexplored because of its commercial unavailability. Indeed, in silico molecular modeling studies predicted that BBIQ had a higher TLR7 docking score and binding free energy than imiquimod, the gold standard TLR7 agonist. To circumvent the availability issue, we developed an improved and higher yield method to synthesize BBIQ. Testing BBIQ on human and mouse TLR7 reporter cell lines confirmed it to be TLR7 specific with significantly higher potency than imiquimod. To test its adjuvant potential, BBIQ or imiquimod were admixed with recombinant influenza hemagglutinin protein and administered to mice as two intramuscular immunizations 2 weeks apart. Serum anti-influenza IgG responses assessed by ELISA 2 weeks after the second immunization confirmed that the mice that received vaccine admixed with BBIQ had significantly higher anti-influenza IgG1 and IgG2c responses than mice immunized with antigen alone or admixed with imiquimod. This confirmed BBIQ to be a TLR7-specific adjuvant able to enhance humoral immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepender Kaushik
- Department of Chemistry and Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University , Chandigarh, India
| | - Simran Dhingra
- Department of Chemistry and Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University , Chandigarh, India
| | - Madhuri T Patil
- Department of Chemistry, Mehr Chand Mahajan DAV College for Women , Chandigarh, India
| | - Sakshi Piplani
- Vaxine Pty Ltd , Warradale, Australia.,College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide, Australia
| | - Varun Khanna
- Vaxine Pty Ltd , Warradale, Australia.,College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide, Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- Vaxine Pty Ltd , Warradale, Australia.,College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide, Australia
| | - Lei Li
- Vaxine Pty Ltd , Warradale, Australia.,College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide, Australia
| | | | - Isaac G Sakala
- Vaxine Pty Ltd , Warradale, Australia.,College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide, Australia
| | - Deepak B Salunke
- Department of Chemistry and Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University , Chandigarh, India.,National Interdisciplinary Centre of Vaccine, Immunotherapeutics and Antimicrobials (NICOVIA), Panjab University , Chandigarh, India
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd , Warradale, Australia.,College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide, Australia
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Abstract
Introduction: Neonates are less responsive to vaccines than adults, making it harder to protect newborns against infection. Neonatal differences in antigen-presenting cell, B and T cell function, all likely contribute. A key question is whether novel adjuvants might be able to make neonatal vaccines more effective. Areas covered: This review addresses the issues of how to improve neonatal vaccines, which we have defined as vaccines given in the first 4 weeks of life in a human infant or the first week of life in a mouse. A search was performed using keywords including 'neonatal immunity', 'neonatal immunisation', 'vaccine' and 'adjuvant' of PubMed articles published between 1960 and 2018. Expert opinion: Sugar-like structures have recently been shown to prime the infant adaptive immune system to respond to vaccines, being potentially more effective than traditional adjuvants. Sugar-based compounds with beneficial adjuvant effects in neonatal vaccine models include delta inulin (Advax), curdlan, and trehalose 6,6'-dibehenate. Such compounds make interesting neonatal adjuvant candidates, either used alone or in combination with traditional innate immune adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G Sakala
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd , Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Flinders Medical Centre/Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
| | - Katherine Marie Eichinger
- c Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , PA , USA
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd , Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Flinders Medical Centre/Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
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Eickhoff CS, Terry FE, Peng L, Meza KA, Sakala IG, Van Aartsen D, Moise L, Martin WD, Schriewer J, Buller RM, De Groot AS, Hoft DF. Highly conserved influenza T cell epitopes induce broadly protective immunity. Vaccine 2019; 37:5371-5381. [PMID: 31331771 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Influenza world-wide causes significant morbidity and mortality annually, and more severe pandemics when novel strains evolve to which humans are immunologically naïve. Because of the high viral mutation rate, new vaccines must be generated based on the prevalence of circulating strains every year. New approaches to induce more broadly protective immunity are urgently needed. Previous research has demonstrated that influenza-specific T cells can provide broadly heterotypic protective immunity in both mice and humans, supporting the rationale for developing a T cell-targeted universal influenza vaccine. We used state-of-the art immunoinformatic tools to identify putative pan-HLA-DR and HLA-A2 supertype-restricted T cell epitopes highly conserved among > 50 widely diverse influenza A strains (representing hemagglutinin types 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9). We found influenza peptides that are highly conserved across influenza subtypes that were also predicted to be class I epitopes restricted by HLA-A2. These peptides were found to be immunoreactive in HLA-A2 positive but not HLA-A2 negative individuals. Class II-restricted T cell epitopes that were highly conserved across influenza subtypes were identified. Human CD4+ T cells were reactive with these conserved CD4 epitopes, and epitope expanded T cells were responsive to both H1N1 and H3N2 viruses. Dendritic cell vaccines pulsed with conserved epitopes and DNA vaccines encoding these epitopes were developed and tested in HLA transgenic mice. These vaccines were highly immunogenic, and more importantly, vaccine-induced immunity was protective against both H1N1 and H3N2 influenza challenges. These results demonstrate proof-of-principle that conserved T cell epitopes expressed by widely diverse influenza strains can induce broadly protective, heterotypic influenza immunity, providing strong support for further development of universally relevant multi-epitope T cell-targeting influenza vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S Eickhoff
- Saint Louis University, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - Frances E Terry
- EpiVax, Inc., 188 Valley Street, Suite 424, Providence, RI 02909, United States
| | - Linda Peng
- Saint Louis University, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - Krystal A Meza
- Saint Louis University, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - Isaac G Sakala
- Saint Louis University, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - Daniel Van Aartsen
- Saint Louis University, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - Leonard Moise
- EpiVax, Inc., 188 Valley Street, Suite 424, Providence, RI 02909, United States; University of Rhode Island, Institute for Immunology and Informatics, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, 80 Washington Street, Providence, RI 02903, United States
| | - William D Martin
- EpiVax, Inc., 188 Valley Street, Suite 424, Providence, RI 02909, United States
| | - Jill Schriewer
- Saint Louis University, Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - R Mark Buller
- Saint Louis University, Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States
| | - Anne S De Groot
- EpiVax, Inc., 188 Valley Street, Suite 424, Providence, RI 02909, United States; University of Rhode Island, Institute for Immunology and Informatics, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, 80 Washington Street, Providence, RI 02903, United States
| | - Daniel F Hoft
- Saint Louis University, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States; Saint Louis University, Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, 1100 S. Grand Blvd., Edward A. Doisy Research Center - 8th Floor, Saint Louis, MO 63104, United States.
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Abstract
The serious consequences of influenza infection during pregnancy have been recognized for almost a century. In this article, we reviewed the evidence on the immunogenicity, safety and impact of maternal influenza immunization for both mother and child. After vaccination, pregnant women have similar protective titers of anti-influenza antibodies as non-pregnant women, demonstrating that pregnancy does not alter the trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine immune response. Studies from the United States, Europe and resource-constrained regions demonstrate that maternal vaccination is associated with increased anti-influenza antibody concentrations and protection in the newborn child as well as the immunized mother. Given the acceptable safety profile of influenza vaccines and the World Health Organization's recommendation for its use in pregnant women, maternal vaccination with inactivated influenza vaccine is a cost-effective approach to decrease influenza disease in newborns. However, as seen for influenza immunization in the elderly, the protective efficacy of current inactivated vaccines in protection of newborns is 50% at best, indicating significant room for vaccine improvement, which could potentially be achieved by addition of a safe and effective adjuvant. Thus, global deployment of inactivated influenza immunization during pregnancy would have substantial and measurable health benefits for mothers and their newborns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G Sakala
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd , Bedford Park, Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology , Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
| | - Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd , Bedford Park, Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology , Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
| | - Johnson Fung
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd , Bedford Park, Adelaide , Australia
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd , Bedford Park, Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology , Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
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Sakala IG, Kjer-Nielsen L, Eickhoff CS, Wang X, Blazevic A, Liu L, Fairlie DP, Rossjohn J, McCluskey J, Fremont DH, Hansen TH, Hoft DF. Functional Heterogeneity and Antimycobacterial Effects of Mouse Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells Specific for Riboflavin Metabolites. J Immunol 2015; 195:587-601. [PMID: 26063000 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells have a semi-invariant TCR Vα-chain, and their optimal development is dependent upon commensal flora and expression of the nonpolymorphic MHC class I-like molecule MR1. MAIT cells are activated in an MR1-restricted manner by diverse strains of bacteria and yeast, suggesting a widely shared Ag. Recently, human and mouse MR1 were found to bind bacterial riboflavin metabolites (ribityllumazine [RL] Ags) capable of activating MAIT cells. In this study, we used MR1/RL tetramers to study MR1 dependency, subset heterogeneity, and protective effector functions important for tuberculosis immunity. Although tetramer(+) cells were detected in both MR1(+/+) and MR1(-/-) TCR Vα19i-transgenic (Tg) mice, MR1 expression resulted in significantly increased tetramer(+) cells coexpressing TCR Vβ6/8, NK1.1, CD44, and CD69 that displayed more robust in vitro responses to IL-12 plus IL-18 and RL Ag, indicating that MR1 is necessary for the optimal development of the classic murine MAIT cell memory/effector subset. In addition, tetramer(+) MAIT cells expressing CD4, CD8, or neither developing in MR1(+/+) Vα19i-Tg mice had disparate cytokine profiles in response to RL Ag. Therefore, murine MAIT cells are considerably more heterogeneous than previously thought. Most notably, after mycobacterial pulmonary infection, heterogeneous subsets of tetramer(+) Vα19i-Tg MAIT cells expressing CXCR3 and α4β1 were recruited into the lungs and afforded early protection. In addition, Vα19iCα(-/-)MR(+/+) mice were significantly better protected than were Vα19iCα(-/-)MR1(-/-), wild-type, and MR1(-/-) non-Tg mice. Overall, we demonstrate considerable functional diversity of MAIT cell responses, as well as that MR1-restricted MAIT cells are important for tuberculosis protective immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G Sakala
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110;
| | - Lars Kjer-Nielsen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Christopher S Eickhoff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110
| | - Azra Blazevic
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104
| | - Ligong Liu
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute of Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - David P Fairlie
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute of Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Jamie Rossjohn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, Victoria 3800 Australia; Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; and
| | - James McCluskey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Daved H Fremont
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110
| | - Ted H Hansen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110;
| | - Daniel F Hoft
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Edward A. Doisy Research Center, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104
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Sakala IG, Chaudhri G, Eldi P, Buller RM, Karupiah G. Deficiency in Th2 cytokine responses exacerbate orthopoxvirus infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118685. [PMID: 25751266 PMCID: PMC4353717 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (ECTV) causes mousepox in mice, a disease very similar to smallpox in humans. ECTV and variola virus (VARV), the agent of smallpox, are closely related orthopoxviruses. Mousepox is an excellent small animal model to study the genetic and immunologic basis for resistance and susceptibility of humans to smallpox. Resistance to mousepox is dependent on a strong polarized type 1 immune response, associated with robust natural killer (NK) cell, cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and gamma interferon (IFN-γ) responses. In contrast, ECTV-susceptible mice generate a type 2 response, associated with weak NK cell, CTL and IFN-γ responses but robust IL-4 responses. Nonetheless, susceptible strains infected with mutant ECTV lacking virus-encoded IFN-γ binding protein (vIFN-γbp) (ECTV-IFN-γbpΔ) control virus replication through generation of type 1 response. Since the IL-4/IL-13/STAT-6 signaling pathways polarize type 2/T helper 2 (Th2) responses with a corresponding suppression of IFN-γ production, we investigated whether the combined absence of vIFN-γbp, and one or more host genes involved in Th2 response development, influence generation of protective immunity. Most mutant mouse strains infected with wild-type (WT) virus succumbed to disease more rapidly than WT animals. Conversely, the disease outcome was significantly improved in WT mice infected with ECTV-IFN-γbpΔ but absence of IL-4/IL-13/STAT-6 signaling pathways did not provide any added advantage. Deficiency in IL-13 or STAT-6 resulted in defective CTL responses, higher mortality rates and accelerated deaths. Deficiencies in IL-4/IL-13/STAT-6 signaling pathways significantly reduced the numbers of IFN-γ producing CD4 and CD8 T cells, indicating an absence of a switch to a Th1-like response. Factors contributing to susceptibility or resistance to mousepox are far more complex than a balance between Th1 and Th2 responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G. Sakala
- Infection and Immunity Group, Department of Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Geeta Chaudhri
- Infection and Immunity Group, Department of Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Preethi Eldi
- Infection and Immunity Group, Department of Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - R. Mark Buller
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, St Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Gunasegaran Karupiah
- Infection and Immunity Group, Department of Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Reantragoon R, Corbett AJ, Sakala IG, Gherardin NA, Furness JB, Chen Z, Eckle SBG, Uldrich AP, Birkinshaw RW, Patel O, Kostenko L, Meehan B, Kedzierska K, Liu L, Fairlie DP, Hansen TH, Godfrey DI, Rossjohn J, McCluskey J, Kjer-Nielsen L. Antigen-loaded MR1 tetramers define T cell receptor heterogeneity in mucosal-associated invariant T cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:2305-20. [PMID: 24101382 PMCID: PMC3804952 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20130958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 434] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Generation of antigen-loaded MR1 tetramers that specifically stain MAIT cells identifies heterogeneity in phenotypes and TCR repertoires in humans and mice. Mucosal-associated invariant T cells (MAIT cells) express a semi-invariant T cell receptor (TCR) α-chain, TRAV1-2–TRAJ33, and are activated by vitamin B metabolites bound by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)–related class I–like molecule, MR1. Understanding MAIT cell biology has been restrained by the lack of reagents to specifically identify and characterize these cells. Furthermore, the use of surrogate markers may misrepresent the MAIT cell population. We show that modified human MR1 tetramers loaded with the potent MAIT cell ligand, reduced 6-hydroxymethyl-8-d-ribityllumazine (rRL-6-CH2OH), specifically detect all human MAIT cells. Tetramer+ MAIT subsets were predominantly CD8+ or CD4−CD8−, although a small subset of CD4+ MAIT cells was also detected. Notably, most human CD8+ MAIT cells were CD8α+CD8β−/lo, implying predominant expression of CD8αα homodimers. Tetramer-sorted MAIT cells displayed a TH1 cytokine phenotype upon antigen-specific activation. Similarly, mouse MR1–rRL-6-CH2OH tetramers detected CD4+, CD4−CD8− and CD8+ MAIT cells in Vα19 transgenic mice. Both human and mouse MAIT cells expressed a broad TCR-β repertoire, and although the majority of human MAIT cells expressed TRAV1-2–TRAJ33, some expressed TRAJ12 or TRAJ20 genes in conjunction with TRAV1-2. Accordingly, MR1 tetramers allow precise phenotypic characterization of human and mouse MAIT cells and revealed unanticipated TCR heterogeneity in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rangsima Reantragoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity; and 2 Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience; The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Spencer CT, Abate G, Sakala IG, Xia M, Truscott SM, Eickhoff CS, Linn R, Blazevic A, Metkar SS, Peng G, Froelich CJ, Hoft DF. Granzyme A produced by γ(9)δ(2) T cells induces human macrophages to inhibit growth of an intracellular pathogen. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003119. [PMID: 23326234 PMCID: PMC3542113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Human γ9δ2 T cells potently inhibit pathogenic microbes, including intracellular mycobacteria, but the key inhibitory mechanism(s) involved have not been identified. We report a novel mechanism involving the inhibition of intracellular mycobacteria by soluble granzyme A. γ9δ2 T cells produced soluble factors that could pass through 0.45 µm membranes and inhibit intracellular mycobacteria in human monocytes cultured below transwell inserts. Neutralization of TNF-α in co-cultures of infected monocytes and γ9δ2 T cells prevented inhibition, suggesting that TNF-α was the critical inhibitory factor produced by γ9δ2 T cells. However, only siRNA- mediated knockdown of TNF-α in infected monocytes, but not in γ9δ2 T cells, prevented mycobacterial growth inhibition. Investigations of other soluble factors produced by γ9δ2 T cells identified a highly significant correlation between the levels of granzyme A produced and intracellular mycobacterial growth inhibition. Furthermore, purified granzyme A alone induced inhibition of intracellular mycobacteria, while knockdown of granzyme A in γ9δ2 T cell clones blocked their inhibitory effects. The inhibitory mechanism was independent of autophagy, apoptosis, nitric oxide production, type I interferons, Fas/FasL and perforin. These results demonstrate a novel microbial defense mechanism involving granzyme A-mediated triggering of TNF-α production by monocytes leading to intracellular mycobacterial growth suppression. This pathway may provide a protective mechanism relevant for the development of new vaccines and/or immunotherapies for macrophage-resident chronic microbial infections. A small subset of human T cells express γ9δ2 T cell receptors and recognize unique non-peptide phosphoantigens expressed by microbes and damaged cells, such as cancer. These cells are important because: 1) they reside within skin and mucosal surfaces at critical points of initial pathogen invasion, and 2) they are not restricted by polymorphic HLA types and thus can be activated by the same cognate antigens in highly diverse populations. Many important human pathogens such as the causes of AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and others induce potent responses in γ9δ2 T cells that can be protective. However, the key mechanisms involved in γ9δ2 T cell-mediated protective immunity are not well defined. We have found that γ9δ2 T cells produce soluble granzyme A which correlates with their ability to protect against intracellular mycobacterial growth. We show directly that highly purified granzyme A alone can trigger human monocytes to control intracellular mycobacteria. We further show that the granzyme A-induced mycobacterial inhibition required production of TNF-α by infected monocytes. These studies may have important implications for future vaccine development and novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles T. Spencer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Getahun Abate
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Isaac G. Sakala
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Mei Xia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Steven M. Truscott
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Christopher S. Eickhoff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Linn
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Azra Blazevic
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Sunil S. Metkar
- NorthShore University HealthSystems Research Institute, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Guangyong Peng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Froelich
- NorthShore University HealthSystems Research Institute, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Daniel F. Hoft
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hoft DF, Babusis E, Worku S, Spencer CT, Lottenbach K, Truscott SM, Abate G, Sakala IG, Edwards KM, Creech CB, Gerber MA, Bernstein DI, Newman F, Graham I, Anderson EL, Belshe RB. Live and inactivated influenza vaccines induce similar humoral responses, but only live vaccines induce diverse T-cell responses in young children. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:845-53. [PMID: 21846636 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Two doses of either trivalent live attenuated or inactivated influenza vaccines (LAIV and TIV, respectively) are approved for young children (≥ 24 months old for LAIV and ≥ 6 months old for TIV) and induce protective antibody responses. However, whether combinations of LAIV and TIV are safe and equally immunogenic is unknown. Furthermore, LAIV is more protective than TIV in children for unclear reasons. METHODS Children 6-35 months old were administered, 1 month apart, 2 doses of either TIV or LAIV, or combinations of LAIV and TIV in both prime/boost sequences. Influenza-specific antibodies were measured by hemagglutination inhibition (HAI), and T cells were studied in flow cytometric and functional assays. Highly conserved M1, M2, and NP peptides predicted to be presented by common HLA class I and II were used to stimulate interferon-γ enzyme-linked immunospot responses. RESULTS All LAIV and/or TIV combinations were well tolerated and induced similar HAI responses. In contrast, only regimens containing LAIV induced influenza-specific CD4(+), CD8(+), and γδ T cells, including T cells specific for highly conserved influenza peptides. CONCLUSIONS Prime/boost combinations of LAIV and TIV in young children were safe and induced similar protective antibodies. Only LAIV induced CD4(+), CD8(+), and γδ T cells relevant for broadly protective heterosubtypic immunity. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION NCT00231907.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel F Hoft
- Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University Vaccine and Treatment Evaluation Unit, Missouri, USA.
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Abstract
Optimizing the development of modern molecular vaccines requires a complex series of interdisciplinary efforts involving basic scientists, immunologists, molecular biologists, clinical vaccinologists, bioinformaticians and epidemiologists. This review summarizes some of the major issues that must be carefully considered. The intent of the authors is to briefly describe key components of the development process to give the reader an overview of the challenges faced from vaccine concept to vaccine delivery. Every vaccine requires unique features based on the biology of the pathogen, the nature of the disease and the target population for vaccination. This review presents general concepts relevant for the design and development of ideal vaccines protective against diverse pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel F Hoft
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy & Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Karupiah G, Panchanathan V, Sakala IG, Chaudhri G. Genetic Resistance to Smallpox: Lessons from Mousepox. Decoding the Genomic Control of Immune Reactions 2007; 281:129-36; discussion 136-40, 208-9. [PMID: 17534070 DOI: 10.1002/9780470062128.ch11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
There is increased interest in understanding protective immunity to smallpox for two principal reasons. First, it is the only disease that has been successfully eradicated using a live virus vaccine and, second, there exists a potential threat of intentional or unintentional release of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox. Although mortality rates associated with smallpox were as high as 40%, a significant subset of those infected recovered. The basis of susceptibility or resistance, and the immune parameters associated with recovery, are still unknown. Animal models of poxvirus infections are being employed to understand what constitutes an effective host response. Ectromelia virus is closely related to variola virus and it causes a disease similar to smallpox in mice. This model is well established, resistant and susceptible strains of mice are defined and four genetic loci associated with resistance have been identified. Susceptibility to infec tion and disease severity is also influenced by virus immune evasion strategies. The outcome of infection is clearly dictated by several factors including host and viral genes, both of which influence the immune response. Here we present data on one virus-encoded immune modifier and its effect on the functions of two host genetic loci associ ated with resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunasegaran Karupiah
- Infection and Immunity Group, Division of Immunology and Genetics, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, PO Box 334, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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Sakala IG, Chaudhri G, Buller RM, Nuara AA, Bai H, Chen N, Karupiah G. Poxvirus-encoded gamma interferon binding protein dampens the host immune response to infection. J Virol 2007; 81:3346-53. [PMID: 17229697 PMCID: PMC1866021 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01927-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (ECTV), a natural mouse pathogen and the causative agent of mousepox, is closely related to variola virus (VARV), which causes smallpox in humans. Mousepox is an excellent surrogate small-animal model for smallpox. Both ECTV and VARV encode a multitude of host response modifiers that target components of the immune system and that are thought to contribute to the high mortality rates associated with infection. Like VARV, ECTV encodes a protein homologous to the ectodomain of the host gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) receptor 1. We generated an IFN-gamma binding protein (IFN-gammabp) deletion mutant of ECTV to study the role of viral IFN-gammabp (vIFN-gammabp) in host-virus interaction and also to elucidate the contribution of this molecule to the outcome of infection. Our data show that the absence of vIFN-gammabp does not affect virus replication per se but does have a profound effect on virus replication and pathogenesis in mice. BALB/c mice, which are normally susceptible to infection with ECTV, were able to control replication of the mutant virus and survive infection. Absence of vIFN-gammabp from ECTV allowed the generation of an effective host immune response that was otherwise diminished by this viral protein. Mice infected with a vIFN-gammabp deletion mutant virus, designated ECTV-IFN-gammabp(Delta), produced increased levels of IFN-gamma and generated robust cell-mediated and antibody responses. Using several strains of mice that exhibit differential degrees of resistance to mousepox, we show that recovery or death from ECTV infection is determined by a balance between the host's ability to produce IFN-gamma and the virus' ability to dampen its effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G Sakala
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Acton, ACT 0200, Australia.
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Tscharke DC, Woo WP, Sakala IG, Sidney J, Sette A, Moss DJ, Bennink JR, Karupiah G, Yewdell JW. Poxvirus CD8+ T-cell determinants and cross-reactivity in BALB/c mice. J Virol 2006; 80:6318-23. [PMID: 16775319 PMCID: PMC1488955 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00427-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 04/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse models of orthopoxvirus disease provide great promise for probing basic questions regarding host responses to this group of pathogens, which includes the causative agents of monkeypox and smallpox. However, some essential tools for their study that are taken for granted with other mouse models are not available for these viruses. Here we map and characterize the initial CD8+ T-cell determinants for poxviruses in H-2d-haplotype mice. CD8+ T cells recognizing these three determinants make up around 40% of the total responses to vaccinia virus during and after resolution of infection. We then use these determinants to test if predicted conservation across orthopoxvirus species matches experimental observation and find an unexpectedly cross-reactive variant peptide encoded by ectromelia (mousepox) virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Tscharke
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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