Leonurus japonicus Houtt. modulates neuronal apoptosis in intracerebral hemorrhage: Insights from network pharmacology and molecular docking

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Leonurus japonicus Houtt. (Labiatae), commonly known as Chinese motherwort, is a herbaceous flowering plant that is native to Asia. It is widely acknowledged in traditional medicine for its diuretic, hypoglycemic, antiepileptic properties and neuroprotection. Currently, Leonurus japonicus (Leo) is included in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) recognizes Leo for its myriad pharmacological attributes, but its efficacy against ICH-induced neuronal apoptosis is unclear.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to identify the potential targets and regulatory mechanisms of Leo in alleviating neuronal apoptosis after ICH.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study employed network pharmacology, UPLC-Q-TOF-MS technique, molecular docking, pharmacodynamic studies, western blotting, and immunofluorescence techniques to explore its potential mechanisms.

RESULTS

Leo was found to assist hematoma absorption, thus improving the neurological outlook in an ICH mouse model. Importantly, molecular docking highlighted JAK as Leo's potential therapeutic target in ICH scenarios. Further experimental evidence demonstrated that Leo adjusts JAK1 and STAT1 phosphorylation, curbing Bax while augmenting Bcl-2 expression.

CONCLUSION

Leo showcases potential in mitigating neuronal apoptosis post-ICH, predominantly via the JAK/STAT mechanism.

Profiling and optimized extraction of bioactive polyphenolic compounds from young, red-fleshed apple using eco-friendly deep eutectic solvents

Red-fleshed apple cultivars with an enhanced content of polyphenolic compounds have attracted increasing interest due to their promising health benefits. Here, we have analysed the polyphenolic content of young, red-fleshed apples (RFA) and optimised extraction conditions of phenolics by utilising natural deep eutectic solvents (NDES). We also compare the antioxidant, neuroprotective and antimicrobial activities of NDES- and methanol-extracted phenolics from young RFA. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS) was used for phenolics identification and quantification. Besides young RFA, ripe red-fleshed, young and ripe white-fleshed apples were analysed, revealing that young RFA possess the highest phenolic content (2078.4 ± 4.0 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g), and that ripe white-fleshed apples contain the least amount of phenolics (545.0 ± 32.0 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g). The NDES choline chloride-glycerol containing 40 % w/w H2O gave similar yields at 40 °C as methanol. In addition, the polyphenolics profile, and bioactivities of the NDES extract from young RFA were comparable that of methanol extracts. Altogether, our data show that NDES extracts of young RFA are a promising source of bioactive polyphenolics with potential applications in diverse sectors, e.g., for functional food production, smart material engineering and natural therapies.

Bioactive neolignan, iridoid and flavonoid glycosides from the leaves of Vaccinium bracteatum

Two neolignan glycosides including a new one (1), along with seven iridoid glycosides (3 - 9) and nine flavonoid glycosides (10 - 18), were isolated from the leaves of Vaccinium bracteatum. Their structures were established mainly on the basis of 1D/2D NMR and ESIMS analyses, as well as comparison to known compounds in the literature. The structure of 1 with absolute stereochemistry was also confirmed by chemical degradation and ECD calculation. Selective compounds showed antiradical activity against ABTS and/or DPPH. Moreover, several isolates also suppressed the production of ROS in RAW264.7 cells and exerted neuroprotective effect toward PC12 cells.

Protective effects of Forsythiae fructus and Cassiae semen water extract against memory deficits through the gut-microbiome-brain axis in an Alzheimer's disease model

CONTEXT

Fruits of Forsythia suspensa Vahl (Oleaceae) and seeds of Cassia obtusifolia Linne (Caesalpinaceae) have been used to treat inflammation in Asia.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the alleviation of memory function in Alzheimer's disease (AD) rats fed Forsythiae Fructus (FF) and Cassiae Semen water extracts (CS) and investigated the mechanisms responsible for the effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty Sprague-Dawley male rats had hippocampal infusions of amyloid-β_(25-35) (AD rats; memory deficit), and ten rats were infused with amyloid-β_(35-25) (non-AD rats; no memory deficit). For eight weeks, all rats freely consumed high-fat diets (43% lard) incorporated with 200 mg/kg body weight assigned aqueous herbal extracts: AD-FF, AD-CS, or without extracts AD-CON (control), non-AD (normal-control).

RESULTS

Memory impairment was prevented in the AD-FF (0.54 ± 0.06-fold) and the AD-CS rats (0.33 ± 0.04-fold) compared to the AD-CON by inhibiting amyloid-β deposition to the levels less than one-fourth of the AD-CON group. The hippocampal pAkt→pGSK-3β→pFOXO1 pathway was attenuated by approximately 3.25-fold in the AD-CON, while AD-FF prevented the attenuation better than AD-CS. The relative intensity of hippocampal tau protein based on β-actin was suppressed with AD-FF (0.68 ± 0.09) and AD-CS (0.96 ± 0.81), compared to AD-CON (1.19 ± 0.13). AD decreased the abundance of Bacteroidales by 34.2% and Lactobacillales by 23.8% and increased Clostridiales by 181% while the AD-FF, but not the AD-CS, normalised the gut microbiota changes to be similar to the non-AD.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

FF improved memory deficits better than CS in an AD-induced rat model. The potential neuroprotective benefits of FF against AD may be applicable to human AD therapy with additional clinical research.

Cyclopiazonic Acid and Okaramine Analogues, Including Chlorinated Compounds, from Chrysosporium undulatum YT-1

Eight new cyclopiazonic acid (1-8) and five new okaramine (9-13) alkaloids together with 13 known compounds were isolated from the fungus Chrysosporium undulatum YT-1. Compounds 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, and 13 were chlorinated indole alkaloids. The structures of compounds 1-13 were elucidated by HRESIMS and NMR spectroscopic data. Their relative and absolute configurations were established by J-based configuration analysis, NOESY, NOEDIFF experiments, ECD spectroscopic data, and biogenetic considerations. Compound 4 inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis with an MIC value of 6.3 μg/mL. Compounds 9-11 exhibited strong insecticidal capacity against the third instar larvae of silkworm and cotton bollworm (LD₅₀: ≤7.56 μg/g). At 40 μM, compound 1 showed obvious neuroprotection to the PC12 cells with 6-OHDA treatment.

Rehmannioside A improves cognitive impairment and alleviates ferroptosis via activating PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 and SLC7A11/GPX4 signaling pathway after ischemia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rehmannioside A is derived from Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch, which is widely used as an important ingredient in diverse traditional Chinese medicines to treat diseases caused by "kidney deficiency" such as cerebral arteriosclerosis, aging-related stroke and dementia in China. Recent studies have proved that Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch and Rehmannioside A can improve memory capability and recover nerve damage.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effect of Rehmannioside A on cognitive impairment after ischemia in rats and SH-SY5Y cells, and further evaluate the anti-oxidative and anti-ferroptosis mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in patients after cerebral ischemic stroke were revealed by a RayBio protein array. Cognitive impairment model was established by middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion (MCAO) 14 days in rats. Rehmannioside A was administered intraperitoneally injection at dose of 80 mg/kg. The SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to H2O2 for 24 h and treated with Rehmannioside A (80 μM) for 24 h. The neuroprotecion of Rehmannioside A were evaluated by infarct volume (TTC), neurological defects (Garcia score) and learning memory (Morris water maze test) in vivo, and cell viability (CCK-8 or LDH) in vitro. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity of rats, glutathione (GSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) of cells were detected by biochemical assay. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured by DCFH-DA assay. Myeloperoxidase (MPO), PI3 kinase (PI3K), p-PI3K, Akt, p-Akt, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), SLC7A11, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) of the cerebral cortex in rats or SH-SY5Y cells were examined by western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with model group, the cognitive impairment and neurological deficits of Rehmannioside A group were significantly improved, and the cerebral infarction was reduced in MCAO rats. Moreover, the cell viability obviously increased and the H2O2-induced toxicity was reduced in Rehmannioside A group. Further research indicated that the expression of p-PI3K, p-Akt, nuclear Nrf2, HO-1 and SLC7A11 in Rehmannioside A group was significantly higher than model group.

CONCLUSION

Rehmannioside A has neuroprotection effect and improves cognitive impairment after cerebral ischemia by inhibiting ferroptosis and activating PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 and SLC7A11/GPX4 signaling pathway. These findings provide valuable insight into the pathogenesis and therapeutic target of ischemic stroke.

Silybin B exerts protective effect on cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity by alleviating DNA damage and apoptosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Silybum marianum is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been used for treating liver disease. Silybin consisting of silybin A and silybin B, is a member of Silybum marianum, and exerts a therapeutic effect on many diseases. However, the protective effect of silybin on cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity and the stereoisomer contributing to the effect remain unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to study the effect of silybin on cisplatin-induced neuronal injury, compare the difference of protective effect between silybin A and silybin B, and the potential mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to separate silybin A and silybin B. X-ray crystallographic analysis in combination with experimental and calculated ECD were performed to identify the structure of silybin A and silybin B. The toxicity of the silybin or cisplatin against murine hippocampal neuronal HT22 cells was determined through MTT assay. The cell cycle and cell apoptosis were measured by PI staining and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining, respectively, and then subjected to flow cytometry. Western blot analysis was conducted to quantify the expression of proteins related to apoptosis and DNA damage. Immunofluorescence was used to evaluate the expression of DNA damage marker. In vivo experiment, the behavioral analysis was determined through pole test, swimming test and Morris water maze test. The index of superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) were examined to evaluate the antioxidant capacity in mice brain. Nissl staining and Tunel assay were used to detect the neuronal viability and apoptosis in hippocampus.

RESULTS

We successfully separated and identified silybin A and silybin B. We found both silybin A and silybin B alleviated cisplatin-induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in HT22 cells, and silybin B was more effective. We chose silybin B for further mechanism investigation, and found silybin B alleviated DNA damage by enhancing phosphorylation of ATR and decreasing expression of γ-H2AX. In the in vivo experiment, we observed that silybin B markedly improved the behavioral abnormalities in cisplatin-treated mice, reduced LPO level while increased SOD, GSH and T-AOC in mice brain tissue. Nissl staining and Tunel assay showed that silybin B alleviated cisplatin-induced hippocampal damage.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that silybin B might serve as a promising drug candidate in mitigating cisplatin-induced neural injury in the brain and thereby improving the chemotherapeutic outcomes.

Bioactivity-guided isolation of the major anthocyanin from Lycium ruthenicum Murr. fruit and its antioxidant activity and neuroprotective effects in vitro and in vivo

Lycium ruthenicum Murr. fruit (LRF) is an edible berry known for its rich anthocyanin content. Our previous study has shown that LRF-derived anthocyanins have neuroprotective effects in rats, which may be due to their effective antioxidant activity. Therefore, this study performed online HPLC-DPPH screening as a bioactivity-guided method for the preparative separation of anthocyanins from LRF. Finally, the main fraction was isolated and identified as petunidin-3,5-O-diglucoside (Pn3G5G). Pn3G5G exhibited strong antioxidant capacity during DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenge assays. Furthermore, Pn3G5G exhibited protective effects on Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML)-treated Neuro-2a cells by enhancing cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. CML-induced apoptosis was also reduced by Pn3G5G potentially by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation. More importantly, Pn3G5G significantly improved cognitive impairment, neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis in D-galactose-induced aging mice. The result suggests the development of Pn3G5G as a healthcare product or a potent dietary supplement with antioxidant and neuroprotective effects.

Panaxadiol inhibits IL-1β secretion by suppressing zinc finger protein 91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs in macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The use of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. in traditional Chinese medicine dates back to about 5000 years ago thanks to its several beneficial and healing properties. Panaxadiol is a triterpenoid sapogenin monomer found in the roots of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. and has been proven to have various bio-activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour and neuroprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study focuses on investigating the inflammation inhibitory effect and mechanism of panaxadiol by regulating zinc finger protein 91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs in macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro, the underlying mechanisms by which panaxadiol inhibits ZFP91-regulated IL-1β expression were investigated using molecular docking, western blotting, RT-PCR, ELISA, immunofluorescence, and immunoprecipitation assays. In vivo, colitis was induced by oral administration of DSS in drinking water, and peritonitis was induced by an intraperitoneal injection of alum. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV serotype 9) vector was used to establish ZFP91 knockdown mouse.

RESULTS

We confirmed that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91 in macrophages. Further analysis revealed that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome. Meanwhile, panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of MAPKs. In vivo, prominent anti-inflammatory effects of panaxadiol were demonstrated in a DSS induced acute colitis mouse model and in an alum-induced peritonitis model by suppressing ZFP91-regulated secretion of inflammatory mediators, consistent with the results of the AAV-ZFP91 knockdown in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

We report for the first time that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs, providing evidence for anti-inflammation mechanism of panaxadiol treatment for inflammatory diseases.

Pomelo peel oil suppresses TNF-α-induced necroptosis and cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury in a rat model of cardiac arrest

CONTEXT

Pomelo peel oil (PPO) [Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (Rutaceae)] is reported to possess antioxidant and antimelanogenic activities.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of PPO [Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. cv. Shatian Yu] on tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-induced necroptosis in cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) after cardiac arrest (CA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly assigned to six groups: sham group, PP0-L (10 mg/kg), PPO-M (20 mg/kg), PPO-H (40 mg/kg) and two control groups (CA, 0.9% saline; Gly, 10% glycerol). All drugs were administered intravenously to the CA/CPR rats within 10 min after return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). After 24 h, rats were assessed for neuronal injury via the neurological deficit score (NDS), cerebral cortex staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and expression levels of TNF-α and necroptosis-related proteins by immunoreactivity staining and western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared to those in the sham group (survival rate, 100% and NDS, 80), the survival rate and NDS were significantly reduced in the model groups (CA, 56.25%, 70; Gly, 62.5%, 71; PPO-L, 75%, 72; PPO-M, 87.5%, 75; PPO-H, 81.25%, 74). In the PPO-M group, Nissl bodies were significantly increased (43.67 ± 1.906 vs. 17 ± 1.732), the incidence of pathomorphological injury was lower and the necroptosis markers (TNF-α, RIPK1, RIPK3, p-MLKL/MLKL) expression was downregulated compared to those in the CA group (p < 0.05).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The neuroprotective effects of PPO in the CA rats suggested that PPO possibility as a health product enhances the resistance ability against brain injury for humans.

Saponins from Panax japonicus attenuate cognitive impairment in ageing rats through regulating microglial polarisation and autophagy

CONTEXT

Panax japonicus is the dried rhizome of Panax japonicus C.A. Mey. (Araliaceae). Saponins from Panax japonicus (SPJ) exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the neuroprotective effect of SPJ on natural ageing of rat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats 18-month-old were divided into ageing control, ageing treated with SPJ 10 or 30 mg/kg (n = 8). Five-month-old rats were taken as the adult control (n = 8). Rats were fed regular feed or feed containing SPJ for 4 months. Cognitive level was evaluated by Morris water maze (MWM) test. The mechanisms of SPJ's neuroprotection were evaluated by transmission electron microscope, western blot analysis, and immunofluorescence in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

SPJ attenuated ageing-induced cognitive impairment as indicated by elevated number of times crossing the target platform (from 1.63 to 3.5) and longer time spent in the target platform quadrant (from 1.33 to 1.98). Meanwhile, SPJ improved the morphology of microglia and synapse, and activated M2 microglia polarisation including increased hippocampus levels of CD206 (from 0.98 to 1.47) and YM-1 (from 0.67 to 1.1), and enhanced autophagy-related proteins LC3B (from 0.48 to 0.82), Beclin1 (from 0.32 to 0.51), Atg5 (from 0.22 to 0.89) whereas decreased p62 level (from 0.71 to 0.45) of ageing rats. In vitro study also showed that SPJ regulated the microglial polarisation and autophagy.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

SPJ improved cognitive deficits of ageing rats through attenuating microglial inflammation and enhancing microglial autophagy, which could be used to treat neurodegenerative disorders.

Eucalyptol ameliorates early brain injury after subarachnoid haemorrhage via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in a rat model

CONTEXT

As the terpenoid oxide extracted from Eucalyptus L. Herit (Myrtaceae), eucalyptol (EUC) has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the neuroprotective role of EUC in subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups: sham group, SAH group, SAH + vehicle group, and SAH + EUC group. SAH was induced by endovascular perforation. In SAH + EUC group, 100 mg/kg EUC was administrated intraperitoneally at 1 h before SAH and 30 min after SAH, respectively. Neurological deficits were examined by modified Neurological Severity Scores (mNSS). The brain edoema was evaluated by wet-dry method. Neuronal apoptosis was detected by Nissl staining. The expression of Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3, phospho-NF-κB p65, ionised calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 (Iba-1), nuclear factor erythroid-2 (Nrf-2), and haem oxygenase 1 (HO-1) were measured by Western blot. Expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was detected by qRT-PCR. Oxidative stress markers were also measured.

RESULTS

EUC markedly relieved brain edoema (from 81.22% to 78.33%) and neurological deficits [from 16.28 to 9.28 (24 h); from 12.50 to 7.58 (48 h)]. EUC reduced neuronal apoptosis, microglial activation, and oxidative stress. EUC increased the expression of HO-1 (1.15-fold), Nrf2 (1.34-fold) and Bcl-2 (1.17-fold) in the rats' brain tissue, and down-regulated the expressions of cleaved caspase-3 (41.09%), phospho-NF-κB p65 (14.38%) and pro-inflammatory cytokines [TNF-α (34.33%), IL-1β (50.40%) and IL-6 (59.13%)].

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

For the first time, this study confirms that EUC has neuroprotective effects against early brain injury after experimental SAH in rats.

Selenium-containing protein from selenium-enriched Spirulina platensis antagonizes oxygen glucose deprivation-induced neurotoxicity by inhibiting ROS-mediated oxidative damage through regulating MPTP opening

CONTEXT

Selenium-containing protein from selenium-enriched Spirulina platensis (Se-SP) (syn. Arthrospira platensis [Microcoleaceae]) showed novel antioxidant activity. However, the protective effect of Se-SP against oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD)-induced neural apoptosis has not been reported yet.

OBJECTIVE

To verify whether Se-SP can inhibit OGD-induced neural apoptosis and explore the underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Primary hippocampal neurons were separated from Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. 95% N₂ + 5% CO₂ were employed to establish OGD model. Neurons were treated with 5 and 10 µg/mL Se-SP under OGD condition for 6 h. Neurons without treatment were the control group. Neural viability and apoptosis were detected by MTT, immunofluorescence and western blotting methods.

RESULTS

Se-SP significantly improved neuronal viability (from 57.2% to 94.5%) and inhibited apoptosis in OGD-treated primary neurons (from 45.6% to 6.3%), followed by improved neuronal morphology and caspases activation. Se-SP co-treatment also effectively suppressed OGD-induced DNA damage by inhibiting ROS accumulation in neurons (from 225.6% to 106.3%). Additionally, mitochondrial dysfunction was also markedly improved by Se-SP co-treatment via balancing Bcl-2 family expression. Moreover, inhibition of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) by CsA (an MPTP inhibitor) dramatically attenuated OGD-induced ROS generation (from 100% to 56.2%), oxidative damage, mitochondrial membrane potential (MPP) loss (from 7.5% to 44.3%), and eventually reversed the neuronal toxicity and apoptosis (from 57.4% to 79.6%).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Se-SP showed enhanced potential to inhibit OGD-induced neurotoxicity and apoptosis by inhibiting ROS-mediated oxidative damage through regulating MPTP opening, indicating that selenium-containing protein showed broad application in the chemoprevention and chemotherapy against human ischaemic brain injury.

Schizandrin A ameliorates cognitive functions via modulating microglial polarisation in Alzheimer's disease mice

CONTEXT

Schizandrin A (Sch A) is a major phytochemical from Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. (Schisandraceae), which exerts a neuroprotective effect in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the mechanism of Sch A in AD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AD group: APP/PS1 transgenic mice served as AD models; AD + SCH group: APP/PS1 received 2 mg/kg Sch A by intragastric administration; WT: C57BL/6 mice were used as control. For in vitro assay, mouse microglial BV2 cells were treated with 0.5 µg/mL lipopolysaccharide or combined with 10 μmol/L Sch A for 24 h. The cognitive function and apoptosis in the mice was estimated. Microglial polarisation in the mice and cells was analysed.

RESULTS

Sch A treatment effectively improved spatial learning and memory ability and suppressed apoptosis in the brain tissues of APP/PS1 mice. APP/PS1 mice exhibited an increase in the levels of Aβ1-42 (2367.9 ± 431.1 pg/mg) and Aβ1-40 (1753.3 ± 253.4 pg/mg), which was abolished by Sch A treatment. Moreover, Sch A treatment repressed the proportions of iNOS⁺/Iba-1⁺ cells and IL-6 expression, while enhanced the proportions of Arg-1⁺/Iba-1⁺ cells and IL-10 expression in APP/PS1 mice. In vitro, Sch A treatment reduced the proportions of CD16/32⁺ cells, iNOS expression and IL-6 levels (25.7 ± 5.3 pg/mL) repressed M1 polarisation, and enhanced the proportions of CD206 cells, Arg-1 expression and IL-10 levels (75.9 ± 12.8 pg/mL) in BV2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This research confirms the neuroprotective effect of Sch A in AD, suggesting that Sch A may become a potential anti-AD agent.

Angelica gigas root ameliorates ischaemic stroke-induced brain injury in mice by activating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK pathways

CONTEXT

Traditionally, the root of Angelica gigas Nakai (Umbelliferae), has long been used to treat ischaemic diseases and is considered safe in humans.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the neuroprotective effects of a methanol extract of A. gigas root (AGmex) on the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)-induced brain injury in mice, and the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two hours of transient MCAO (tMCAO) was induced in C57BL/6 mice (MCAO control group and AGmex groups), AGmex was administered to the AGmex group at 300-3,000 mg/kg bw at 1, 1, and 24 h before tMCAO or at 1000 mg/kg bw at 1 h before and after tMCAO. Infarction volumes, tissue staining, and western blotting were used to investigate the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of AGmex.

RESULTS

The median effective dose (ED₅₀) could not be measured because the AGmex treatment did not reduce the infarction volume caused by 2 h of tMCAO to within 50%; however, pre-treatment with AGmex twice at 1,000 mg/kg bw before tMCAO significantly reduced the infarction volumes. The proteins related to cell growth, differentiation, and death were upregulated by this treatment, and the major recovery mechanisms appeared to involve the attenuation of the mitochondrial function of Bcl-2/Bax and activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK signalling pathways in ischaemic neurons.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence supporting the use of A. gigas root against ischaemic stroke and suggests a novel developmental starting point for the treatment of ischaemic stroke.

Trillium tschonoskii rhizomes' saponins induces oligodendrogenesis and axonal reorganization for ischemic stroke recovery in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Trillium tschonoskii Maxim. is one of traditional Chinese medical herbs that has been utilized to treat brain damages and cephalalgia. The neuroprotective effect of total saponins from Trillium tschonoskii rhizome (TSTT) has been demonstrated efficacy in rats following ischemia. However, the axonal remodeling effect of TSTT and the detailed mechanisms after ischemic stroke have not been investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We aimed to estimate therapeutic role of TSTT in axonal remodeling using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique, and explored possible mechanisms underlying this process followed by histological assays in ischemic rats.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats underwent permanently focal cerebral ischemia induced by occluding right permanent middle cerebral artery. TSTT was intragastrically administrated 6 h after surgery and once daily for consecutive 15 days. Neurological function was assessed by the motor deficit score and beam walking test. T2 relaxation mapping and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) were applied for detecting cerebral tissues damages and microstructural integrity of axons. Luxol fast blue (LFB) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) were performed to evaluate histopathology in myelinated axons. Double immunofluorescent staining was conducted to assess oligodendrogenesis. Furthermore, the protein expressions regarding to axonal remodeling related signaling pathways were detected by Western blot assays.

RESULTS

TSTT treatment (65, 33 mg/kg) markedly improved motor function after ischemic stroke. T2 mapping MRI demonstrated that TSTT decreased lesion volumes, and DTI further confirmed that TSTT preserved axonal microstructure of the sensorimotor cortex and internal capsule. Meanwhile, diffusion tensor tractography (DTT) showed that TSTT elevated correspondent density and length of fiber in the internal capsule. These MRI measurements were confirmed by histological examinations. Notably, TSTT significantly increased Ki67/NG2, Ki67/CNPase double-labeled cells along the boundary zone of ischemic cortex and striatum. Meanwhile, TSTT treatment up-regulated the phosphorylation level of Ser 9 in GSK-3β, and down-regulated phosphorylated β-catenin and CRMP-2 expression.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings indicated that TSTT (65, 33 mg/kg) enhanced post-stroke functional recovery, amplified endogenous oligodendrogenesis and promoted axonal regeneration. The beneficial role of TSTT might be correlated with GSK-3/β-catenin/CRMP-2 modulating axonal reorganization after ischemic stroke.

Ficus deltoidea: Potential inhibitor of pro-inflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of microglial cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ficus deltoidea Jack (FD) is widely consumed in traditional medicine as a treatment for various diseases in Malaysia. Each part of the plant such as its leave, stem, fruit and root are used traditionally to treat different types of diseases. Vitexin and isovitexin are bioactive compounds abundantly found in the leaves of FD that possessed many pharmacological properties including neuroprotection. Nonetheless, its effects on key events in neuroinflammation are unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To determine the inhibitory properties of FD aqueous extract on pro-inflammatory mediators involved in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglial cells.

METHODS

Vitexin and isovitexin in the extract were quantified via high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The extract was evaluated for its cytotoxicity activity via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Pre-treatment with the extract on LPS-induced microglial cells was done to determine its antioxidant and anti-neuroinflammatory properties by measuring the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) via 2'-7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFDA) assay, Griess assay and Western blot respectively.

RESULTS

The extract at all tested concentrations (0.1 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL, 100 μg/mL) were not cytotoxic as the percentage viability of microglial cells were all above ~80%. At the highest concentration (100 μg/mL), the extract significantly reduced the formation of ROS, NO, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in microglial cells induced by LPS.

CONCLUSION

The extract showed neuroprotective effects by attenuating the levels of pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic factors in LPS-induced microglial cells, possibly by mediating the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signalling pathway.

Diterpene glycosides from Holothuria scabra exert the α-synuclein degradation and neuroprotection against α-synuclein-Mediated neurodegeneration in C. elegans model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra Jaeger (H. scabra), sea cucumber, is the marine organism that has been used as traditional food and medicine to gain the health benefits since ancient time. Although our recent studies have shown that crude extracts from H. scabra exhibited neuroprotective effects against Parkinson's disease (PD), the underlying mechanisms and bioactive compounds are still unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In the present study, we examined the efficacy of purified compounds from H. scabra and their underlying mechanism on α-synuclein degradation and neuroprotection against α-synuclein-mediated neurodegeneration in a transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans PD model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The H. scabra compounds (HSEA-P1 and P2) were purified and examined for their toxicity and optimal dose-range by food-clearance and lifespan assays. The α-synuclein degradation and neuroprotection against α-synuclein-mediated neurodegeneration were determined using transgenic C. elegans model, Punc-54::α-syn and Pdat-1:: α-syn; Pdat-1::GFP, respectively, and then further investigated by determining the behavioral assays including locomotion rate, basal slowing rate, ethanol avoidance, and area-restricted searching. The underlying mechanisms related to autophagy were clarified by quantitative PCR and RNAi experiments.

RESULTS

Our results showed that HSEA-P1 and HSEA-P2 significantly diminished α-synuclein accumulation, improved motility deficits, and recovered the shortened lifespan. Moreover, HSEA-P1 and HSEA-P2 significantly protected dopaminergic neurons from α-synuclein toxicity and alleviated dopamine-associated behavioral deficits, i.e., basal slowing, ethanol avoidance, and area-restricted searching. HSEA-P1 and HSEA-P2 also up-regulated autophagy-related genes, including beclin-1/bec-1, lc-3/lgg-1, and atg-7/atg-7. RNA interference (RNAi) of these genes in transgenic α-synuclein worms confirmed that lc-3/lgg-1 and atg-7/atg-7 were required for α-synuclein degradation and DAergic neuroprotection activities of HSEA-P1 and HSEA-P2. NMR and mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the HSEA-P1 and HSEA-P2 contained diterpene glycosides.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that diterpene glycosides extracted from H. scabra decreases α-synuclein accumulation and protects α-synuclein-mediated DAergic neuronal loss and its toxicities via lgg-1 and atg-7.

Pergularia daemia hydro-ethanolic extract protects against pentylenetetrazole kindling-induced seizures, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Current antiepileptic drugs fail to control approximately 30% of epilepsies. Therefore, there is a need to develop more effective antiepileptic drugs, and medicinal plants provide an attractive source for new compounds. Pergularia daemia (Asclepiadaceae) is used in Cameroon traditional medicine to treat stroke, anemia, inflammation, and epilepsy. Recently, traditional healers claim that an hydro-ethanolic extract of the roots of P. daemia is more effective than an aqueous extract on refractory seizures.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The antiepileptic effect of P. daemia hydro-ethanolic extract was investigated on the pentylenetetrazole kindling model of temporal lobe epilepsy in mice and possible mechanisms of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were divided into 8 groups treated as follows: normal group received distilled water (10 ml/kg, p.o.), control group received distilled water (10 ml/kg, p.o.), ethanol group received ethanol (5%, p.o.), positive control received sodium valproate (300 mg/kg, p.o.), and test groups received P. daemia hydro-ethanolic (HE) extract (1.6, 4, 8 and 16 mg/kg, p.o.). All groups were kindled by 11 injections of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) (35 mg/kg, i.p.), once every alternate day (48 ± 2 h), until the development of kindling, i.e., the occurrence of stage 5 seizures for two consecutive trials. One week later, i.e., 29^th day, mice were challenged with a single and lower dose of PTZ (25 mg/kg, i.p.) that does not induce seizures in normal mice but causes seizures in mice prone to seizures and behavioral alterations. After completion of the kindling procedure, Morris water maze, passive avoidance, and open field tests were performed. Afterward, animals were euthanized, and hippocampi were removed for the estimation of the levels of GABA-transaminase (GABA-T), L-glutamate decarboxylase (L-GAD), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation markers also were quantified. Finally, histological analysis of the hippocampus was carried out.

RESULTS

PTZ-kindling induced myoclonic jerks and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in control mice. However, the HE extract of P. daemia (4-16 mg/kg), compared to sodium valproate, significantly protected mice against myoclonic jerks and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Also, the HE extract (1.6-16 mg/kg) significantly increased the seizure score. Furthermore, the HE extract of P. daemia significantly reduced seizure-induced cognitive impairments. PTZ-kindling induced significant alterations in GABA, GABA-T, and L-GAD contents as well as oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, and the HE extract significantly reversed these effects, suggesting possible mechanisms. All these activities of the HE extract were confirmed by its protective effect against neuronal loss in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

The HE extract of P. daemia protected mice against kindled seizures and cognitive impairments, and these effects were greater than those of sodium valproate, a widely used antiepileptic drug. These effects may be mediated by neuromodulatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, thus suggesting a neuroprotective effect. These findings help to explain the beneficial use of these HE extracts of P.daemia in traditional medicine to treat epilepsy in Cameroon.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha): A comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological aspects

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) has been used as a traditional Rasayana herb for a long time. Traditional uses of this plant indicate its ameliorative properties against a plethora of human medical conditions, viz. hypertension, stress, diabetes, asthma, cancer etc. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the geographical distribution, traditional use, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of W. somnifera and its active constituents. In addition, it presents a detailed account of its presence as an active constituent in many commercial preparations with curative properties and health benefits. Clinical studies and toxicological considerations of its extracts and constituents are also elucidated. Comparative analysis of relevant in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical investigations indicated potent bioactivity of W. somnifera extracts and phytochemicals as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, apoptotic, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic, cardio-protective and spermatogenic agents. W. somnifera was found to be especially active against many neurological and psychological conditions like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, ischemic stroke, sleep deprivation, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety, depression, schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The probable mechanism of action that imparts the pharmacological potential has also been explored. However, in-depth studies are needed on the clinical use of W. somnifera against human diseases. Besides, detailed toxicological analysis is also to be performed for its safe and efficacious use in preclinical and clinical studies and as a health-promoting herb.

Phenolic Characterization and Neuroprotective Properties of Grape Pomace Extracts

Vitis vinifera (grape) contains various compounds with acknowledged phytochemical and pharmacological properties. Among the different parts of the plant, pomace is of particular interest as a winemaking industry by-product. A characterization of the water extract from grape pomace from Montepulciano d’Abruzzo variety (Villamagna doc) was conducted, and the bioactive phenolic compounds were quantified through HPLC-DAD-MS analysis. HypoE22, a hypothalamic cell line, was challenged with an oxidative stimulus and exposed to different concentrations (1 µg/mL⁻¹ mg/mL) of the pomace extract for 24, 48, and 72 h. In the same conditions, cells were exposed to the sole catechin, in a concentration range (5–500 ng/mL) consistent with the catechin level in the extract. Cell proliferation was investigated by MTT assay, dopamine release through HPLC-EC method, PGE₂ amount by an ELISA kit, and expressions of neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) by RT-PCR. The extract reverted the cytotoxicity exerted by the oxidative stimulus at all the experimental times in a dose-dependent manner, whereas the catechin was able to revert the oxidative stress-induced depletion of dopamine 48 h and 72 h after the stimulus. The extract and the catechin were also effective in preventing the downregulation of BDNF and the concomitant upregulation of COX-2 gene expression. In accordance, PGE₂ release was augmented by the oxidative stress conditions and reverted by the administration of the water extract from grace pomace and catechin, which were equally effective. These results suggest that the neuroprotection induced by the extract could be ascribed, albeit partially, to its catechin content.

Methanol extract of Ficus platyphylla decreases cerebral ischemia induced injury in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Extracts of the stem bark of Ficus paltyphylla (FP) are used in the Nigerian traditional medicine to manage psychoses, depression, epilepsy, pain, and inflammation. Our previous studies revealed that the methanol extract of FP ameliorate body core temperature.

AIM OF THE STUDY

A number of pharmacological agents that utilize mechanisms that enhanced neuronal survival and/or neural regeneration have been developed for the treatment of stroke. Hypothermia protects the brain from damage caused by ischemia by attenuating destructive processes such as neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity, blood-brain barrier disruption, apoptosis, and free radical formation following cerebral ischemia. In the present study, we examined the neuroprotective potential of FP on permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCAO)-induced ischemia in mice.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

C57Bl mice were subjected to MCAO. FP was administered 1 h prior to and immediately after surgery. The brains were collected 24 h later and infarct volumes were measured using immune-histochemical staining, DAPI, NeuN, synaptophysin, and NR2B were quantified.

RESULTS

Administration of FP prior to MCAO significantly reduced infarct volume, with no effect on infarct volume immediately after MCAO. Higher numbers of cells and neurons were observed in the peri-infarct area in both groups of mice. FP-induced hypothermia protected tissue in the peri-infarct region from synaptophysin reduction. NMDA receptor 2 (NR2B) immunoreactivity is enhanced by MCAO, with no difference observed in both sham-operated and FP-induced hypothermia groups of mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The data suggest that FP might be useful in the reduction of ischemia-induced infarct volume when administered prior to the initiation of ischemia with no effect observed after ischemia induction.

Autophagy is involved in the neuroprotective effect of nicotiflorin

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nicotiflorin is a flavonoid glycoside derived from the traditional Chinese medicine FlosCarthami, dried petals of Carthamus tinctorius L., and has been confirmed to be a promising novel drug candidate for ischemic stroke. Yet, the exact role of nicotiflorin in cerebral I/R injury is uncharacterized and the possible mechanisms have not been clearly expounded.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was designed to determine the effect of nicotiflorin on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury and its relationship with autophagy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats and oxygen-glucose deprivation and reintroduction (OGD/R) in SH-SY5Y cells were established in in vivo and in vitro models, respectively. The severity of MCAO was assessed by brain infarct size, neurological scores and survival rate. The severity of OGD/R was evaluated by cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and cell apoptosis. The level of autophagy was evaluated both in vivo and in vitro. Autophagosomes were observed using transmission electron microscopy and autophagic flux was measured using mRFP-GFP-tandem fluorescent LC3 adenovirus. Autophagy-related proteins (LC3-II/I, SQSTM1, beclin-1, Phospho-mTOR/mTOR) were measured by immunoblot. Autophagy-related mRNA levels (Becn1, Atg7) were detected by Real-Time PCR. Inhibition of autophagy was implemented by 3-Methyladenine (3-MA) or chloroquine in vitro.

RESULTS

In vivo, nicotiflorin treatment alleviated brain damage and neurological deficit while it dramatically increased 72 h survival rate in rats. In vitro, nicotiflorin treatment also ameliorated the severity of OGD/R. Moreover, nicotiflorin treatment increased ischemic penumbra autophagy (autophagosomes, BECN1, LC3-II/I ratio, SQSTM1, Phospho-mTOR/mTOR, Atg7). In vitro, nicotiflorin likewise enhanced autophagy and promoted autophagy flux. Furthermore, the blockade of autophagy by 3-MA or chloroquine disabled the efficacic of nicotiflorin in preventing cell damage upon OGD/R insult.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that autophagy plays a significant role in the protective effect of nicotiflorin against ischemic stroke.

Astragalus saponins improves stroke by promoting the proliferation of neural stem cells through phosphorylation of Akt

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As one of major components of Buyang Huanwu decoction, Astragali Radix is broadly used for stroke treatment. Astragalus saponins (AST), the main active compound from Astragali Radix has the potentials for neuroprotection and improving spatial memory without clear pharmacological mechanism.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to investigate that pretreatment of AST is beneficial to protect against focal ischemic stroke in mouse model and its related underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The neurological and motor function of MCAO mice were assessed by TTC staining and CatWalk gait analysis. The effect of AST on proliferation of NSCs was showed by the expression of Ki67 of MCAO mice and the number and size of primary neurospheres cultured from adult SVZ. The intersection of stroke-related targets, neurogenesis targets and drug-related targets were identified by the online website (https://www.omicstudio.cn/index). Then GO functional annotation and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis were performed. Candidate target Akt was confirmed to increase proliferation of cultured NSCs from adult SVZ by CCK8 assay and Western blot.

RESULTS

We found that with the prolongation of administration time, AST improved neurological and motor function of MCAO mice, by promoting the proliferation of NSCs both in vivo and in vitro. Then, the primary network among drug, genes and biological pathway was established by using compound-target-disease & function-pathway analysis of astragalus membranaceus. PI3K/Akt which plays a key role in cell proliferation was among the top 10 most significant GO terms from above three aspects. Further analysis using cultured NSCs from adult SVZ confirmed that AST, astragaloside I (A1) and astragaloside III (A3) increased the proliferation of NSCs through targeting Akt.

CONCLUSION

The present study elucidated that Astragalus saponins pretreatment could provide a protective effect on experimental stroke mainly by enhancing proliferation of NSCs through targeting Akt. The findings provided a basis for the development of novel strategies for the treatment of stroke.

Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol Rescues AD Deficits by Modulating Microglia Activation but Not Oxidative Stress

Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol (EK100) was isolated from the Taiwan-specific medicinal fungus Antrodia camphorata, which is known for its health-promotion and anti-aging effects in folk medicine. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a major aging-associated disease. We investigated the efficacy and potential mechanism of ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol for AD symptoms. Drosophila with the pan-neuronal overexpression of human amyloid-β (Aβ) was used as the AD model. We compared the life span, motor function, learning, memory, oxidative stress, and biomarkers of microglia activation and inflammation of the ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol-treated group to those of the untreated control. Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol treatment effectively improved the life span, motor function, learning, and memory of the AD model compared to the untreated control. Biomarkers of microglia activation and inflammation were reduced, while the ubiquitous lipid peroxidation, catalase activity, and superoxide dismutase activity remained unchanged. In conclusion, ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol rescues AD deficits by modulating microglia activation but not oxidative stress.

Overview of piperlongumine analogues and their therapeutic potential

Natural products have long been an important source for discovery of new drugs to treat human diseases. Piperlongumine (PL) is an amide alkaloid isolated from Piper longum L. (long piper) and other piper plants and has received widespread attention because of its diverse biological activities. A large number of PL derivatives have been designed, synthesized and assessed in many pharmacological functions, including antiplatelet aggregation, neuroprotective activities, anti-diabetic activities, anti-inflammatory activities, anti-senolytic activities, immune activities, and antitumor activities. Among them, the anti-tumor effects and application of PL and its derivatives are most extensively studied. We herein summarize the development of PL derivatives, the structure and activity relationships (SARs), and their therapeutic potential on the treatments of various diseases, especially against cancer. We also discussed the challenges and future directions associated with PL and its derivatives in these indications.

UHPLC-MS-based metabolomics and chemoinformatics study reveals the neuroprotective effect and chemical characteristic in Parkinson's disease mice after oral administration of Wen-Shen-Yang-Gan decoction

Parkinson's disease (PD), the typical neurodegenerative disease, is characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). However, no therapeutic agent used currently could slow down neuronal cell loss so as to decelerate or halt the progression of PD. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been utilized to treat the dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system. Wen-Shen-Yang-Gan decoction (WSYGD) has a good effect on the clinical treatment of PD with constipation. However, it is not clear which ingredients and what mechanism are responsible for the therapeutic effect. In this study, the pharmacodynamic study of WSYGD in PD mice was applied. Concurrently, a novel method for the identification of metabolic profiles of WSYGD has been developed. Finally, we found that WSYGD could protect the PD mice induced by rotenone. The underlying mechanism of the protective effect may be related to the reduction of the DA neurons apoptosis via reducing inflammatory reaction. By virtue of UPLC-MS and chemoinformatics method, 35 prototype compounds and 27 metabolites were filtered out and tentatively characterized. In conclusion, this study provides an insight into the metabolism of WSYGD in vivo to enable understanding of the metabolic process and therapeutic mechanism of PD.

Saponins isolated from Radix polygalae extent lifespan by modulating complement C3 and gut microbiota

With the increase in human lifespan, population aging is one of the major problems worldwide. Aging is an irreversible progressive process that affects humans via multiple factors including genetic, immunity, cellular oxidation and inflammation. Progressive neuroinflammation contributes to aging, cognitive malfunction, and neurodegenerative diseases. However, precise mechanisms or drugs targeting age-related neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment remain un-elucidated. Traditional herbal plants have been prescribed in many Asian countries for anti-aging and the modulation of aging-related symptoms. In general, herbal plants' efficacy is attributed to their safety and polypharmacological potency via the systemic manipulation of the body system. Radix polygalae (RP) is a herbal plant prescribed for anti-aging and the relief of age-related symptoms; however, its active components and biological functions remained un-elucidated. In this study, an active methanol fraction of RP containing 17 RP saponins (RPS), was identified. RPS attenuates the elevated C3 complement protein in aged mice to a level comparable to the young control mice. The active RPS also restates the aging gut microbiota by enhancing beneficial bacteria and suppressing harmful bacteria. In addition, RPS treatment improve spatial reference memory in aged mice, with the attenuation of multiple molecular markers related to neuroinflammation and aging. Finally, the RPS improves the behavior and extends the lifespan of C. elegans, confirming the herbal plant's anti-aging ability. In conclusion, through the mouse and C. elegas models, we have identified the beneficial RPS that can modulate the aging process, gut microbiota diversity and rectify several aging-related phenotypes.

Bidentatide, a Novel Plant Peptide Derived from Achyranthes bidentata Blume: Isolation, Characterization, and Neuroprotection through Inhibition of NR2B-Containing NMDA Receptors

Increasing attention is being focused on the use of polypeptide-based N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists for the treatment of nervous system disorders. In our study on Achyranthes bidentata Blume, we identified an NMDA receptor subtype 2B (NR2B) antagonist that exerts distinct neuroprotective actions. This antagonist is a 33 amino acid peptide, named bidentatide, which contains three disulfide bridges that form a cysteine knot motif. We determined the neuroactive potential of bidentatide by evaluating its in vitro effects against NMDA-mediated excitotoxicity. The results showed that pretreating primary cultured hippocampal neurons with bidentatide prevented NMDA-induced cell death and apoptosis via multiple mechanisms that involved intracellular Ca²⁺ inhibition, NMDA current inhibition, and apoptosis-related protein expression regulation. These mechanisms were all dependent on bidentatide-induced inhibitory regulation of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors; thus, bidentatide may contribute to the development of neuroprotective agents that would likely possess the high selectivity and safety profiles inherent in peptide drugs.

Recent progresses in the pharmacological activities of caffeic acid phenethyl ester

The past decades have seen a growing interest in natural products. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), a flavonoid isolated from honeybee propolis, has shown multiple pharmacological potentials, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, and protective effects on nervous systems and multiple organs, since it was found as a potent nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) inhibitor. This review summarizes the advances in these beneficial effects of CAPE, as well as the underlying mechanisms, and proposes that CAPE offers an opportunity for developing therapeutics in multiple diseases. However, clinical trials on CAPE are necessary and encouraged to obtain certain clinically relevant conclusions.

Neuroprotective Activities of Crossyne flava Bulbs and Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids: Implications for Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases and affects approximately 6.3 million people worldwide. To date, the treatment of PD remains a challenge, as available treatment options are known to be associated with serious side effects; hence, the search for new treatment strategies is critical. Extracts from the Amaryllidaceae plant family as well as their alkaloids have been reported to have neuroprotective potentials. This study, therefore, investigated the biological activities of Crossyne flava and its isolated alkaloids in an in vitro MPP⁺ (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) PD model using SH-SY5Y cells. The effects of the total extract as well as the four compounds isolated from Crossyne flava (i.e., pancratinine B (1), bufanidrine (2), buphanisine (3), and epibuphanisine (4)) were evaluated for cell viability, neuroprotection, levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), adenosine triphosphate activity (ATP), and caspase 3/7 activity in SH-SY5Y cells. The results obtained showed that pre-treatment with both the extract and the isolated compounds was effective in protecting the SH-SY5Y cells from MPP⁺-induced neurotoxicity and inhibited ROS generation, ATP depletion as well as apoptosis induction in the SH-SY5Y cells. The results of this study show that the Amaryllidaceae plant family may be a source of novel compounds for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, which validates the reported traditional uses.

Elucidation of plasma protein binding, blood partitioning, permeability, CYP phenotyping and CYP inhibition studies of Withanone using validated UPLC method: An active constituent of neuroprotective herb Ashwagandha

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withanone (WN), an active constituent of Withania somnifera commonly called Ashwagandha has remarkable pharmacological responses along with neurological activities. However, for a better understanding of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior of WN, a comprehensive in-vitro ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) studies are necessary.

AIM OF THE STUDY

A precise, accurate, and sensitive reverse-phase ultra-performance liquid chromatographic method of WN was developed and validated in rat plasma for the first time. The developed method was successfully applied to the in-vitro ADME investigation of WN.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The passive permeability of WN was assayed using PAMPA plates and the plasma protein binding (PPB) was performed using the equilibrium dialysis method. Pooled liver microsomes of rat (RLM) and human (HLM) were used for the microsomal stability, CYP phenotyping, and inhibition studies. CYP phenotyping was evaluated using the specific inhibitors. CYP inhibition study was performed using specific probe substrates along with WN or specific inhibitors.

RESULTS

WN was found to be stable in the simulated gastric and intestinal environment and has a high passive permeability at pH 4.0 and 7.0 in PAMPA assay. The PPB of WN at 5 and 20 μg/mL concentrations were found to be high i.e. 82.01 ± 1.44 and 88.02 ± 1.15%, respectively. The in vitro half-life of WN in RLM and HLM was found to be 59.63 ± 2.50 and 68.42 ± 2.19 min, respectively. CYP phenotyping results showed that WN was extensively metabolized by CYP 3A4 and1A2 enzymes in RLM and HLM. However, the results of CYP Inhibition studies showed that none of the CYP isoenzymes were potentially inhibited by WN in RLM and HLM.

CONCLUSION

The in vitro results of pH-dependent stability, plasma stability, permeability, PPB, blood partitioning, microsomal stability, CYP phenotyping, and CYP inhibition studies demonstrated that WN could be a better phytochemical for neurological disorders.

Beneficial Effects of Cyclic Ether 2-Butoxytetrahydrofuran from Sea Cucumber Holothuria scabra against Aβ Aggregate Toxicity in Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans and Potential Chemical Interaction

The pathological finding of amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregates is thought to be a leading cause of untreated Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In this study, we isolated 2-butoxytetrahydrofuran (2-BTHF), a small cyclic ether, from Holothuria scabra and demonstrated its therapeutic potential against AD through the attenuation of Aβ aggregation in a transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans model. Our results revealed that amongst the five H. scabra isolated compounds, 2-BTHF was shown to be the most effective in suppressing worm paralysis caused by Aβ toxicity and in expressing strong neuroprotection in CL4176 and CL2355 strains, respectively. An immunoblot analysis showed that CL4176 and CL2006 treated with 2-BTHF showed no effect on the level of Aβ monomers but significantly reduced the toxic oligomeric form and the amount of 1,4-bis(3-carboxy-hydroxy-phenylethenyl)-benzene (X-34)-positive fibril deposits. This concurrently occurred with a reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the treated CL4176 worms. Mechanistically, heat shock factor 1 (HSF-1) (at residues histidine 63 (HIS63) and glutamine 72 (GLN72)) was shown to be 2-BTHF’s potential target that might contribute to an increased expression of autophagy-related genes required for the breakdown of the Aβ aggregate, thus attenuating its toxicity. In conclusion, 2-BTHF from H. scabra could protect C. elegans from Aβ toxicity by suppressing its aggregation via an HSF-1-regulated autophagic pathway and has been implicated as a potential drug for AD.

Protection by rhynchophylline against MPTP/MPP+-induced neurotoxicity via regulating PI3K/Akt pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Isolated from Uncaria rhynchophylla (U. rhynchophylla), rhynchophylline (Rhy) has been applied for treating diseases related to central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism of the neuroprotective effect has not been well interpreted.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effects of Rhy on MPTP/MPP + -induced neurotoxicity in C57BL/6 mice or PC12 cells and study the mechanisms involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The neuroprotective effect of Rhy on MPTP-induced neurotoxicity was evaluated by spontaneous motor activity test, as well as a test of rota-rod on a rat model of Parkinson's disease. The numbers of TH-positive neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) was assessed by immunohistological. CCK-8, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), reactive oxygen species (ROS), the concentration of intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]i) and flow cytometry analysis were performed to evaluate the pharmacological property of Rhy on 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺) induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells. Besides, LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor was employed to determine the underlying molecular signaling pathway revealing the effect of Rhy by western-blot analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed that Rhy exhibited a protective effect against the MPTP-induced decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive fibers in the substantia nigra at 30 mg/kg, demonstrated by the immunohistological and behavioral outcomes. Furthermore, it has been indicated that cell viability was improved and the MPP⁺-induced apoptosis was inhibited after the treatment of Rhy at 20 μM, which were severally analyzed by the CCK-8 and the Annexin V/propidium iodide staining method. In addition, Rhy treatment attenuated MPP⁺-induced up-regulation of LDH, ([Ca²⁺]i), and the levels of ROS. Besides, it can be revealed from the Western blot assay that LY294002, as a selective Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, effectively inhibited the Akt phosphorylation caused by Rhy, which suggested that Rhy showed its protective property through the activated the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Moreover, the Rhy-induced decreases of Bax and caspase-3 as the proapoptotic markers and the increase of Bcl-2 as the antiapoptotic marker, were blocked by LY294002 in the MPP⁺-treated PC12 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Rhy exerts a neuroprotective effect is partly mediated by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Prospects of Marine Sterols against Pathobiology of Alzheimer's Disease: Pharmacological Insights and Technological Advances

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disorder characterized by a progressive decline in memory and cognition, mostly affecting the elderly. Numerous functional bioactives have been reported in marine organisms, and anti-Alzheimer's agents derived from marine resources have gained attention as a promising approach to treat AD pathogenesis. Marine sterols have been investigated for several health benefits, including anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-aging, and anti-Alzheimer's activities, owing to their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Marine sterols interact with various proteins and enzymes participating via diverse cellular systems such as apoptosis, the antioxidant defense system, immune response, and cholesterol homeostasis. Here, we briefly overview the potential of marine sterols against the pathology of AD and provide an insight into their pharmacological mechanisms. We also highlight technological advances that may lead to the potential application of marine sterols in the prevention and therapy of AD.

An integrative strategy for discovery of functional compound combination from Traditional Chinese Medicine: Danhong Injection as a model

Traditional Chinese Medicine formulas, which are usually considered exerting their holistic clinical benefits via multi-component, multi-target manner, are unique resources for the discovery of multi-component drug combinations. In order to screen and optimize the functional compound combination (FCC) from TCM, we established a novel four-step 'GCIC' strategy, including 'Global profiling', 'Chemical structural classification', 'Intra-group screening' and 'Component-knockout optimization'. Following this strategy, an FCC consisted of four components from Danhong Injection (DHI) was identified, containing ferulic acid, cryptotanshinone, quercetin and anhydrosafflor yellow B. The holistic neuroprotective effects of the FCC were further investigated, indicating that the combination can both activate the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory responses in PC12 cells to protect them from oxidative stress. Major signaling pathways as Nrf2/ARE and Nrf2/AMPK/GSK3β were involved in the protective process of FCC. The 'GCIC' strategy established in this study might provide an alternation to traditional strategies in discovering the bioactive components from herbal medicines, especially compounded TCM formulas.

Hypericum perforatum extract and hyperforin inhibit the growth of neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii and infection-induced inflammatory responses of glial cells in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hypericum perforatum L. has been widely used as a natural antidepressant. However, it is unknown whether it is effective in treating infection-induced neuropsychiatric disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of H. perforatum against infection with neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which has been linked to neuropsychiatric disorders, this study investigated the anti-Toxoplasma activity using in vitro models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dried alcoholic extracts were prepared from three Hypericum species: H. perforatum, H. erectum, and H. ascyron. H. perforatum extract was further separated by solvent-partitioning. Hyperforin and hypericin levels in the extracts and fractions were analyzed by high resolution LC-MS. Anti-Toxoplasma activities were tested in vitro, using cell lines (Vero and Raw264), murine primary mixed glia, and primary neuron-glia. Toxoplasma proliferation and stage conversion were analyzed by qPCR. Infection-induced damages to the host cells were analyzed by Sulforhodamine B cytotoxicity assay (Vero) and immunofluorescent microscopy (neurons). Infection-induced inflammatory responses in glial cells were analysed by qPCR and immunofluorescent microscopy.

RESULTS

Hyperforin was identified only in H. perforatum among the three tested species, whereas hypericin was present in H. perforatum and H. erectum. H. perforatum extract and hyperforin-enriched fraction, as well as hyperforin, exhibited significant anti-Toxoplasma property as well as inhibitory activity against infection-induced inflammatory responses in glial cells. In addition, H. perforatum-derived hyperforin-enriched fraction restored neuro-supportive environment in mixed neuron-glia culture.

CONCLUSIONS

H. perforatum and its major constituent hyperforin are promising anti-Toxoplasma agents that could potentially protect neurons and glial cells against infection-induced damages. Further study is warranted to establish in vivo efficacy.

Sesquiterpenoids with neuroprotective activities from the Chloranthaceae plant Chloranthus henryi

A rare sesquiterpenoid possessing a 6/6 bicyclic system fused with two clustered furan units and a pair of guaiane-type sesquiterpenoids were acquired from the roots of Chloranthus henryi. Their structures with absolute configurations were characterized with spectroscopic data, ECD, and X-ray diffraction analysis. All three sesquiterpenoids showed moderate neuroprotective activities on PC12 cells damaged with hydrogen peroxide.

Alkaloids extracted from Uncaria rhynchophylla demonstrate neuroprotective effects in MPTP-induced experimental parkinsonism by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alkaloids isolated from Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil. (Rubiaceae), alkaloids (URA) have been used to treat diseases related to the central nervous system, such as Parkinson's disease. Nevertheless, the potential mechanisms underlying their neuroprotective effects are not well-understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the neuroprotective effects of URAs in a mouse model of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) and the possible involvement of a molecular signaling pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two typical experiments for animal behavior despair, the spontaneous motor activity and the rotarod experiments, were employed to evaluate the efficacy of URAs in mice with PD symptoms. Dopamine (DA) neurons and their metabolism were evaluated using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The mechanism of action of the alkaloids was investigated by analyzing their effects on the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) signaling pathway using western blotting.

RESULTS

URA treatment effectively improved the behaviors of the mice during the "spontaneous motor activity and latency to fall off the rotarod test". Moreover, URAs demonstrated a protective role in dopaminergic neurons by increasing the expression of the dopamine transporter and tyrosine hydroxylase, which were supposed to be reduced by MPTP, inhibiting dopamine turnover, and changing dopamine and relevant metabolites. In addition to its association with the increase in the Bcl-2/Bad ratio, URA treatment also attenuated the cleaved caspase-3 level and enhanced the phosphorylation of Akt and mTOR.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide evidence that URA can effectively protect neurons from the neurotoxicity caused by MPTP in mouse models of PD by up-regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza) water extract shows potential neuroprotective effects in Caenorhabditis elegans

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Danshen, is a traditional Chinese medicine obtained from the dried root and rhizome of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge. It is known to be used for neurological disorder including for Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study uncovers the effect of Danshen water extract on the Alzheimer's disease model of C.elegans.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The composition of Danshen water extract was determined using (High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Then Thioflavin T assay was used to determined if Danshen water extract could prevent the aggregation of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ). Alzheimer's disease C.elegans model was used to determine the effect of Danshen water extract. Finally, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined using the 2,7-dichlorofuorescein diacetate method.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that standardized Danshen water extract that contains danshensu (1.26%), salvianolic acid A (0.35%) and salvianolic acid B (2.21%) are able to bind directly to Aβ and prevents it from aggregating. The IC₅₀ for the inhibition of Aβ aggregation by Danshen water extract was 0.5 mg/ml. In the AD model of C.elegans, Danshen water extract managed to alleviates the paralysis phenotype. Furthermore, the administration of Danshen water extract displayed antioxidant properties toward the Aβ-induced oxidative stress.

CONCLUSIONS

AD is a widespread neurodegenerative disease attributed to the accumulation of extracellular plaques comprising Aβ. Danshen water extract could significantly reduce the progress of paralysis in the AD model of C. elegans, showing promising results with its antioxidant properties. It can be concluded that Danshen water extract could potentially serve as a therapeutic for AD.

Neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion by dietary phytochemical extracts from Tibetan turnip (Brassica rapa L.)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Tibetan turnip (Brassica rapa L.) has a wide array of medicine properties including heat-clearing, detoxifying and anti-hypoxia as listed in the famous centuries-old Tibetan medicine classic "The Four Medical Tantras". Evidence-based medicine also indicated the anti-hypoxic effect of turnips, suggesting a potential link to neuroprotective effect on ischemic stroke. This thereby enables turnips to serve as a novel nontoxic agent in related treatment.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effect and elucidate the mechanism of aqueous extract of turnip (AET) on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experimental models of cerebral ischemia included transient middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO) in C57BL/6J mice and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) in HT-22 cells. Long-term effect of AET on infarct volume was evaluated by microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) immunofluorescence 28 days after MCAO, and on neurofunctional outcomes determined by rotarod, grid walking, and cylinder tests in the meantime. Efficacy of AET was determined by the cell viability, the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in neurons. The underlying mechanism of AET rescued OGD/R cells were characterized by PI3K, Akt and mTOR expressions, which were further used to validate AET's role in the pathway.

RESULTS

AET can reduce cerebral infarct volume and ameliorate behavioral deficits of MCAO/R mice dose-dependently. In vitro experiment further demonstrated that suitable concentrations of AET inhibited ROS, LDH production and restored mitochondrial expression induced by OGD/R. AET pretreatment can reverse the OGD/R-induced decreased level of phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt, mTOR, whereas this effect was blocked in the LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor) treatment group.

CONCLUSIONS

AET improved the survival of OGD/R-injured HT-22 cells by activating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Based on the results above, aqueous extract of turnip has a protective effect on focal cerebral ischemic injury.

Benzoinum from Styrax tonkinensis (Pierre) Craib ex Hart exerts a NVU protective effect by inhibiting cell apoptosis in cerebral ischaemia rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Benzoinum (Styraceae) is a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat stroke and other cardio-cerebrovascular diseases for thousands of years. Benzoinum has also proven to have diverse pharmacological activity, but the neuroprotection mechanism of apoptosis in ischaemic stroke was not determined.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

To investigate the protective effect of a neurovascular unit (NVU) and the mechanisms of benzoinum on cerebral ischaemic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The neuroprotective activity of benzoinum against middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)-induced cerebral ischaemic injury. Neurological scores, 2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, and hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE) staining were conducted to evaluate the neurological damage. Infarction rate and denatured cell index (DCI) were also calculated. The ultrastructure of neuron and blood-brain-barrier (BBB) was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used to detect Bax, Bcl-2 and Caspase 3 expression. Furthermore, Claudin 5 also was detected through immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Benzoinum could significantly improve neurological function score and reduce cerebral infarction rate and DCI. In addition, benzoinum alleviated pathomorphological change and apoptosis in the brain tissue of MCAO rats. The results of TEM and claudin 5 expression of immunohistochemistry showed that benzoinum could play a neuroprotective effect in NVU. Also, benzoinum-enhanced Bcl2, and reduced Bax and Bax/Bcl-2 and Caspase 3, suggest that benzoinum provided a neuroprotective effect by inhibited cell apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Benzoinum could play a neuroprotective role and regulate apoptosis for repair and stabilisation of NVU. This anti-apoptosis activity might be associated with the downregulation of Bax and Caspase 3, and the upregulation of Bcl2. Our present findings provide a promising medication for the treatment of ischaemic stroke.

Terpenoids from Abies holophylla Attenuate LPS-Induced Neuroinflammation in Microglial Cells by Suppressing the JNK-Related Signaling Pathway

We have previously reported that phytochemicals from Abies holophylla exhibit anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects by decreasing nitrite production and increasing nerve growth factor production. However, the exact mechanism underscoring these effects has not been revealed. In the present study, we aimed to explore the underlying anti-inflammatory mechanisms of A. holophylla and its phytochemicals. We studied various solvent fractions of A. holophylla and found the chloroform and hexane sub-fractions showed the most significant anti-neuroinflammatory effects in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated murine microglia. Concomitantly, the terpenoids isolated from chloroform and hexane fractions showed similar anti-neuroinflammatory effects with significant inhibition of NO and reactive oxygen species production, and decreased protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase. Interestingly, these terpenoids inhibited the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which further inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, including prostaglandin E2, tumor necrosis factor, and interleukins (IL-6 and IL-1β), with a potency greater than that of the well-known iNOS inhibitor NG-mono-methyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA). These results suggest that the chloroform- and hexane-soluble fraction mediated the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibition, in particular the JNK pathway, thereby lowering the inflammatory cascades in LPS-activated murine microglia. Thus, our study suggests that the chloroform and hexane fractions of A. holophylla and their terpenoids may be potential drug candidates for drug discovery against LPS-induced neuroinflammation and neuroinflammatory-related neurodegeneration.

Neuroprotective Effect of Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis' Water Extract on Trimethyltin-Induced Seizures and Hippocampal Neurodegeneration

This study aimed to investigate whether the Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis (PB)’ water extract (PBWE) ameliorates trimethyltin (TMT)-induced seizures and hippocampal neurodegeneration. To investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of the PBWE in vitro, a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay was conducted in TMT-treated primary cultures of mouse hippocampal neurons. In TMT-treated adult C57BL/6 mice, behavioral and histopathological changes were evaluated by seizure scoring and Fluoro-Jade C staining, respectively. In our in vitro assay, we observed that pretreating mice hippocampal neuron cultures with the PBWE reduced TMT-induced cytotoxicity, as indicated by the decreased LDH release. Furthermore, pretreatment with the PBWE alleviated seizures and hippocampal neurodegeneration in TMT-treated mice. The antioxidant activity of the PBWE increased in a dose-dependent manner; moreover, pretreatment with the PBWE mitigated the TMT-induced Nrf2 stimulation. In addition, six major compounds, including adenine, hypoxanthine, uridine, adenosine, inosine, and benzoic acid, were isolated from the PBWE, and among them, inosine and benzoic acid have been confirmed to have an essential antioxidative activity. In conclusion, the PBWE ameliorated TMT-induced toxicity in hippocampal neurons in both in vitro and in vivo assays, through a potential antioxidative effect. Our findings suggest that the PBWE may have pharmacotherapeutic potential in neurodegenerative diseases such as seizures or epilepsy.

Effects of Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Harms on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury revealed by metabolomics and transcriptomics

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) injury is one of the main diseases leading to death and disability. Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Harms (AS), also known as Panax ginseng, has neuroprotective effects on anti-CIR injury. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of its therapeutic effects is not clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To systematically study and explore the mechanism of Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Harms extract (ASE) in the treatment of CIR injury based on metabolomics and transcriptomics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The pharmacological basis of ASE in the treatment of CIR was evaluated, and samples were used in plasma metabolomics and brain tissue transcriptomics to reveal potential biomarkers. Finally, according to online database, we analyzed biomarkers identified by the two technologies, explained reasons for the therapeutic effect of ASE, and identify therapeutic targets.

RESULTS

A total of 53 differential metabolites (DMs) were identified in plasma and 3138 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in brain tissue from three groups of rats, including sham, ischemia-reperfusion (I/R), and ASE groups. Enrichment analysis showed that Nme6, Tk1, and Pold1 that are involved in the production of deoxycytidine and thymine were significantly up-regulated and Dck was significantly down-regulated by the intervention with ASE. These findings indicated that ASE participates in the pyrimidine metabolism by significantly regulating the balance between dCTP and dTTP. In addition, ASE repaired and promoted the lipid metabolism in rats, which might be due to the significant expression of Dgkz, Chat, and Gpcpd1.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest that ASE regulates the significant changes in gene expression in metabolites pyrimidine, and lipid metabolism in CIR rats and plays an active role in the treatment of CIR injury through multiple targets and pathways.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal - Modern perspectives of an ancient Rasayana from Ayurveda

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, commonly known as Ashwagandha, is an important medicinal plant that has been used in Ayurvedic and indigenous medicine for more than 3000 years. According to Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita and other ancient texts, Ashwagandha is known as Balya (increases strength), Brusya (sexual performance enhancer), vajikari (spermatogenic), Kamarupini (libido-enhancing), Pustida (nourishing).

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review article documented and critically assessed W. somnifera regarding its ethnopharmacology, traditional use, botanical description, phytochemicals present, pharmacological activities, clinical trials, and marketed formulations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The sources of information used in the study are traditional Ayurvedic books like Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Astanga Hridaya etc, government reports, dissertations, books, research articles and databases like Science-Direct, SciFinder, Web of Science, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, and ACS Publications on Ashwagandha and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.

RESULTS

Traditional uses of Ashwagandha in Ayurveda are very prominent in several texts where formulations with various dosage forms have been mentioned in Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Astanga Hridaya, different nighantus etc. The drugs were identified based on their composition containing Ashwagandha as one of the major ingredients and their medicinal uses. Phytochemical studies on W. somnifera revealed the presence of important chemical constituents such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, and withanolides. The phytochemicals showed various pharmacological activities like anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-stress/adaptogenic and anti-diabetic. Various clinical trials show that the plant extract and its bioactive compounds are used in the prevention and treatment of many diseases, such as arthritis, impotence, amnesia, anxiety, cancer, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases, and others.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacological data reviewed here revealed that W. somnifera is a potential source for the treatment of a wide range of diseases especially anxiety and other CNS disorders. From its ancient use to its modern application it has been proven to be non-toxic and effective clinically for human health and wellness. W. somnifera based herbal formulation has been marketed in the form of supplement, extract, capsule, powder etc. This review will be helpful to correlate the mechanism of action with the phytochemical profile of this well-known plant from Ayurveda.

Antioxidant Blend of Curcumin and Broccoli Seed Extract Exhibits Protective Effect on Neurodegeneration and Promotes Drosophila Lifespan

Antioxidants and related compounds are anti-inflammatory and exhibit great potential in promoting human health. They are also often considered to be important elements in the process of neurodegeneration. Here we describe a antioxidant blend of Curcumin and Broccoli Seed Extract (BSE). Flies treated with the blend exhibit extended lifespan. RNA-seq analysis of samples from adult fly brains reveals a wide array of new genes with differential expression upon treatment with the blend. Interestingly, abolishing expression of some of the identified genes in dopaminergic (DA) neurons does not affect DA neuron number. Taken together, our findings reveal an antioxidant blend that promotes fly longevity and exhibits protective effect over neurodegeneration, demonstrating the importance of antioxidants in health and pathology.

Neuroprotective and antioxidant effect of Curcuma longa (Rhizome) methanolic extract on SH-SY5Y cells and Javanese medaka

Diseases caused by oxidative stress can be prevented by antioxidant. Current treatments for those neurodegenerative diseases are not effective and cause many side effects. Thus, the search for alternative medicines is in high demand. Therefore, the main purposed of this study is to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of Curcuma longa (rhizome) 80% methanol extract. Antioxidant using dichlorofuoresence diacetate (DCF-DA) assay on SH-SY5Y cells revealed high activities of Curcuma longa (rhizome) extract with IC50 of 105.9±0.8 µg/mL. Sub-acute and chronic toxicity tests of the plant extract on adult Javanese medaka (Oryzias javanicus) showed high toxicity effect with LC₅₀ of 24.15±0.8 mg/L and 13.69±0.7 mg/L respectively. Neuroprotective tests using cholinesterase assay disclose significant differences at P<0.05 between the group that are exposed to arsenic and treated with the crude extract and the group that are exposed to only arsenic. Identification of vitexin and isovitexin justified the high antioxidant potential of this plant leaf and it highest benefit to be used as medicinal supplement.

Polyphenols from Brown Seaweeds (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae): Phlorotannins in the Pursuit of Natural Alternatives to Tackle Neurodegeneration

Globally, the burden of neurodegenerative disorders continues to rise, and their multifactorial etiology has been regarded as among the most challenging medical issues. Bioprospecting for seaweed-derived multimodal acting products has earned increasing attention in the fight against neurodegenerative conditions. Phlorotannins (phloroglucinol-based polyphenols exclusively produced by brown seaweeds) are amongst the most promising nature-sourced compounds in terms of functionality, and though research on their neuroprotective properties is still in its infancy, phlorotannins have been found to modulate intricate events within the neuronal network. This review comprehensively covers the available literature on the neuroprotective potential of both isolated phlorotannins and phlorotannin-rich extracts/fractions, highlighting the main key findings and pointing to some potential directions for neuro research ramp-up processes on these marine-derived products.

7-Isopentenyloxycoumarin: What Is New across the Last Decade

7-Isopentenyloxycoumarin is among the most widespread naturally occurring prenyloxy umbelliferone derivatives. This secondary metabolite of mixed biosynthetic origin has been typically isolated from plants belonging to several genera of the Rutaceae and Apiaceae families, comprising widely used medicinal plants and in general plants with beneficial effects on human welfare, as well as edible fruits and vegetables. Although known for quite a long time (more than 50 years), only in the last two decades has this natural compound been revealed to exert powerful and promising pharmacological properties, such as active cancer chemopreventive, antibacterial, antiprotozoal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antioxidant properties, among the activities best outlined in the recent literature. The aim of this comprehensive miniature review article is to detail the novel natural sources and the effects described during the last decade for 7-isopentenyloxycoumarin and what has been reported on the mechanisms of action underlying the observed biological activities of this oxyprenylated secondary metabolite. In view of the herein described data, suggestions on how to address future research on the abovementioned natural product and structurally related derivatives in the best ways according to the authors will be also provided.