The receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2 associates with and is activated by casein kinase Iepsilon

Ror2, a member of the mammalian Ror family of receptor tyrosine kinases, plays important roles in developmental morphogenesis, although the mechanism underlying activation of Ror2 remains largely elusive. We show that when expressed in mammalian cells, Ror2 associates with casein kinase Iepsilon (CKIepsilon), a crucial regulator of Wnt signaling. This association occurs primarily via the cytoplasmic C-terminal proline-rich domain of Ror2. We also show that Ror2 is phosphorylated by CKIepsilon on serine/threonine residues, in its C-terminal serine/threonine-rich 2 domain, resulting in autophosphorylation of Ror2 on tyrosine residues. Furthermore, it was found that association of Ror2 with CKIepsilon is required for its serine/threonine phosphorylation by CKIepsilon. Site-directed mutagenesis of tyrosine residues in Ror2 reveals that the sites of phosphorylation are contained among the five tyrosine residues in the proline-rich domain but not among the four tyrosine residues in the tyrosine kinase domain. Moreover, we show that in mammalian cells, CKIepsilon-mediated phosphorylation of Ror2 on serine/threonine and tyrosine residues is followed by the tyrosine phosphorylation of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2, a kinase with a developmental expression pattern that is remarkably similar to that of Ror2. Intriguingly, a mutant of Ror2 lacking five tyrosine residues, including the autophosphorylation sites, fails to tyrosine phosphorylate G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2. This indicates that autophosphorylation of Ror2 is required for full activation of its tyrosine kinase activity. These findings demonstrate a novel role for CKIepsilon in the regulation of Ror2 tyrosine kinase.

βARK1 Inhibition Improves Survival in a Mouse Model of Heart Failure Induced by Myocardial Infarction

Heart failure (HF) is characterized by abnormalities in beta-adrenergic receptor (betaAR) signaling, including an increase in betaAR kinase 1 (betaARK1) levels and activity. Gene therapy using a peptide inhibitor of betaARK1 (betaARKct) in infarcted rabbit hearts has improved compromised cardiac function. To determine whether betaARK1 inhibition improves survival in a mouse model of HF induced by myocardial infarction (MI), we studied wild-type (WT) and transgenic (TG) mice overexpressing betaARKct following MI. There was no difference in infarct size. Survival of WT mice with MI was 25% at 26 weeks. In contrast, 92% of betaARKct TG mice with MI survived (P = 0.01). betaARKct TG mice with MI at 8 weeks showed significantly higher fractional shortening compared with WT mice with MI (25.1 +/- 2.7% versus 14.2 +/- 1.0%; P < 0.05). Moreover, the biochemical betaAR abnormalities in WT mice with MI were prevented in betaARKct TG mice with MI. In conclusion, betaARK1 inhibition results in a marked increase in survival and improved cardiac function in a mouse model of HF induced by MI.

Desensitization and internalization of metabotropic glutamate receptor 1a following activation of heterologous Gq/11-coupled receptors

In this study we characterized the heterologous desensitization and internalization of the metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) splice variants mGluR1a and mGluR1b following activation of endogenous G(q/11)-coupled receptors in HEK293 cells. Agonist activation of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine or P2Y1 purinergic receptors triggered the PKC- and CaMKII-dependent internalization of mGluR1a. In co-immunoprecipitation studies, both glutamate and carbachol increased the association of GRK2 with mGluR1a. Co-addition of the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor GF109203X and the Ca(2+) calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitor KN-93 blocked the ability of glutamate and carbachol to increase the association of GRK2 with mGluR1a. Glutamate also increased the association of GRK2 with mGluR1b, whereas carbachol did not. However, unlike mGluR1a, glutamate-stimulated association of GRK2 with mGluR1b was not reduced by PKC/CaMKII inhibition. Pretreatment of cells expressing mGluR1a or mGluR1b with carbachol rapidly desensitized subsequent glutamate-stimulated inositol phosphate accumulation. The carbachol-induced heterologous desensitization and internalization of mGluR1a was blocked by LY367385, an mGluR1a antagonist with inverse agonist activity. Furthermore, LY367385 blocked the ability of carbachol to increase the association of GRK2 with mGluR1a. On the other hand, LY367385 had no effect on the carbachol-induced desensitization and internalization of the nonconstitutively active mGluR1b splice variant. These results demonstrate that the internalization of mGluR1a, triggered homologously by glutamate or heterologously by carbachol, is PKC/CaMKII-, GRK2-, arrestin-, and clathrin-dependent and that PKC/CaMKII activation appears to be necessary for GRK2 to associate with mGluR1a. Furthermore, the heterologous desensitization of mGluR1a is dependent upon the splice variant being in an active conformation.

Imaging of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor signaling in hippocampal neurons: evidence for phosphorylation-dependent and -independent regulation by G-protein-coupled receptor kinases

We used the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) biosensor, the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of PLCdelta1 (phospholipase C) tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP-PH(PLCdelta)), to examine muscarinic acetylcholine (mACh) receptor regulation of phospholipase C/IP3 signaling in intact single hippocampal neurons in "real time." Initial experiments produced a pharmacological profile consistent with the presence of a predominant M1 mACh receptor population coupled to the IP3 response. To investigate M1 mACh receptor regulation, neurons were stimulated with approximate EC50 concentrations of the mACh receptor agonist methacholine before (R1) and after (R2) a short (60 sec) exposure to a high concentration of agonist. This resulted in a marked attenuation in the R2 relative to R1 response. Inhibition of endogenous GRK6 (G-protein-coupled receptor kinase) activity, by the introduction of catalytically inactive (K215R)GRK6, partially reversed the attenuation of agonist-induced responsiveness, whereas overexpression of wild-type GRK6 increased receptor desensitization. Manipulation of endogenous GRK2 activity through introduction of either wild-type or catalytically inactive GRK2 ((K220R)GRK2) almost completely inhibited agonist-stimulated IP3 production, implying a phosphorylation-independent regulation of M1 mACh receptor signaling, most probably mediated by a GRK2 N-terminal RGS-like (regulator of G-protein signaling) domain interaction with GTP-bound Galpha(q/11). Together, our data suggest a role for both phosphorylation-dependent and -independent regulation of M1 mACh receptors in hippocampal neurons.

The kinase Grk2 regulates Nedd4/Nedd4-2-dependent control of epithelial Na+ channels

Epithelial Na(+) channels mediate the transport of Na across epithelia in the kidney, gut, and lungs and are required for blood pressure regulation. They are inhibited by ubiquitin protein ligases, such as Nedd4 and Nedd4-2, with loss of this inhibition leading to hypertension. Here, we report that these channels are maintained in the active state by the G protein-coupled receptor kinase, Grk2, which has been previously implicated in the development of essential hypertension. We also show that Grk2 phosphorylates the C terminus of the channel beta subunit and renders the channels insensitive to inhibition by Nedd4-2. This mechanism has not been previously reported to regulate epithelial Na(+) channels and provides a potential explanation for the observed association of Grk2 overactivity with hypertension. Here, we report a G protein-coupled receptor kinase regulating a membrane protein other than a receptor and provide a paradigm for understanding how the interaction between membrane proteins and ubiquitin protein ligases is controlled.

Rhodopsin kinase activity modulates the amplitude of the visual response in Drosophila

A feature shared between Drosophila rhodopsin and nearly all other G protein-coupled receptors is agonist-dependent protein phosphorylation. Despite extensive analyses of Drosophila phototransduction, the identity and function of the rhodopsin kinase (RK) have been elusive. Here, we provide evidence that G protein-coupled receptor kinase 1 (GPRK1), which is most similar to the beta-adrenergic receptor kinases, G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) and GRK3, is the fly RK. We show that GPRK1 is enriched in photoreceptor cells, associates with the major Drosophila rhodopsin, Rh1, and phosphorylates the receptor. As is the case with mammalian GRK2 and GRK3, Drosophila GPRK1 includes a C-terminal pleckstrin homology domain, which binds to phosphoinositides and the Gbetagamma subunit. To address the role of GPRK1, we generated transgenic flies that expressed higher and lower levels of RK activity. Those flies with depressed levels of RK activity displayed a light response with a much larger amplitude than WT. Conversely, the amplitude of the light response was greatly suppressed in transgenic flies expressing abnormally high levels of RK activity. These data point to an evolutionarily conserved role for GPRK1 in modulating the amplitude of the visual response.

Genetic and phenotypic targeting of beta-adrenergic signaling in heart failure

Heart failure is a leading cause of hospitalization worldwide. No major significant improvements in prognosis have been achieved for heart failure over the last several decades despite advances in disease management. Heart failure itself represents a final common endpoint for several disease entities, including hypertension and coronary artery disease. On a molecular level, certain biochemical features remain common to failing myocardium. Among these are alterations in the beta-adrenergic receptor (beta-AR) signaling cascade. Recent advances in transgenic and gene therapy techniques have presented novel therapeutic strategies for management of heart failure via genetic manipulation of beta-AR signaling including the targeted inhibition of the beta-AR kinase (betaARK1 or GRK2). In this review, we will discuss the beta-AR signaling changes that accompany heart failure as well as corresponding therapeutic strategies. We will then review the evidence from transgenic mouse work supporting the use of beta-AR manipulation in the failing heart and more recent in vivo applications of gene therapy directed at reversing or preventing heart failure.

Phosphorylation of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor-beta by G protein-coupled receptor kinase-2 reduces receptor signaling and interaction with the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor

G protein-coupled receptor kinase-2 (GRK2) can phosphorylate and desensitize the platelet-derived growth factor receptor-beta (PDGFRbeta) in heterologous cellular systems. To determine whether GRK2 regulates the PDGFRbeta in physiologic systems, we examined PDGFRbeta signaling in mouse embryonic fibroblasts from GRK2-null and cognate wild type mice. To discern a mechanism by which GRK2-mediated phosphorylation can desensitize the PDGFRbeta, but not the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), we investigated effects of GRK2-mediated phosphorylation on the association of the PDGFRbeta with the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor (NHERF), a protein shown to potentiate dimerization of the PDGFRbeta, but not the EGFR. Physiologic expression of GRK2 diminished (a) phosphoinositide hydrolysis elicited through the PDGFRbeta but not heterotrimeric G proteins; (b) Akt activation evoked by the PDGFRbeta but not the EGFR; and (c) PDGF-induced tyrosyl phosphorylation of the PDGFRbeta itself. PDGFRbeta desensitization by physiologically expressed GRK2 correlated with a 2.5-fold increase in PDGF-promoted PDGFRbeta seryl phosphorylation. In 293 cells, GRK2 overexpression reduced PDGFRbeta/NHERF association by 60%. This effect was reproduced by S1104D mutation of the PDGFRbeta, which also diminished PDGFRbeta activation and signaling (like the S1104A mutation) to an extent equivalent to that achieved by GRK2-mediated PDGFRbeta phosphorylation. GRK2 overexpression desensitized only the wild type but not the S1104A PDGFRbeta. We conclude that GRK2-mediated PDGFRbeta seryl phosphorylation plays an important role in desensitizing the PDGFRbeta in physiologic systems. Furthermore, this desensitization appears to involve GRK2-mediated phosphorylation of PDGFRbeta Ser(1104), with consequent dissociation of the PDGFRbeta from NHERF.

G protein-coupled receptor kinase function is essential for chemosensation in C. elegans

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate diverse signaling processes, including olfaction. G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are important regulators of G protein signal transduction that specifically phosphorylate activated GPCRs to terminate signaling. Despite previously described roles for GRKs in GPCR signal downregulation, animals lacking C. elegans G protein-coupled receptor kinase-2 (Ce-grk-2) function are not hypersensitive to odorants. Instead, decreased Ce-grk-2 function in adult sensory neurons profoundly disrupts chemosensation, based on both behavioral analysis and Ca(2+) imaging. Although mammalian arrestin proteins cooperate with GRKs in receptor desensitization, loss of C. elegans arrestin-1 (arr-1) does not disrupt chemosensation. Either overexpression of the C. elegans Galpha subunit odr-3 or loss of eat-16, which encodes a regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) protein, restores chemosensation in Ce-grk-2 mutants. These results demonstrate that loss of GRK function can lead to reduced GPCR signal transduction and suggest an important role for RGS proteins in the regulation of chemosensation.

Dynamin-association with agonist-mediated sequestration of beta-adrenergic receptor in single-cell eukaryote Paramecium

Evidence that dynamin is associated with the sequestration of the Paramecium beta(2)-adrenergic receptor (betaAR) immunoanalogue is presented. We previously reported a dramatic change in the distribution of betaAR analogue in the subcellular fractions upon isoproterenol treatment: it is redistributed from the membraneous to the cytosolic fraction, as revealed by quantitative image analysis of western blots. Here we confirm and extend this observation by laser scanning confocal and immunogold electron microscopy. In the presence of isoproterenol (10 micro mol l(-1)) betaAR translocated from the cell surface into dynamin-positive vesicles in the cytoplasmic compartment, as observed by dual fluorochrome immunolabeling in a series of the confocal optical sections. Colocalization of betaAR and dynamin in the tiny endocytic vesicles was detected by further electron microscopic studies. Generally receptor sequestration follows its desensitization, which is initiated by receptor phosphorylation by G-protein-coupled receptor kinase. We cloned and sequenced the gene fragment of 407 nucleotides homologous to the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase (betaARK): its deduced amino acid sequence shows 51.6% homology in 126 amino acids that overlap with the human betaARK2 (GRK3), and may participate in Paramecium betaAR desensitization. These results suggest that the molecular machinery for the desensitization/sequestration of the receptor immunorelated to vertebrate betaAR exists in unicellular PARAMECIUM:

GRK2 is an endogenous protein inhibitor of the insulin signaling pathway for glucose transport stimulation

G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) represent a class of proteins that classically phosphorylate agonist-activated G protein-coupled receptors, leading to uncoupling of the receptor from further G protein activation. Recently, we have reported that the heterotrimeric G protein alpha-subunit, Galphaq/11, can mediate insulin-stimulated glucose transport. GRK2 contains a regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) domain with specificity for Galphaq/11. Therefore, we postulated that GRK2 could be an inhibitor of the insulin signaling cascade leading to glucose transport in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In this study, we demonstrate that microinjection of anti-GRK2 antibody or siRNA against GRK2 increased insulin-stimulated insulin-responsive glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation, while adenovirus-mediated overexpression of wild-type or kinase-deficient GRK2 inhibited insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation as well as 2-deoxyglucose uptake. Importantly, a mutant GRK2 lacking the RGS domain was without effect. Taken together, these results indicate that through its RGS domain endogenous GRK2 functions as a negative regulator of insulin-stimulated glucose transport by interfering with Galphaq/11 signaling to GLUT4 translocation. Furthermore, inhibitors of GRK2 can lead to enhanced insulin sensitivity.

Spinophilin blocks arrestin actions in vitro and in vivo at G protein-coupled receptors

Arrestin regulates almost all G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated signaling and trafficking. We report that the multidomain protein, spinophilin, antagonizes these multiple arrestin functions. Through blocking G protein receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) association with receptor-Gbetagamma complexes, spinophilin reduces arrestin-stabilized receptor phosphorylation, receptor endocytosis, and the acceleration of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity following endocytosis. Spinophilin knockout mice were more sensitive than wild-type mice to sedation elicited by stimulation of alpha2 adrenergic receptors, whereas arrestin 3 knockout mice were more resistant, indicating that the signal-promoting, rather than the signal-terminating, roles of arrestin are more important for certain response pathways. The reciprocal interactions of GPCRs with spinophilin and arrestin represent a regulatory mechanism for fine-tuning complex receptor-orchestrated cell signaling and responses.

Antidiabetic effect of novel modulating peptides of G-protein-coupled kinase in experimental models of diabetes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) play a key role in agonist-induced desensitisation of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are involved in metabolic regulation and glucose homeostasis. Our aim was to examine whether small peptides derived from the catalytic domain of GRK2 and -3 would ameliorate Type 2 diabetes in three separate animal models of diabetes.

METHODS

Synthetic peptides derived from a kinase-substrate interaction site in GRK2/3 were initially screened for their effect on in vitro melanogenesis, a GRK-mediated process. The most effective peptides were administered intraperitoneally, utilising a variety of dosing regimens, to Psammomys obesus gerbils, Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats, or db/db mice. The metabolic effects of these peptides were assessed by measuring fasting and fed blood glucose levels and glucose tolerance.

RESULTS

Two peptides, KRX-683(107) and KRX-683(124), significantly reduced fed-state blood glucose levels in the diabetic Psammomys obesus. In animals treated with KRX-683(124) at a dose of 12.5 mg/kg weekly for 7 weeks, ten of eleven treated animals responded with mean blood glucose significantly lower than controls (4.7+/-0.4 vs 16.8+/-0.8 mmol/l, p</=0.0001). Significant reductions in blood glucose compared with controls were also seen in ZDF rats administered KRX-683(124) and in db/db mice, which had significantly reduced fasting and 2-hour postprandial glucose levels after the treatment.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Sequence-based peptides derived from GRK2/3 have an antidiabetic effect demonstrated in three different animal models of Type 2 diabetes. By modulating GRK2/3 activity, these peptides enhance GPCR-initiated signal transduction, resulting in improved glucose homeostasis. Sequence-based peptide modulation of GRK could prove useful in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes.

Phosphorylation of G protein-coupled receptors: GPCR kinases in heart disease

In the heart, beta -adrenergic receptors (beta ARs), members of the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), modulate cardiac responses to catecholamines. beta AR signaling, which is compromised in many cardiac diseases (e.g., congestive heart failure), is regulated by GPCR kinases (GRKs). Levels of the most abundant cardiac GRK, known as GRK2 or beta AR kinase 1 (beta ARK1), are increased in both animal and human heart failure. Transgenic mouse models have demonstrated that beta ARK1 plays a vital role in cardiac function and development, as well as in the regulation of myocardial signaling, and pharmacological studies have further implicated GRKs in the impairment of cardiac GPCR signaling. Gene therapy, along with the development of small-molecule modulators of GRK activity, has indicated in multiple animal models that the manipulation of GRK activity may elicit therapeutic benefits in many forms of cardiac disease.

Mechanisms of regulation of the expression and function of G protein-coupled receptor kinases

G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are key modulators of G protein-coupled receptor signalling. Increasing evidence points to the occurrence of complex mechanisms able to modulate the subcellular localization, activity and expression levels of GRKs, revealing new functional interactions of these kinases with different cellular proteins and transduction cascades. GRK activity and subcellular targeting is tightly regulated by interaction with receptor domains, G protein subunits, lipids, anchoring proteins, caveolin and calcium-sensing proteins. In addition, GRK phosphorylation by several other kinases has recently been shown to modulate its functionality, thus putting forward new feedback mechanisms connecting different signalling pathways to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) regulation. On the other hand, the mechanisms governing GRK expression at both transcriptional and protein stability levels are just beginning to be unveiled. Namely, GRK2 has been shown to be rapidly degraded by the proteasome pathway in a process dependent on beta-arrestin and c-Src function, and also to be proteolyzed by m-calpain. A better knowledge of GRK regulatory mechanisms would contribute to greater understanding of GRK physiological function and also its reported alterations in different pathological situations, such as congestive heart failure, hypertension or inflammation.

The beta-adrenergic receptor kinase in heart failure

Heart failure (HF) remains a significant and increasing cause of worldwide morbidity and mortality. HF is less a disease than a common clinical endpoint resulting from diverse, but often co-existing etiologies-including hypertension, coronary artery disease, and viral cardiomyopathy. Regardless of the pathologic trigger, HF can be characterized by a series of specific, molecular changes in the diseased myocardium. Noteworthy among these changes are alterations in the beta-adrenergic receptor (betaAR) signaling cascade. betaARs belong to the larger family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and modulate cardiac function by controlling the inotropic and chronotropic response to catecholamines. betaARs, in turn, are regulated by GPCR kinases (GRKs). GRKs phosphorylate betaARs, blocking downstream-signaling cascades and ultimately desensitizing the receptor to further catecholamine stimuli. Recent advances in transgenic mouse and gene therapy techniques have led to therapeutic strategies by manipulating betaAR signaling, specifically through the inhibition of the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase (betaARK1 or GRK2), the predominant myocardial GRK. The purpose of this manuscript, then, is to review (1). the changes that occur to betaAR-signaling pathways in HF, (2). the evidence from transgenic murine studies examining the consequences of betaARK1 manipulation in the failing heart, and (3). the effectiveness of in vivo applications of betaARK1-targeted gene therapy at ameliorating HF.

Ligand-regulated internalization of the opioid receptor-like 1: a confocal study

To better understand opioid receptor-like 1 (ORL1) internalization, we fused the C terminus of ORL1, the nociceptin (noc) receptor, to the N terminus of a green fluorescent protein and used the fusion protein to characterize receptor endocytosis in live human embryonic kidney cells. The fusion altered neither the affinity of the receptor for noc or other ORL1 receptor ligands nor the ability of the receptor to mediate agonist-induced binding of GTPgamma(35)S, i.e. coupling with heterotrimeric G protein. Confocal microscopy showed that the fluorescent receptor was mostly associated (>75%) with the periplasmic membrane. In the presence of 0.1 microm noc, approximately 80% of receptors were internalized, and half-maximum internalization was reached in approximately 12 min at 22 C and approximately 6 min at 37 C. After washing, a normal receptor level was recovered within 70 min at 22 C. The lack of internalization in the presence of 0.45 m sucrose suggests that noc-induced receptor endocytosis mainly occurred via clathrin-coated pits. Coincubation of the recombinant cells with noc and tetramethylrhodamine-transferrin showed that ORL1 was mainly internalized through the endosome compartment. Lofentanil and Ro64-6198 ([(1S,3aS)-8-(2,3,3a,4,5,6-hexahydro-1H-phenalen-1-yl)-1-phenyl-1,3,8-triaza-spiro[4.5]decan-4-one]) promoted endocytosis of the fluorescent receptor as efficiently as noc. Among the two ORL1 receptor antagonists, J-113397 (1-[(3R,4R)-1-cyclooctylmethyl-3-hydroxymethyl-4-piperidyl]-3-ethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one), but not III-BTD, blocked the noc-induced internalization of the fluorescent receptor. Two partial agonists were dramatically less efficient than noc to promote ORL1 internalization. They recruited very little (the pseudopeptide [Phe(1)psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly(2)]-noc-(1-13)NH(2)) or no (the hexapeptide Ac-Arg-Tyr-Tyr-Lys-Trp-Arg-NH(2)) G protein receptor kinase type 2 coupled to red fluorescent protein 1 at the membrane, suggesting that subsequent receptor phosphorylation necessary for internalization via coated pits is altered. Thus, partial agonists that induce a prolonged cell response without causing substantial receptor internalization may be good tools for further clinical treatments.

Regulation of mGlu4 metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling by type-2 G-protein coupled receptor kinase (GRK2)

We examined the role of G-protein coupled receptor kinase-2 (GRK2) in the homologous desensitization of mGlu4 metabotropic glutamate receptors transiently expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. Receptor activation with the agonist l-2-amino-4-phosphonobutanoate (l-AP4) stimulated at least two distinct signaling pathways: inhibition of cAMP formation and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway [assessed by Western blot analysis of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1 and 2]. Activation of both pathways was attenuated by pertussis toxin. Overexpression of GRK2 (but not GRK4) largely attenuated the stimulation of the MAPK pathway by l-AP4, whereas it slightly potentiated the inhibition of FSK-stimulated cAMP formation. Transfection with a kinase-dead mutant of GRK2 (GRK2-K220R) or with the C-terminal fragment of GRK2 also reduced the mGlu4-mediated stimulation of MAPK, suggesting that GRK2 binds to the Gbetagamma subunits to inhibit signal propagation toward the MAPK pathway. This was confirmed by the evidence that GRK2 coimmunoprecipitated with Gbetagamma subunits in an agonist-dependent manner. Finally, neither GRK2 nor its kinase-dead mutant had any effect on agonist-induced mGlu4 receptor internalization in HEK293 cells transiently transfected with GFP-tagged receptors. Agonist-dependent internalization was instead abolished by a negative-dominant mutant of dynamin, which also reduced the stimulation of MAPK pathway by l-AP4. We speculate that GRK2 acts as a "switch molecule" by inhibiting the mGlu4 receptor-mediated stimulation of MAPK and therefore directing the signal propagation toward the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase.

Activation of Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase Inhibits the Desensitization and Internalization of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors 1a and 1b

In this study, we characterized the effects of activation of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) on the internalization and functional coupling of the metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1) splice variants mGluR1a and mGluR1b. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique to assess receptor internalization, we found that the glutamate-induced internalization of mGluR1a or mGluR1b transiently expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells was inhibited by coactivation of endogenous beta2-adrenoceptors with isoprenaline or by direct activation of adenylyl cyclase with forskolin. The PKA inhibitor N-(2-[p-bromocinnamylamino]ethyl)-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide hydrochloride (H89) blocked the effects of both isoprenaline and forskolin. The heterologous internalization of the mGluR1 splice variants triggered by carbachol was also inhibited by isoprenaline and forskolin in a PKA-sensitive fashion, whereas the constitutive (agonist-independent) internalization of mGluR1a was inhibited only modestly by PKA activation. Using inositol phosphate (IP) accumulation in cells prelabeled with [3H]inositol to assess receptor coupling, PKA activation increased basal IP accumulation in mGluR1a receptor-expressing cells and also increased glutamate-stimulated IP accumulation in both mGluR1a- and mGluR1b-expressing cells, but only at short times of glutamate addition. Furthermore, PKA activation completely blocked the carbachol-induced heterologous desensitization of glutamate-stimulated IP accumulation in both mGluR1a- and mGluR1b-expressing cells. In coimmunoprecipitation experiments, the ability of glutamate to increase association of GRK2 and arrestin-2 with mGluR1a and mGluR1b was inhibited by PKA activation with forskolin. Together, these results indicate that PKA activation inhibits the agonist-induced internalization and desensitization of mGluR1a and mGluR1b, probably by reducing their interaction with GRK2 and nonvisual arrestins.

The structure of GRK2-G beta gamma complex: intimate association of G-protein signaling modules

G-protein-mediated signaling is the most widely used signaling mechanism in cells and its regulation is crucial for various physiological functions. G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases (GRKs) are involved in the desensitization of GPCR signals. Recently, the X-ray crystal structure of GRK2 complexed with G beta gamma was demonstrated and revealed the intimate association of three important signaling modules with G beta gamma to regulate GRK2 activity.

Differential β-Arrestin Trafficking and Endosomal Sorting of Somatostatin Receptor Subtypes

The physiological responses of somatostatin are mediated by five different G protein-coupled receptors. Although agonist-induced endocytosis of the various somatostatin receptor subtypes (sst(1)-sst(5)) has been studied in detail, little is known about their postendocytic trafficking. Here we show that somatostatin receptors profoundly differ in patterns of beta-arrestin mobilization and endosomal sorting. The beta-arrestin-dependent trafficking of the sst(2A) somatostatin receptor resembled that of a class B receptor in that upon receptor activation, beta-arrestin and the receptor formed stable complexes and internalized together into the same endocytic vesicles. This pattern was dependent on GRK2 (G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2)-mediated phosphorylation of a cluster of phosphate acceptor sites within the cytoplasmic tail of the sst(2A) receptor. Unlike other class B receptors, however, the sst(2A) receptor was rapidly resensitized and recycled to the plasma membrane. The beta-arrestin mobilization of the sst(3) and the sst(5) somatostatin receptors resembled that of a class A receptor in that upon receptor activation, beta-arrestin and the receptor formed relatively unstable complexes that dissociated at or near the plasma membrane. Consequently, beta-arrestin was excluded from sst(3)-containing vesicles. Unlike other class A receptors, a large proportion of sst(3) receptors was subject to ubiquitin-dependent lysosomal degradation and did not rapidly recycle to the plasma membrane. The sst(4) somatostatin receptor is unique in that it did not exhibit agonist-dependent receptor phosphorylation and beta-arrestin recruitment. Together, these findings may provide important clues about the regulation of receptor responsiveness during long-term administration of somatostatin analogs.

Real-Time Detection of Interactions between the Human Oxytocin Receptor and G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase-2

Although the oxytocin receptor (OTR) mediates many important functions including uterine contractions, milk ejection, and maternal behavior, the mechanisms controlling agonist-induced OTR desensitization have remained unclear, and attempts to demonstrate involvement of a G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) have so far failed. Using the OTR as a model, we demonstrate here directly for the first time the dynamics of agonist-induced interactions of a GRK with a G protein-coupled receptor in real time, using time-resolved bioluminescence resonance energy transfer. GRK2/receptor interactions started within 4 sec, peaked at 10 sec, and decreased to less than 40% within 8 min. By contrast, β-arrestin/OTR interactions initiated only at 10 sec, reached plateau levels at 120 sec, but remained stable with little decrease thereafter. Physical GRK2/OTR association was further demonstrated by coimmunoprecipitation of endogenous GRK2 with activated OTR. In COS-7 cells, which express low levels of GRK2 and β-arrestin, overexpression of GRK2 and β-arrestin increased receptor phosphorylation, desensitization, and internalization to the high levels observed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. By contrast, specific inhibition of endogenous GRK2 by dominant-negative mutants robustly inhibited OTR phosphorylation and internalization as well as arrestin/OTR interactions. These data characterize the temporal and causal relationship of GRK-2/OTR and β-arrestin/OTR interactions and establish GRK/OTR interaction as a prerequisite for β-arrestin-mediated OTR desensitization.

G Protein-Coupled Receptor Internalization Signaling Is Required for Cardioprotection in Ischemic Preconditioning

The present study is designed to explore the role of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the protection afforded by ischemic preconditioning (PC). We used TG mice with cardiac-specific overexpression of a Gβγ-sequestering peptide, βARKct (TG βARKct mice), to test whether the protection of PC is Gβγ-dependent. To test the role of G i protein, we used wild-type mice pretreated with the G i inhibitor pertussis toxin. Recovery of left ventricular developed pressure and infarct size were measured as indices of protection. PC induced protection in wild-type mice, but this protection was blocked by pertussis toxin treatment and was also blocked in TG βARKct mice. To determine the mechanism of Gβγ-induced protection in PC, we investigated one of the downstream targets of Gβγ, the PI3K/p70S6K pathway. PC-induced phosphorylation of p70S6K was not blocked in TG βARKct hearts; therefore, we investigated other targets of Gβγ. Recent studies suggest a role for Gβγ in GPCR internalization. We found that βARKct, a specific PI3K inhibitor wortmannin, and bafilomycin A 1 , which all block receptor recycling, all blocked the protective effect of PC. To additionally test whether PI3K is involved in PC-activated receptor internalization and endosomal signaling, we used TG mice with cardiac-specific overexpression of a catalytically inactive mutant PI3Kγ, which disrupts the recruitment of functional PI3K to agonist-activated GPCRs in vivo. We found that the catalytically inactive mutant of PI3Kγ blocks the protection of PC. In summary, these data suggest the novel finding that the cardioprotective effect of PC requires receptor internalization.

The adrenergic pathway and heart failure

Heart failure represents the endpoint to many triggering cardiovascular pathologies. However, there are molecular and biochemical features that remain common to the failing heart, despite the varying etiologies. Principal among these is heightened activation of the sympathetic nervous system and associated enhancement of adrenergic signaling pathways via the catecholamines, norepinephrine and epinephrine. During heart failure, several hallmark alterations in the adrenergic system contribute to loss of cardiac function. To specifically study these changes in a physiologically relevant setting, we and others have utilized advances in genetically engineered mouse technology. This chapter will discuss the many transgenic and knockout mouse models that have been developed to study the adrenergic system in the normal and failing heart. These models include genetically manipulated alterations of adrenergic receptors, linked heterotrimeric G proteins, and the regulatory G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs). Among the more-interesting information gained from these models is the finding that inhibition of a particular GRK - GRK2 or beta adrenergic receptor kinase 1 (betaARK1) - is a potential novel therapeutic strategy to improve function in the setting of heart failure. Furthermore, we will discuss recent transgenic research that proposes an important role for hypertension in the development of heart failure. Overall, genetically engineered mouse models pertaining to this critical myocardial signaling system have provided novel insight into heart function under normal conditions and during states of dysfunction and failure.

Decreased immunodensities of micro-opioid receptors, receptor kinases GRK 2/6 and beta-arrestin-2 in postmortem brains of opiate addicts

The homologous regulation of opioid receptors, through G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) and beta-arrestins, is an initial step in the complex molecular mechanisms leading to opiate tolerance and dependence. This study was designed to evaluate in parallel the contents of immunolabeled micro-opioid receptors (glycosylated proteins), two representative GRKs (GRK 2 and GRK 6) and beta-arrestin-2 in brains of opiate addicts who had died of an opiate overdose (heroin or methadone). The immunodensities of micro-opioid receptors were decreased (66 kDa protein: 24%, n=24, P<0.0001; 85 kDa protein: 16%, n=24, P<0.05) in the prefrontal cortex of opiate addicts compared with sex-, age-, and PMD-matched controls. This down-regulation of brain micro-opioid receptors was more pronounced in opiate addicts dying of a heroin overdose (27-30%, n=13) than in those who died of a methadone overdose (5-16%, n=11). In the same brains, significant decreases in the immunodensities of GRK 2 (19%, n=24, P<0.05), GRK 6 (25%, n=24, P<0.002) and beta-arrestin-2 (22%, n=24, P< 0.0005) were also quantitated. In contrast, the content of alpha-internexin (a neuronal marker used as a negative control) was not changed in brains of opiate addicts. In these subjects, there was a significant correlation between the densities of GRK 6 and beta-arrestin-2 (r=0.63, n=24, P=0.001), suggesting that both proteins are regulated in a coordinated manner by opiate drugs in the brain. The results indicate that opiate addiction in humans (tolerant state) is associated with down-regulation of brain micro-opioid receptors and regulatory GRK 2/6 and beta-arrestin-2 proteins. These molecular adaptations may be relevant mechanisms for the induction of opiate tolerance in brains of opiate addicts.