Female education and child mortality in Indonesia

This paper uses a sample of 6620 women from the 1994 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey to examine the relationship between female education and child mortality in Indonesia. Female education is measured in terms of both years of education and literacy. Both primary education and secondary schooling significantly decrease the probability of child death, while literacy plays an insignificant role. When the sample is divided into urban and rural locations, primary and secondary education are significant in both areas in reducing the likelihood of a mother experiencing child mortality. The benefits of public and private infrastructure appear to differ in rural and urban areas. The results confirm that investment in female human capital lowers the probability of child mortality.

Language skills and earnings among legalized aliens

"This paper uses the data on males and females from the 1989 [U.S.] Legalized Population Survey (LPS), a sample of aliens granted amnesty under 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act, to analyse English language proficiency and earnings.... English language proficiency is greater for those with more schooling, who immigrated at a younger age, who have been in the United States longer, with a more continuos stay, and who have less access to other origin language speakers where they live. Earnings are higher by about 8% for men and 17% for women who are proficient in both speaking and reading English, compared to those lacking both skills."

Military service and migration in nineteenth-century France: some evidence from Loir-et-Cher

"Military service in France during the nineteenth century removed many young men from their own localities for long periods. The widely accepted claim that few conscripts returned home after completing their period of service is based on little evidence. The paper examines the conscription classes of 1856 and 1891 in two cantons in the departement of Loir-et-Cher. In those cases, there was not a significant relationship between conscription and migration, nor between literacy and migration. Instead, migration of youths in their twenties was linked partly to prior experiences of migration but principally to their occupations."

Human development index as a predictor of infant and maternal mortality rates

OBJECTIVE

The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index of life expectancy, literacy, and per capita gross domestic product that measures the socioeconomic development of a country. We estimated infant and maternal mortality rates in the world and assessed how well the HDI and its individual components predicted infant and maternal mortality rates for individual countries.

MATERIALS

Data on mortality rates and values for HDI components were obtained from the United Nations and the World Bank.

RESULTS

For the 1987 to 1990 period, approximately 9 million infant deaths and 349,000 maternal deaths occurred in the world annually, yielding global infant and maternal mortality rates of 67 per 1000 and 250 per 100,000 live births, respectively. HDI is a powerful predictor of both infant and maternal mortality rates. It accounts for 85% to 92% of the variation in infant mortality rates, and 82% to 85% of the variation in maternal mortality rates among countries. Each component of HDI is also strongly correlated with both infant and maternal mortality rates (significance of all values for r, p < 0.001), and eliminating life expectancy from HDI does not decrease significantly the predictive power of HDI for infant or maternal mortality rates.

CONCLUSION

HDI is not only a useful measure for socioeconomic development, but also a powerful predictor of infant and maternal mortality rates for individual countries.

Risk factors of low dietary vitamin A intake among children in the Sudan

We examined the determinants of dietary vitamin A intake among Sudanese children, information which is important for designing effective interventions based on the dietary approach. Children under the age of two years were at greater risk of consuming a diet low in vitamin A compared with children who were five years or older. Compared with children from relatively affluent households, those from poorer households were about twice as likely to consume low levels of carotenoid or preformed vitamin A. Low vitamin A intake was also significantly associated with lack of running water, a latrine, radio, or television in the household, and inversely associated with maternal or paternal illiteracy and with cleanliness of the child subjectively assessed by the interviewer. As expected, breastfed children in the first two years of life were likely to consume lower levels of preformed vitamin A and carotenoid from food (excluding breast milk) compared with non-breastfed children. Low vitamin A intake was more prevalent in the dry months of the year. Efforts to increase accessibility to vitamin A containing food, combined with nutrition education campaigns and public health programmes directed at improving sanitation and reducing infection are necessary as part of the long-term solution to the problem of vitamin A deficiency.

Earnings mobility of first and "1.5" generation Mexican-origin women and men: a comparison with U.S.-born Mexican-Americans and non-Hispanic whites

"This study addresses the following questions: Are Mexican immigrants closing the earnings gap with greater time in the United States, compared to U.S.-born Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites? What factors are most important in determining their earnings? How are earnings determinants different for women versus men, and those who came to the United States as children, versus those who came as adults and those born in the United States?... With greater time in the United States, male immigrants achieve average earnings comparable to U.S.-born Mexican Americans, but not to non-Hispanic whites, controlling for human capital variables. With greater time in the United States, female immigrants approach the number of hours of paid work of U.S.-born women, but not the earnings received per hour. Gains in earnings associated with age, time in the United States, and English proficiency differ by gender, reflecting structural differences in the labor market."

Calendar methods of fertility regulation: a rule of thumb

"[Many] illiterate women, particularly in the third world, find [it] difficult to apply usual calendar methods for the regulation of fertility. Some of them are even unable to make simple subtractions. In this paper we are therefore trying to evaluate the applicability and the efficiency of an extremely simple rule which entails only [the ability to count] a number of days, and always the same way." (SUMMARY IN ITA)

Mothers' attitudes to children's chest infections in India

Acute Respiratory Infections (ARIs) account for a very high morbidity and mortality amongst children in the developing countries. A knowledge, attitude and practice study in relation to the literacy status of mothers whose children suffered from ARI was conducted. A sample of 140 mothers who had 265 children were selected for the study. The majority of literate mothers (75%) had complete knowledge regarding management of ARI. Literacy alone was not the only factor responsible for developing a positive attitude and adopting correct practices during ARI. Mass media and health personnel played an equally important role. Most women (89.3%) had obtained their knowledge regarding ARI through media and paramedical staff. Most mothers (96.4%) were concerned about the health of their children when they suffered from episodes of ARI and the majority of them (87.2%) were worried because they felt that their children or contacts could be adversely affected. Nearly 72% of mothers took early action during an episode of ARI. The majority of the medical practitioners practised non-allopathic medicine but all of them were prescribing allopathic drugs. Most of the mothers (70%) had no problem in taking their children to the desired health centers when needed.

Immunization determinants in the eastern region of Ghana

A study of the immunization determinants of children aged 12 to 18 months was conducted in 1991 in the Eastern Region of Ghana, using structured interviews of mothers and fathers. The completion of immunization schedules by one year, among the 294 children, was positively associated (P < 0.005) with the town of residence of the child and mother, the ability of the mother to speak English, the target child having been treated for illness at the local hospital, the child's mother having given birth to less than 5 children, the possession of a sewing machine by the mother, and the birth of the child in the current town of residence. Significantly higher immunization coverage levels were achieved where the Under Fives' Clinic was an affordable and acceptable service, integrating preventive and curative care, and where measures were implemented by the community to increase attendance levels at the Clinic. This was achieved among a target group who were otherwise at a relatively high risk of failing to complete immunization schedules on-time.

Dynamics of educational development in the Chhattisgarh region, India

"The aim of this paper is to analyse the spatial patterns of the level of educational development along with the decennial change in the literacy rate in the Chhattisgarh region of Madhya Pradesh State [India]. Eleven variables...have been considered to find out the index of educational development in the tahsils [divisions] of the region. The eighty two tahsils...are grouped into four categories...on the basis of decennial growth rate in literacy during 1981-91 and the level of educational development...."

Diarrhoea among children in rural Somalia. Maternal perceptions, management and mortality

Diarrhoea was the second most common symptom of disease in a longitudinal study of 431 children under 5 years of age in rural Somalia. Most mothers perceived diarrhoea as a condition in which oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and feeding were logical parts of its management. During 1 year of observation, ORT was used in the household in one-third of the episodes of diarrhoea, mostly by non-farming, young and literate mothers. Infants were treated more often than older children, as were also children in smaller households. In a 3-year demographic surveillance in the same area (1219 person years), the under-5 mortality from diarrhoea in children of literature and illiterate mothers was 43 per 1000 (95% CI 0-84) and 93 per 1000 (95% CI 60-101), respectively. The findings suggest that the use of ORT is associated with a mother's ability to allocate time to health care and her general position in the household.

First do no harm

Many traditional societies, which have long survived in balance with the carrying capacity of their local environments, have recently experienced rapid rates of population growth that threaten their survival. In examining the reasons for these deleterious trends, the author notes that they have occurred despite international technological assistance, improved health care, increased literacy, democratization, and liberal immigration and refugee policies favoring developing countries. "She argues that well meant programs and policies work at cross purposes with their stated goals when they dispel motivation to exercise caution and restraint. Family size targets stay high or rise when people think that limits which formerly operated have been relieved; so a windfall of resources or emigration opportunity frequently results in a population explosion in the region supposedly being helped."

Factors associated with awareness and knowledge of cervical cancer in a community: implication for health education programmes in developing countries

An attempt has been made to study the correlates of knowledge of cervical cancer in a community. The survey undertaken is a part of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) study prior to initiation of cytological screening. Total women interviewed by KAP survey were 1411 selected through 2 stage stratified random sampling. Subjects for the present analysis consisted of a group of women who had reported previous gynaecological problems related to cervical cancer. The study brought out that younger women had better awareness and knowledge about cervical cancer and related information. Literacy status for education and exposure to family planning was influential in creating awareness about cervical cancer. Lastly, the earlier episodes of gynaecological problems, and treatment seeking behaviour lead to higher awareness (efforts may be made to innovate ways to reach older and illiterate women at risk of cervical cancer for better awareness in the community.

Factors responsible for childhood mortality variation in rural Ethiopia

This paper uses the 1981 National Rural Demographic Survey to document childhood mortality variations in rural areas of Ethiopia. Four significant findings are highlighted. (1) Health status of parents is identified as an important determinant of childhood mortality. (2) Religion, region of residence and ethnicity interact in their effects on childhood mortality and the effect of ethnicity varies in different regions for the same religion; in some areas ethnicity may serve as a proxy for economic and cultural differences. (3) Childhood mortality is inversely related to literacy status of parents, which may also reflect socioeconomic status. (4) The data show a clear difference in childhood mortality between the famine-prone areas and the rest.

Problems of AIDS in India especially in women

According to the World Health Organisation survey, 3 million women are already infected with HIV all over the World, but in India the problem of AIDS as a whole is not that acute especially in women. At least it is not that alarming. India, having a very high incidence of STD, it will not take much time for the spread of the HIV infection. No case of mother-to-infant transmission of HIV and resultant clinical disease in the neonate and children has as yet been reported in India. Infected babies, however, face a short life--nearly all die before reaching 2 years of age. Breast feeding is not a significant means of transmitting AIDS. The disease can spread only through sexual contact, use of infected syringe or transfusion of infected blood. Therefore, doctors, nurses and other paramedical staff in hospitals who may have to deal with AIDS patients need not fear the virus if they take adequate precautions. There is no known curative treatment for HIV infection causing AIDS, but improving literacy, avoiding sexual promiscuity and using condoms in heterosexual intercourse are positive steps in keeping HIV infection at a considerably low level.

Current oral contraceptive use instructions: an analysis of patient package inserts

Oral contraceptive use instructions contained in manufacturers' patient package inserts (PPIs) are often inconsistent or conflicting, both among manufacturers and among different brands and regimens from the same manufacturer. Instructions on what to do about missed pills are often incomplete or inadequate, as are instructions on backup contraceptive use when pills are missed. The format of many PPIs is confusing and makes instructions difficult to find and read. Comprehending the PPIs requires the user to read at a 10th-12th-grade level, far higher than the generally accepted 5th-6th grade level considered standard for health education materials.