Extracellular vesicles of Limosilactobacillus fermentum SLAM216 ameliorate skin symptoms of atopic dermatitis by regulating gut microbiome on serotonin metabolism

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a globally prevalent chronic inflammatory skin disorder. Its pathogenesis remains incompletely understood, resulting in considerable therapeutic challenges. Recent studies have highlighted the significance of the interaction between AD and gut microbiome. In this study, we investigated the effects of probiotic-derived extracellular vesicles on AD. Initially, we isolated and characterized extracellular vesicles from Limosilactobacillus fermentum SLAM 216 (LF216EV) and characterized their composition through multi-omics analysis. Gene ontology (GO) and pathway analysis classified LF216EV proteins into biological processes, molecular functions, and cellular components. Importantly, specific abundance in linoleic, oleic, palmitic, sebacic, and stearic acids indicating upregulated fatty acid metabolism were observed by metabolomic analysis. Furthermore, featured lipid profiling including AcylGlcADG and ceramide were observed in LF216EV. Importantly, in an atopic dermatitis-like cell model induced by TNFα/IFNγ, LF216EV significantly modulated the expression of immune regulatory genes (TSLP, TNFα, IL-6, IL-1β, and MDC), indicating its potential functionality in atopic dermatitis. LF216EV alleviated AD-like phenotypes, such as redness, scaling/dryness, and excoriation, induced by DNCB. Histopathological analysis revealed that LF216EV decreased epidermal thickness and mast cell infiltration in the dermis. Furthermore, LF216EV administration reduced mouse scratching and depression-related behaviors, with a faster onset than the classical treatment with dexamethasone. In the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis, we observed a significant increase in the expression levels of htrb2c, sert, and tph-1, genes associated with serotonin, in the skin and gut of the LF216EV-treated group, along with a significant increase in the total serum serotonin levels. Gut microbiome analysis of the LF216EV-treated group revealed an altered gut microbiota profile. Correlation analysis revealed that the genera Limosilactobacillus and Desulfovibrio were associated with differences in the intestinal metabolites, including serotonin. Our findings demonstrate that LF216EV mitigates AD-like symptoms by promoting serotonin synthesis through the modulation of gut microbiota and metabolome composition.

Human tendon stem/progenitor cell-derived extracellular vesicle production promoted by dynamic culture

Tendon injuries significantly impact quality of life, prompting the exploration of innovative solutions beyond conventional surgery. Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance tendon regeneration. In this study, human Tendon Stem/Progenitor Cells (TSPCs) were isolated from surgical biopsies and cultured in a Growth-Differentiation Factor-5-supplemented medium to promote tenogenic differentiation under static and dynamic conditions using a custom-made perfusion bioreactor. Once at 80% confluence, cells were transitioned to a serum-free medium for conditioned media collection. Ultracentrifugation revealed the presence of vesicles with a 106 particles/mL concentration and sub-200nm diameter size. Dynamic culture yielded a 3-fold increase in EV protein content compared to static culture, as confirmed by Western-blot analysis. Differences in surface marker expression were also shown by flow cytometric analysis. Data suggest that we efficiently developed a protocol for extracting EVs from human TSPCs, particularly under dynamic conditions. This approach enhances EV protein content, offering potential therapeutic benefits for tendon regeneration. However, further research is needed to fully understand the role of EVs in tendon regeneration.

Extracellular transfer of HuR promotes acquired cisplatin resistance in esophageal cancer cells

Cisplatin (DDP) resistance is a key factor hindering esophageal cancer (ESCA) treatment. Exosomes have been reported to confer resistance to DDP in various tumor cells. However, the effects of ESCA cell-derived exosomes and exosomal human antigen R (HuR) on DDP resistance in cancer cells have not been elucidated. In this study, isolated exosomes were identified by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blotting. CCK-8 and flow cytometry were employed to assess the functional role of exosomes in ESCA DDP-resistant cells and their parental cells. Bioinformatics analysis was performed to identify molecules that were positively associated with HuR and validated using dual-luciferase reporter analysis and RNA immunoprecipitation assays. We found that exosomes from ESCA cells enhance the resistance of drug-resistant cells to DDP. Importantly, HuR protein, but not mRNA, was directly transferred into DDP-resistant cells via exosomes, thereby increasing the level of HuR protein. Mechanistically, HuR positively correlated with Lamin B2 (LMNB2) in ESCA cells, and ESCA DDP-resistant cells transfected with siRNA targeting LMNB2 exhibited reduced cell viability and elevated apoptosis rates. Moreover, the role of ESCA cell-derived exosomes in the transmission of DDP resistance in vivo was validated using a nude mouse model. Collectively, our results revealed that exosomes exposed to ESCA cells induced greater drug resistance in DDP-resistant ESCA cells via HuR delivery. Targeting HuR or its positively related target LMNB2 may present new therapeutic opportunities for treating patients with DDP-resistant ESCA.

Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species in otorhinolaryngological diseases: insights from pathophysiology to targeted antioxidant therapies

Oxidative stress, characterized by an imbalance between excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and impaired antioxidant defenses, is closely linked to the pathogenesis of various otorhinolaryngological disorders. Mitochondria, as the primary site of cellular energy production, play a crucial role in modulating oxidative stress. Mitochondrial dysfunction exacerbates ROS generation, leading to cellular damage and inflammatory responses. In otorhinolaryngological diseases, oxidative stress is strongly associated with conditions such as hearing loss, allergic rhinitis, and chronic sinusitis, where oxidative damage and tissue inflammation are key pathological features. Recent studies have highlighted the potential of antioxidant therapies to mitigate oxidative stress and restore homeostasis, offering promising avenues for alleviating symptoms in these diseases. However, despite the encouraging results from early-stage research, the clinical efficacy of antioxidant interventions remains to be fully established. This review provides an overview of the role of oxidative stress in otorhinolaryngological diseases and evaluates the therapeutic potential of antioxidant strategies.

Exosomes originating from neural stem cells undergoing necroptosis participate in cellular communication by inducing TSC2 upregulation of recipient cells following spinal cord injury

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202511000-00030/figure1/v/2024-12-20T164640Z/r/image-tiff We previously demonstrated that inhibiting neural stem cells necroptosis enhances functional recovery after spinal cord injury. While exosomes are recognized as playing a pivotal role in neural stem cells exocrine function, their precise function in spinal cord injury remains unclear. To investigate the role of exosomes generated following neural stem cells necroptosis after spinal cord injury, we conducted single-cell RNA sequencing and validated that neural stem cells originate from ependymal cells and undergo necroptosis in response to spinal cord injury. Subsequently, we established an in vitro necroptosis model using neural stem cells isolated from embryonic mice aged 16-17 days and extracted exosomes. The results showed that necroptosis did not significantly impact the fundamental characteristics or number of exosomes. Transcriptome sequencing of exosomes in necroptosis group identified 108 differentially expressed messenger RNAs, 104 long non-coding RNAs, 720 circular RNAs, and 14 microRNAs compared with the control group. Construction of a competing endogenous RNA network identified the following hub genes: tuberous sclerosis 2 ( Tsc2 ), solute carrier family 16 member 3 ( Slc16a3 ), and forkhead box protein P1 ( Foxp1 ). Notably, a significant elevation in TSC2 expression was observed in spinal cord tissues following spinal cord injury. TSC2-positive cells were localized around SRY-box transcription factor 2-positive cells within the injury zone. Furthermore, in vitro analysis revealed increased TSC2 expression in exosomal receptor cells compared with other cells. Further assessment of cellular communication following spinal cord injury showed that Tsc2 was involved in ependymal cellular communication at 1 and 3 days post-injury through the epidermal growth factor and midkine signaling pathways. In addition, Slc16a3 participated in cellular communication in ependymal cells at 7 days post-injury via the vascular endothelial growth factor and macrophage migration inhibitory factor signaling pathways. Collectively, these findings confirm that exosomes derived from neural stem cells undergoing necroptosis play an important role in cellular communication after spinal cord injury and induce TSC2 upregulation in recipient cells.

Matrix-bound nanovesicles recapitulate tissue-specific angiogenic properties of parent extracellular matrix with distinct miRNA profiles

Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) exhibits tissue-specific pro- or anti-angiogenic effects. Previous studies have demonstrated that matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) act as key bioactive components of dECM, replicating various biological functions such as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. Building on this evidence, this study hypothesized that MBVs derived from cartilage and small intestinal submucosa (SIS) modulate angiogenesis through the selective packaging of miRNAs. Cartilage-derived MBVs (cMBVs) and SIS-derived MBVs (sMBVs) were isolated, characterized, and analyzed for their miRNA profiles using RNA sequencing and RT-qPCR validation. The interactions between MBVs and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were assessed by examining proliferation, adhesion, migration, and tube formation in comparison to the parent ECM. Angiogenic modulation was further evaluated using a mouse Matrigel plug assay and a rabbit corneal neovascularization (NV) model. Our results demonstrated that anti-angiogenic miRNAs (e.g., miR-140-3p, miR-455-5p, and miR-148a-5p) were predominant in cMBVs, suppressing endothelial cell activity and angiogenesis, while pro-angiogenic miRNAs (e.g., miR-143-3p, miR-181a, and miR-21-5p) were prevalent in sMBVs, enhancing vessel formation. In vivo, cMBVs significantly inhibited vascular invasion and neovessel formation, whereas sMBVs promoted angiogenesis in both models. These findings confirm that MBVs reflect the tissue-specific angiogenic regulatory functions of their parent ECM, and highlight their potential as therapeutic tools for targeted modulation of angiogenesis in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

Engineered extracellular vesicles with surface FGF21 and enclosed miR-223 for treating metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) is a progressive liver disorder with a complex pathogenesis that requires combination therapies rather than monotherapies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) exhibit inherently efficient delivery to the liver and can be engineered to carry various therapeutic substances, making them promising agents. In this study, EVs were engineered to display fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) on their surface and encapsulate miR-223 (223/F-EVs), aiming to improve steatosis and alleviate inflammation and fibrosis, respectively. Introducing the 223/F-EVs into human liver cell lines significantly reduced both basal and induced levels of lipid storage, inflammation, and fibrosis markers. Furthermore, using an FGF21-blocking antibody or miR-223 inhibitor effectively diminished the efficacy of the 223/F-EVs, confirming the essential roles of FGF21 and miR-223 in these processes. In a Choline-Deficient, l-Amino acid-defined, High-Fat Diet (CDAHFD)-fed mouse model, intravenously administered 223/F-EVs demonstrated liver-preferential delivery and a marked reduction in the MASH phenotype without compromising bone density, unlike conventional FGF21 treatment. Collectively, 223/F-EVs convey FGF21 and miR-223 exclusively to the liver, offering strategic advantages by mitigating MASH progression via multiple pathways. This study lays a solid foundation for further investigation of engineered EVs as a transformative therapeutic approach for treating MASH.

Pasteurization and lyophilization affect membrane proteins of pomegranate-derived nanovesicles reducing their functional properties and cellular uptake

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) are promising therapeutic agents, valued for their bioactive compound content and as drug delivery systems. However, the effects of industrial food processing techniques on PDNVs remain underexplored. This study evaluated the impact of lyophilization and pasteurization on the properties and uptake efficiency of pomegranate-derived nanovesicles (PgNVs). PgNVs were isolated from pomegranate juice using tangential flow filtration and size exclusion chromatography. Treated PgNVs were analyzed via transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and LC-MS/MS, assessing their functional properties and cellular uptake. High-purity PgNVs were obtained, although both treatments reduced their yield. Pre-treated PgNVs displayed diminished anti-inflammatory and wound-healing capacities, though antioxidant activity remained unaffected. Treated PgNVs also exhibited lower internalization by human macrophages compared to untreated PgNVs. Proteomic analyses revealed that the damage of membrane proteins, such as Tetraspanin-8, might be responsible for these effects. Our findings emphasize the need of optimizing processing to preserve PDNV therapeutic potential.

From bench to bedside: The evolution of extracellular vesicle diagnostics through microfluidic and paper-based technologies

"Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key mediators of intercellular communication and valuable biomarkers for various diseases. However, traditional EV isolation and detection methods often struggle with efficiency, scalability, and purity, limiting their clinical utility. Recent advances in microfluidic and paper-based technologies offer innovative solutions that enhance EV isolation and detection by reducing sample volume, accelerating processing times, and integrating multiple analytical steps into compact platforms. These technologies hold significant promise for advancing point-of-care diagnostics, enabling rapid disease detection, personalized treatment monitoring, and better patient outcomes. For example, early detection of cancer biomarkers through EVs can facilitate timely intervention, potentially improving survival rates, while rapid infectious disease diagnostics can support prompt treatment. Despite their potential, challenges such as standardization, scalability, and regulatory hurdles remain. This review discusses recent advancements in microfluidic and paper-based EV diagnostic technologies, their comparative advantages over traditional methods, and their transformative potential in clinical practice."

Oncogenic small extracellular vesicles enriched in sphingosine-1-phosphate play a crucial role in pancreatic cancer progression

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) from tumour cells mediate intercellular communication and signalling to regulate the progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). While we and others have shown that PDAC-derived sEVs comprise oncogenic protein and nucleic acid cargo, understanding the lipid landscape of these sEVs remains unknown. Lipids influence both the composition of sEVs and their roles in lipid metabolism and signalling pathways within the tumour microenvironment and tumorigenesis. We hypothesised that specific lipids in oncogenic sEVs might provide insights into PDAC. Comprehensive mass spectrometry-based lipidomic analysis was performed using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry on sEVs isolated from PDAC and non-malignant pancreatic cell lines, patient-derived xenograft cell lines and plasma from the PDAC transgenic mouse model KPC (KRASWT/G12D/ TP53WT/R172H/Pdx1-Cre+/+). The sEV lipidomic analyses identified over 700 lipid species from 25 lipid classes and subclasses. Our results showed that, compared to non-malignant cells, PDAC-derived sEVs were enriched in specific lysophospholipids, particularly sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a lipid known for its pivotal role in cancer pathogenesis. S1P enrichment was validated in plasma-derived sEVs from KPC mice compared to WT. To explore the functional implications of S1P enrichment, we conducted assays demonstrating that S1P in sEVs facilitated tubule formation in human microvascular endothelial cells and promoted cancer-associated fibroblast cell migration. We show that PDAC-derived sEVs are differentially enriched in specific lipids associated with cancer phenotype. Our findings highlight that PDAC-derived sEVs are enriched in specific lipids, particularly S1P, which plays a crucial role in promoting cancer progression.

Migrasomes: Critical players in intercellular nanovesicle communication

Migrasomes are vesicular structures that form on elongated tethers originating from the tips or junctions of cellular tails during migration. These organelles, named for their vesicle rich lumen and release during cell movement, have gained attention for their role in intercellular communication and signal transduction. Migrasome formation is closely associated with the dynamic and active movement of cells, as well as with the intrinsic properties of cells and the extracellular microenvironment under various pathophysiological conditions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of migrasome dynamics, examining the mechanisms and distinct features of nanoscale vesicle-mediated intercellular signaling. It also highlights the influence of microscopic secretory factors on migrasome generation and formation. By comparing migrasomes with other active extracellular vesicles, this review highlights the advantages of migrasomes and addresses future challenges.

Utilizing engineered extracellular vesicles as delivery vectors in the management of ischemic stroke: a special outlook on mitochondrial delivery

Ischemic stroke is a secondary cause of mortality worldwide, imposing considerable medical and economic burdens on society. Extracellular vesicles, serving as natural nano-carriers for drug delivery, exhibit excellent biocompatibility in vivo and have significant advantages in the management of ischemic stroke. However, the uncertain distribution and rapid clearance of extracellular vesicles impede their delivery efficiency. By utilizing membrane decoration or by encapsulating therapeutic cargo within extracellular vesicles, their delivery efficacy may be greatly improved. Furthermore, previous studies have indicated that microvesicles, a subset of large-sized extracellular vesicles, can transport mitochondria to neighboring cells, thereby aiding in the restoration of mitochondrial function post-ischemic stroke. Small extracellular vesicles have also demonstrated the capability to transfer mitochondrial components, such as proteins or deoxyribonucleic acid, or their sub-components, for extracellular vesicle-based ischemic stroke therapy. In this review, we undertake a comparative analysis of the isolation techniques employed for extracellular vesicles and present an overview of the current dominant extracellular vesicle modification methodologies. Given the complex facets of treating ischemic stroke, we also delineate various extracellular vesicle modification approaches which are suited to different facets of the treatment process. Moreover, given the burgeoning interest in mitochondrial delivery, we delved into the feasibility and existing research findings on the transportation of mitochondrial fractions or intact mitochondria through small extracellular vesicles and microvesicles to offer a fresh perspective on ischemic stroke therapy.

Exomeres and supermeres: Current advances and perspectives

Recent studies have revealed a great diversity and complexity in extracellular vesicles and particles (EVPs). The developments in techniques and the growing awareness of the particle heterogeneity have spurred active research on new particle subsets. Latest discoveries highlighted unique features and roles of non-vesicular extracellular nanoparticles (NVEPs) as promising biomarkers and targets for diseases. These nanoparticles are distinct from extracellular vesicles (EVs) in terms of their smaller particle sizes and lack of a bilayer membrane structure and they are enriched with diverse bioactive molecules particularly proteins and RNAs, which are widely reported to be delivered and packaged in exosomes. This review is focused on the two recently identified membraneless NVEPs, exomeres and supermeres, to provide an overview of their biogenesis and contents, particularly those bioactive substances linked to their bio-properties. This review also explains the concepts and characteristics of these nanoparticles, to compare them with other EVPs, especially EVs, as well as to discuss their isolation and identification methods, research interests, potential clinical applications and open questions.

Nebulized M2 macrophage-derived nanovesicles for the treatment of explosion-induced acute lung injury

Gas explosion-induced acute lung injury (ALI) presents a significant clinical challenge in industrial and military contexts, yet current therapeutic interventions remain suboptimal. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as promising nanoscale therapeutic agents, owing to their superior biocompatibility and inherent therapeutic potential. In this study, we engineered and isolated alternatively activated macrophages extracellular vesicles (M2-EVs) and administered them via nebulization to the injured lung tissue in an established murine model of blast-induced ALI. Administration of M2-EVs led to a significant amelioration of pulmonary function, characterized by decreased lung injury scores and attenuated inflammatory markers. Mechanistically, M2-EVs promoted the M1-to-M2 phenotypic transition of pulmonary macrophages, modulated the P62-Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway, and consequently mitigated excessive autophagy and oxidative stress. Collectively, these findings not only offer mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of blast-induced ALI but also highlight M2-EVs as a promising cell-free therapeutic approach for explosion-related pulmonary injuries.

Extracellular Vesicles: Hermes between cancers and lymph nodes

Cancer is one of the main causes of death and a major obstacle to increasing life expectancy in all countries of the world. Lymph node metastasis (LNM) of in cancer patients indicates poor prognosis and it is an important indication to determine the therapeutic regime. Therefore, more attention should be given to the molecular mechanics of tumor lymphangiogenesis and LNM. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale cargo-bearing membrane vesicles that can serve as key mediators for the intercellular communication. Like Hermes, the messenger of the Greek gods, EVs can be secreted by tumor cells to regulate the LNM process. Many evidence has proved the clinical correlation between EVs and LNM in various cancer types. EVs plays an active role in the process of metastasis by expressing its connotative molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites. However, the clear role of EVs in the process of cancer LNM has not been thoroughly studied yet. In this review, we will summarize the clinical and mechanical findings of EVs regulating role on cancer LNM, and discuss the advanced modification of the research proposal. We propose the "PUMP" principle of EVs in LNM, including Preparation, Unleash, Migration, and Planting.

Identification of a panel of lncRNAs derived from urinary extracellular vesicles as non-invasive diagnostic biomarkers for bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BLCA) is a common malignant tumor of the urinary system and is histopathologically divided into high-grade and low-grade BLCA. Accurate diagnosis of BLCA and high-grade BLCA are critical for clinical treatment and early intervention. High-throughput RNA-seq was performed to explore dysregulated long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in urinary extracellular vesicles (uEVs) from BLCA patients, and their expression levelswereexamined inalarge cohort of uEVs samples using qRT-PCR. Weexaminedthe expressionlevels and subcellular localization of the lncRNAs in BLCA tissues andcelllines. We analyzed the correlation between the expression levels of lncRNAs in uEVs and clinical parameters and assessed their clinical value as diagnostic biomarkers for BLCA and high-grade BLCA using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Through high-throughput RNA-seq, we identified several dysregulated lncRNAs (MALAT1, SCARNA10, LINC00963 and LINC01578) in uEVs from BLCA patients. The lncRNAs were significantly upregulated in uEVs of BLCA patients, however with varying expression levels in tissues and cell lines. The lncRNAsarepredominantlylocalizedinthe nucleus of BLCA cell lines. Elevated expression levels of the lncRNAs were associated with adverse factors, including higher tumor grade and larger tumor diameter. ROCcurve analysis showed thatthe combination of four lncRNAs in uEVs and the existing marker nuclear matrix protein 22 provided substantial diagnostic value for BLCA and high-grade BLCA, with area under curve values of 0.900 and 0.917, respectively. The lncRNA panel derived from uEVs may serve as a promising non-invasive biomarker for diagnosing BLCA and high-grade BLCA.

Recent advances in bioreceptor-based sensing for extracellular vesicle analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale, membrane-bound structures secreted by various cell types into biofluids. They show great potential as biomarkers for disease diagnostics, owing to their ability to carry molecular cargo that reflects their cellular origin. However, the inherent heterogeneity of EVs in terms of size, composition, and source presents significant challenges for reliable detection and analysis. Recent advances in bioreceptor-based biosensor technologies provide promising solutions by offering high sensitivity and specificity in EV detection and characterization. These technologies address the limitations of conventional methods, such as ultracentrifugation and bulk analysis. Biosensors utilizing antibodies, aptamers, peptides, lectins, and molecularly imprinted polymers enable precise detection of EV subpopulations by targeting specific EV surface markers, including proteins, lipids, and glycans. Additionally, these biosensors support multiplexed and real-time analysis while preserving the structural integrity of EVs. This review highlights the transformative potential of combining modern biosensing tools with bioreceptor technologies to advance EV research and diagnostics, paving the way for innovations in disease diagnostics and therapeutic monitoring.

Delivery of cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles modulates the morphology and gene expression of Barrett esophagus and duodenal organoids (Article)

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) facilitate intercellular communication, especially in the signaling mechanisms employed by tumor cells to influence both local and distant cells and tissues. This study investigated the impact of cancer cell-derived EVs (CEVs) on patient-derived organoids. Co-culture experiments examined the morphology, growth, proliferation, and cancer-related gene/miRNA expression in Barrett's esophagus (BE) and duodenal organoids. Our results indicate that CEVs promoted organoid proliferation, increased cancer-related mRNA/miRNA expression, and induced phenotypic changes. Artificial modulation of specific oncomiRNAs in CEVs-such as miR-21 and miR-210, influenced CEV-mediated effects on co-cultured organoid growth. These findings align with EV-mediated transformations in benign organoid models, providing a valuable tool to study EV-associated miRNAs/proteins in gastrointestinal preneoplastic/neoplastic conditions and potentially other organs. This lays a foundation for future research on cancer cell-microenvironment interactions and EV roles in tumorigenesis/metastasis.

Extracellular Vesicle Marker Changes Associated With Disease Activity in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Multiple sclerosis (MS), neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) are autoimmune disorders of the CNS causing severe neurologic impairment. Evidence suggests that extracellular vesicles (EVs) may play a disease-specific role in the orchestration of the immune cell response of MS, NMOSD, and MOGAD. In addition, EVs are considered as a potential source of biomarkers that may allow us to establish molecular signatures for these diseases and perhaps as well to follow treatment effects and disease progression. The aim of this study was to analyze the composition of EVs in patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) (n = 52), NMOSD (n = 19), and MOGAD (n = 10) and healthy controls ([HCs], n = 15).

METHODS

The concentrations of neurofilament light chain (NfL) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were determined in plasma using single-molecule array (SIMOA). The size and concentration of tetraspanin-presenting EVs were evaluated in plasma samples with a single-particle interferometric resonance imaging sensor (SP-IRIS). Tetraspanin-independent analyses were performed by nanoparticle-tracking analysis (NTA) after EV isolation by size exclusion (SmartSEC) and cryo-electron microscopy observations. EV epitopes were analyzed by extended multiplex analysis using flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The plasma concentration of NfL and GFAP was significantly higher in patients with RRMS than in HCs. For patients with NMOSD, only GFAP increased. The density of EVs assessed by NTA was lower in plasma of patients with RRMS than in HC plasma. In addition, the 3 disease groups presented increased mean EV sizes in comparison with HCs. Tetraspanin-based EV analyses by SP-IRIS allowed us to observe a modest difference in the level of CD81 in RRMS EVs. In patients with RRMS, but not in those with NMOSD and MOGAD, multiplex/flow cytometry analyses revealed changes in the EV levels of CD29, CD31, and CD69 associated with the time elapsed since the last relapse. The negative correlations established between the vesicular levels of CD31, CD40, CD44, CD49c, CD69, and NfL or GFAP z-scores suggest a negative relationship specifically in RRMS.

DISCUSSION

We speculate that the higher release of EVs containing CD29, CD31, CD40, CD44, CD49c, and CD69 in plasma, at low levels of circulating NfL/GFAP, may be associated with reduced immune cell activity in RRMS. These EV markers may characterize patients with RRMS in disease stabilization.

Gouqi-derived Nanovesicles (GqDNVs) promoted MC3T3-E1 cells proliferation and improve fracture healing

BACKGROUND

Lycium barbarum L., also known as Gouqi, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, is widely utilized in health care products and clinical therapies. Its muscle and bone strengthening efficacy has been recorded in medical classics for a long time. In addition, plant exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) have attracted more and more attention owing to their biological traits. Therefore, we intended to explore the functions, regulatory role, and underlying mechanism of Gouqi-derived Nanovesicles (GqDNVs) on fracture healing.

METHODS

In this study, we employed the sucrose density gradient differential ultracentrifugation to isolate GqDNVs. The effects of GqDNVs on the proliferation and differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells were evaluated using the CCK-8 assay, ALP activity measurement, and cell scratch assay. Additionally, leveraging a fracture mouse model, we utilized Micro-CT, immunological staining, and histologic analyses to comprehensively assess the impact of GqDNVs on fracture healing in mice.

RESULTS

GqDNVs stimulated cell viability, increased ALP activity, and promoted cellular osteogenic protein expression (OPN, ALP, and RUNX2). Subsequently, in the mouse fracture model, trabecular thickness, and bone marrow density were increased in the GqDNVs treatment group after 28 days of injection. Meanwhile, the expressions of OPN and BGP were significantly elevated after both 14 and 28 days. Additionally, the expressions of p-PI3K/PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, p-mTOR/mTOR, p-4EBP1/4EBP1 and p-p70S6K/ p70S6K were also increased after14 days of treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

GqDNVs effectively promoted the proliferation and differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells. Furthermore, GqDNVs could improve fracture healing, which is associated with PI3K/Akt/mTOR/p70S6K/4EBP1 signaling pathway.

Unveiling the roles of HIPK2 in atherosclerosis: Insights into the β-catenin/STAT1 signaling cascade and the involvement of SENP1

Atherosclerosis is a disorder of lipid metabolism, but its pathogenesis has not yet been fully elucidated. This study aimed to clarify the roles of homeodomain interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2) in atherosclerosis. Atherosclerotic model was constructed by feeding apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE-/-) mice with a high-fat diet. Human THP-1 macrophages and mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages were stimulated with IFN-γ to establish an in vitro model. We showed an upregulation of HIPK2 in the aorta of atherosclerotic mice. HIPK2 knockdown reduced macrophage infiltration, M1 polarization, and attenuates atherosclerosis development. Downregulation of HIPK2 in macrophages led to a significant suppression in the expression of pro-inflammatory factors, which was accompanied by an enhancement in the phosphorylation and degradation of β-catenin, as well as the activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) signaling pathway. Silencing of HIPK2 alone in THP-1 macrophages resulted in anti-inflammatory effects and suppression of M1 macrophage polarization. However, simultaneous silencing of HIPK2 and β-catenin (CTNNB1) reversed these effects, counteracting the outcomes observed with HIPK2 silencing alone. We validated that small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-specific peptidase 1 (SENP1) regulated HIPK2 function by affecting the SUMOylation of HIPK2 at the K32 site. SENP1 knockdown promoted HIPK2 SUMOylation, impairing its protein stability. In the rescue experiments, IFN-γ-induced inflammation and M1 polarization were resumed upon restoration of HIPK2 expression in SENP1-silenced macrophages. Our work demonstrated that HIPK2 accelerated the progression of atherosclerosis by regulating β-catenin/STAT1 signaling cascade to promote macrophage infiltration and M1 polarization. HIPK2 was regulated by SENP1-mediated de-SUMOylation.

Profiling the Ocular Landscape of sEVs miRNAs: Mechanisms and Applications

In this review, we comprehensively discuss the application of sEVs miRNAs in ophthalmic diseases by examining their basic characteristics and clinical application potential. Initially, we provide an overview of sEVs, including their definition, source, and functions, while particularly highlighting the importance of miRNAs contained in sEVs and its prospects in the treatment of ocular diseases. Subsequently, the structure and composition of sEVs as well as the biological functions of their encapsulated miRNAs, which expands the current knowledge about their roles in ophthalmic physiology and pathology. In addition, the functions of sEVs miRNAs in the growth of ocular tissues, ocular tissue homeostasis, and common eye diseases such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy, are discussed. The application potential of sEVs miRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers and drug delivery systems for ophthalmic conditions and therapeutic value in diverse eye diseases are explored. Finally, the current challenges affecting research in this field are outlined to provide a basis that guide future utilization of sEVs miRNAs in ophthalmic disease research and clinical management of diverse ophthalmological conditions.

Extracellular vesicles as the common denominator among the 7 Rs of radiobiology: From the cellular level to clinical practice

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bound particles released by tumor cells and widely explored in cancer development, progression, and treatment response, being considered as valuable components to be explored as biomarkers or cellular targets to modulate the effect of therapies. The mechanisms underlying the production and profile of EVs during radiotherapy (RT) require addressing radiobiological aspects to determine cellular responses to specific radiation doses and fractionation. In this review, we explore the role of EVs in the 7 Rs of radiobiology, known as the molecular basis of a biological tissue response to radiation, supporting EVs as a shared player in all the seven processes. We also highlight the relevance of EVs in the context of liquid biopsy and resistance to immunotherapy, aiming to establish the connection and utility of EVs as tools in contemporary and precision radiotherapy.

Extracellular vesicles and the lung: from disease pathogenesis to biomarkers and treatments

Nanosized extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by all cells to convey cell-to-cell communication. EVs, including exosomes and microvesicles, carry an array of bioactive molecules, such as proteins and RNAs, encapsulated by a membrane lipid bilayer. Epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and various immune cells in the lung contribute to the pool of EVs in the lung microenvironment and carry molecules reflecting their cellular origin. EVs can maintain lung health by regulating immune responses, inducing tissue repair, and maintaining lung homeostasis. They can be detected in lung tissues and biofluids such as bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and blood, offering information about disease processes, and can function as disease biomarkers. Here, we discuss the role of EVs in lung homeostasis and pulmonary diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, and lung injury. The mechanistic involvement of EVs in pathogenesis and their potential as disease biomarkers are discussed. Finally, the pulmonary field benefits from EVs as clinical therapeutics in severe pulmonary inflammatory disease, as EVs from mesenchymal stem cells attenuate severe respiratory inflammation in multiple clinical trials. Further, EVs can be engineered to carry therapeutic molecules for enhanced and broadened therapeutic opportunities, such as the anti-inflammatory molecule CD24. Finally, we discuss the emerging opportunity of using different types of EVs for treating severe respiratory conditions.

Hierarchical protein nano-crystalline hydrogel with extracellular vesicles for ectopic lymphoid structure formation

Among cancer therapies, immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has emerged as a prominent approach, substantially enhancing anti-tumor immune responses. However, the efficacy of ICB is often limited in the absence of a pre-existing immune response within the tumor microenvironment. Here, we introduce a novel hierarchical protein hydrogel platform designed to facilitate the formation of artificial tertiary lymphoid structures (aTLS), thereby improving ICB efficacy. Through the integration of self-assembling ferritin protein nanocages, rec1-resilin protein, and CP05 peptide, our hierarchical hydrogels provide a structurally supportive and functionally adaptive scaffold capable of on-demand self-repair in response to mild thermal treatments. The effective encapsulation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) via the CP05 peptide ensures the formation of aTLS with germinal center-like structures within the hierarchical hydrogel. We demonstrate that, combined with ICB therapy, EV-loaded hierarchical hydrogels also induce the TLS within the tumor, markedly promoting immune responses against ICB-resistant tumor. This bioactive hydrogel platform offers a versatile tool for enhancing a broad range of immunotherapies, with potential applications extending beyond TLS to other frameworks that support complex tissue architectures.

Barcodes based on nucleic acid sequences: Applications and challenges (Review)

Cells are the fundamental structural and functional units of living organisms and the study of these entities has remained a central focus throughout the history of biological sciences. Traditional cell research techniques, including fluorescent protein tagging and microscopy, have provided preliminary insights into the lineage history and clonal relationships between progenitor and descendant cells. However, these techniques exhibit inherent limitations in tracking the full developmental trajectory of cells and elucidating their heterogeneity, including sensitivity, stability and barcode drift. In developmental biology, nucleic acid barcode technology has introduced an innovative approach to cell lineage tracing. By assigning unique barcodes to individual cells, researchers can accurately identify and trace the origin and differentiation pathways of cells at various developmental stages, thereby illuminating the dynamic processes underlying tissue development and organogenesis. In cancer research, nucleic acid barcoding has played a pivotal role in analyzing the clonal architecture of tumor cells, exploring their heterogeneity and resistance mechanisms and enhancing our understanding of cancer evolution and inter‑clonal interactions. Furthermore, nucleic acid barcodes play a crucial role in stem cell research, enabling the tracking of stem cells from diverse origins and their derived progeny. This has offered novel perspectives on the mechanisms of stem cell self‑renewal and differentiation. The present review presented a comprehensive examination of the principles, applications and challenges associated with nucleic acid barcode technology.

Exploring breast cancer-related biochemical changes in circulating extracellular vesicles using Raman spectroscopy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a subgroup of the circulating particles, released by cells in both normal and diseased states, carrying active biomolecules. They have gained significant attention as potential cancer biomarkers, particularly in breast cancer (BC). Previous research showed variations in EVs content and quantity between BC patients and healthy controls (HC). However, studying the biochemical profile of EVs remains challenging due to their low abundance and complex composition. Additionally, EVs may interact with other plasma components, like lipoproteins (LPs), forming a so called "biomolecular corona" that further complicates their analysis. Here, Raman spectroscopy (RS) is proposed as a fast tool to obtain the biochemical profile of circulating EVs in the context of BC. RS was employed to differentiate various extracellular particles (EPs) in blood, including LPs and EVs. The study also evaluated RS's capability to quantify major classes of biomolecules and compared these results with those obtained by traditional biochemical assays. Finally, compositional differences in large EVs (lEVs) and small EVs (sEVs) were assessed between HC and BC patients. RS revealed the existence of distinct biochemical signatures associated with BC, highlighting increased levels of nucleic acids and lipids in the BC group.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells as carriers for Paclitaxel delivery

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSC)-derived Extracellular Vesicles (EV) represent innovative tools for drug delivery systems. However, their clinical use is limited by the lack of standardized good manufacturing practice (GMP)-compliant isolation and conservation protocols. In this study, we developed a GMP-compliant protocol for the preparation of MSC-EVs and investigated the feasibility of producing EVs loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) for clinical application as drug products.

METHODS

Adipose tissues from 13 donors were used to obtain MSC-EVs via culture supernatant ultracentrifugation. EVs loaded with PTX were manufactured by adding the drug to the culture medium of MSCs before supernatant collection. EV identity was verified in terms of concentration/size, protein content, morphology, and expression of EV surface markers. The anti-proliferative activity, accumulation ability in tumor cells and PTX content, as well as their stability over time, were also evaluated.

RESULTS

High numbers of EV/EV-PTX compliant in terms of integrity/identity were obtained and can be successfully stored for up to one year at -80 °C. Cellular studies have shown that EVs are capable of accumulating in tumor cells and, when loaded with PTX, inhibiting the proliferation of a pleural mesothelioma cell line.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the potential future clinical use of EVs as carriers for drug delivery to improve cancer treatment strategies.

Peripheral and central inflammation in depression: How large is the gap and can we bridge it with PET neuroimaging and neural-derived extracellular vesicles?

Major depressive disorder (MDD) presents as a multifaceted syndrome with complex pathophysiology and variable treatment responses, posing significant challenges in clinical management. Neuroinflammation is known to play pivotal mechanism in depression, linking immune responses with central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction. This review explores the interplay between peripheral and central inflammatory processes in MDD, emphasizing discrepancies in biomarker validity and specificity. While peripheral markers like cytokines have historically been investigated as proxies for neuroinflammation, their reliability remains contentious due to inconsistent findings, lack of correlation with neuroinflammatory markers, the influence of confounding variables, and the role of regulatory mechanism within the CNS. Additionally, the human brain shows a pattern of regionalized inflammation. Current methodologies for investigating neuroinflammation in humans in vivo, including neural-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) and positron emission tomography (PET) neuroimaging using translocator protein, offer promising avenues while facing substantial limitations. We propose that future research in MDD may benefit from combined microglia-derived EV-TSPO PET neuroimaging analyses to leverage the strengths and mitigate the limitations of both individual methods.

2024 Argentine Group for Extracellular Vesicles (GAVE) Workshop: promoting science in challenging times

The Argentine Group for Extracellular Vesicles (GAVE) was established in 2022 with the objective of bringing together researchers working in Argentina dedicated to extracellular vesicle (EV) studies. Following its successful inaugural meeting in 2023, the II GAVE Workshop was held on 12-13 September 2024, at the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina. This event brought together over 140 participants from diverse disciplines, fostering collaboration and strengthening the national EV research field. Moreover, international speakers and renowned experts in their fields shared valuable insights and experiences with the audience. Despite the challenges posed by the national government's funding cuts, the 2024 GAVE workshop showcased the Argentine scientists' strong commitment to high-quality research and the growth of local science in the field of EVs. Supported by international organizations and local companies, the II GAVE Workshop prioritized inclusivity and provided valuable networking opportunities, particularly for students and early-career researchers. This financial support was fundamental to broadening the impact of the event by promoting the assistance of underrepresented groups. This Meeting Review highlights the outcomes of our workshop and shows the advances of the Argentinian scientific community involved in EV research.

NLRP3, conveyed via extracellular vesicles from metabolic syndrome patients, is involved in atherosclerosis development

BACKGROUND

Inappropriate activation of the Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)-inflammasome contributes to atherosclerosis progression and plaque instability in patients with cardiovascular events. However, its role in the atherosclerosis is not fully understood. We sought to uncover actionable targets that could help to refine the diagnostic values of metabolic syndrome (MetS) patients by taking advantage of extracellular vesicles (EVs) to support the inflammatory hypothesis of atherosclerosis.

METHODS

Circulating large (lEVs) and small (sEVs) EVs from non-MetS subjects and MetS patients were isolated and characterized. The involvement of NLRP3 in the effects of EVs on human aortic endothelial and smooth muscle cells (SMC) and macrophages were analyzed. The pathological relevance in human atherosclerotic lesions was investigated.

RESULTS

Circulating levels of lEVs carrying NLRP3 correlated with metabolic risk factors associated with obesity and insulin resistance. Both types of EVs from MetS patients increased endothelial permeability, monocyte transmigration, SMC migration and secretion of pro-inflammatory molecules by monocyte/macrophages. Interestingly, MetS-lEVs, but not MetS-sEVs, increased SMC proliferation and IL-1ß production. EVs isolated from advanced human plaques demonstrated an accumulation of EVs carrying NLRP3 and their implication in endothelial permeability increase. Pharmacological inhibition of NLRP3-inflammasome carried by MetS-EVs prevented all the effects leading to vascular inflammation and remodeling.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrate that NLRP3-inflammasome, carried by EVs, is actively involved in vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis development in MetS. We highlight NLRP3 carried by EVs as potential biomarker and target for potential therapeutic strategies of atherosclerosis-related diseases leading to major adverse cardiovascular events.

Crossing the blood-brain barrier: nanoparticle-based strategies for neurodegenerative disease therapy

Neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease, represent a critical medical challenge due to their increasing prevalence, severe consequences, and absence of curative treatments. Beyond the need for a deeper understanding of the fundamental mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration, the development of effective treatments is hindered by the blood-brain barrier, which poses a major obstacle to delivering therapeutic agents to the central nervous system. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape of nanoparticle-based strategies to overcome the blood-brain barrier and enhance drug delivery for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. The nanocarriers reviewed in this work encompass a diverse array of nanoparticles, including polymeric nanoparticles (e.g. micelles and dendrimers), inorganic nanoparticles (e.g. superparamagentic iron oxide nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, selenium and cerium oxide nanoparticles), lipid nanoparticles (e.g. liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions), as well as quantum dots, protein nanoparticles, and hybrid nanocarriers. By examining recent advancements and highlighting future research directions, we aim to shed light on the promising role of nanomedicine in addressing the unmet therapeutic needs of these diseases.

Exosomes: a potential tool in the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of patients with colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC), a commonly diagnosed malignancy, is one of the most frequent causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. To effectively lower the death rate from this disease, it is essential to create public health methods, including developing new biomarkers that facilitate screening, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy response prediction. CRC-derived Exosomes are a type of extracellular vesicle that transport functional molecules like proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA, mRNA, miRNA, lncRNA, and noncoding RNA), and other metabolites, which act as molecular cargos to facilitate transportation. Exosomes generated and secreted from cancer cells are key biomarkers for early, noninvasive cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment response, with their biogenesis in CRC offering molecular insights. Their expression varies across time, tissues, and disease stages. Thus, the development of innovative and effective techniques for isolating and detecting exosomes holds great potential for tumor diagnosis, prognosis prediction, and developing techniques (MSC-derived exosome, DC-derived exosome, engineered exosome, etc.) and their contents to improve the specificity and efficacy of therapies for patients with CRC. This review explores the features and formation of CRC-derived exosomes, highlighting their diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic significance through a comprehensive analysis of exosome extraction, identification, purification, and documented biological roles in existing literature.

Therapeutic Potential and Translational Challenges for Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Despite the availability of numerous new immune-directed therapeutics, the major constituents of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)-ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD)-continue to afflict millions worldwide, resulting in significant morbidity and long-term health risks. IBD results from a triad of immune, environmental (eg, gut microbiome), and genetic (including epigenetic) mechanisms, and therefore has been subject to a wide variety of therapeutic strategies. Among these, the administration of probiotics, particularly Gram-positive lactic acid bacteria (LAB), targeting both immune and environmental factors, has shown promising potential for efficacy in selected populations in early clinical trials. However, knowledge gaps and inconsistent efficacy currently prevent recommendations for the use of probiotics in larger IBD patient populations. The inconsistent efficacy of probiotics is likely due to variable cell viability and potency after administration, further exacerbated by IBD patient heterogeneity. Thus, an alternative to live probiotics for IBD has emerged in the form of bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs)-cell-secreted nanovesicles containing abundant bioactive cargo that, like live probiotics, can regulate immune and environmental factors but with fewer viability limitations and safety concerns. In this review, we summarize the work done to date establishing the potential of BEVs to provide the therapeutic benefits in IBD and discuss the hurdles BEVs must overcome to achieve clinical translation. We also consider future directions for BEV therapeutics, especially treatment potential for necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), which shares similarities in pathophysiology with IBD.

A multi-platform assessment of extracellular vesicles from the plasma and urine of women with preeclampsia

INTRODUCTION

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), packaged within extracellular vesicles (EVs), have been used to interrogate the pathogenesis of preeclampsia and to identify its biomarkers. We have previously shown that miRNA species were differentially expressed in small plasma EVs from women with preeclampsia vs healthy controls. We sought to assess the use of rapid technologies for isolation of plasma and urine EVs from parturients with preeclampsia and determine differences in the expression of selected EV miRNA species.

METHODS

We collected blood and urine samples before delivery from parturients with severe preeclampsia vs healthy controls and used size exclusion chromatography (SEC) as an acceptable standard for rapid isolation of plasma EVs. We also isolated urine and plasma EVs using ExoDisc, a rapid nanofiltration technology for EV isolation. All samples were examined using a nanoparticle tracking analyzer, immunoblotting, and RT-qPCR for selected miRNA levels.

RESULTS

Whereas the concentration of EVs was higher in the urine from preeclampsia compared to controls, we observed the opposite change in plasma EVs, with no difference in EV size. Comparing the two patient groups for miRNA levels in EVs isolated by ExoDisc or SEC, we found that EV miR-93-5p was upregulated in the plasma and urine of parturients with preeclampsia vs healthy controls. Notably, miR-31-5p was upregulated in SEC- or ExoDisc-isolated plasma EVs, and miR-92-3p was upregulated in or ExoDisc-isolated plasma or urine EVs of parturients with preeclampsia.

DISCUSSION

Technologies for rapid analysis of plasma and urine EVs and their miRNA cargo provide complementary information that might be useful for deciphering pathways leading to preeclampsia and biomarkers for this disease.

The RNA content of extracellular vesicles from gene-edited PRPF31 +/- hiPSC-RPE show potential as biomarkers of retinal degeneration

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is the most common inherited retinal degeneration (IRD), causing vision loss via the dysfunction and death of photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Mutations in the PRPF31 gene are associated with autosomal dominant RP, impairing RPE function. While adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated gene therapy shows promise for treating IRDs, the slow progression of these diseases often makes timely measurement of clinical efficacy challenging. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid enclosed vesicles secreted by cells, and their RNA contents are being explored as circulating biomarkers for other diseases. We hypothesize that EV RNAs could serve as biomarkers of the health status of the neural retina and RPE. To test this, we used PRPF31 +/+ and PRPF31 +/- human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived RPE (hi-RPE) to investigate the RNAs contained in RPE-derived EVs and how they change in disease. We also compared the RNA contents of RPE-EVs with the RNAs of the hi-RPE cells themselves. We found that EVs from mutant PRPF31 hi-RPE cells have distinct RNA profiles compared to those from control cells, suggesting that EV RNA contents change during disease. Additionally, we identified 18 miRNAs and 865 poly(A) RNAs enriched in EVs from PRPF31 +/- hi-RPE, which could serve as biomarkers for RPE degeneration.

Transplants foster B cell alloimmunity by relaying extracellular vesicles to follicular dendritic cells

B cells play fundamental roles in transplant rejection. However, how allogeneic (allo)-antigens (Ags) are transported from allografts to follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) in lymphoid tissues for development of B cell responses remains unknown. We demonstrated that graft allo-Ags are relayed to FDCs via small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which activate complement via immunoglobulin M (IgM) bound to vesicle phospholipids. Complement-opsonized allo-sEVs bind splenic marginal-zone B cells that shuttle the vesicles to FDCs, which retain and recycle the allo-sEVs so they are recognized by B cells. Accordingly, graft release of allo-sEVs promoted allo-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) accumulation in FDCs, germinal center formation, Ig switch and affinity maturation, and donor-specific antibodies, which decreased in allografts with impaired sEV secretion or when allo-Ags were delivered via disrupted sEVs. Importantly, human spleen FDCs bound allo-sEVs opsonized with human serum bearing active complement. Our findings provide insight into the mechanisms that lead to antibody-mediated rejection, for which there are no FDA-approved therapies.

Tumor Small Extracellular Vesicle-Transmitted LncRNA CATED Promotes Platinum-Resistance in High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer

High-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) is the most lethal type of gynecological cancer, and platinum-resistance is a serious challenge in its treatment. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play critical regulatory roles in the occurrence and development of cancers. Here, using RNA sequencing of tumor small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) from HGSOC patients, the lncRNA CATED is identified as significantly upregulated in both tumors and tumor-derived sEVs in platinum-resistant HGSOC, and low CATED levels correlate with good prognosis. Functionally, CATED enhances cisplatin resistance by promoting cell proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. These effects could be transferred via CATED-overexpressing sEVs from donor cells and HGSOC tumor sEVs. Mechanistically, CATED binds to and upregulates DHX36 via PIAS1-mediated SUMOylation at the K105 site, and elevated DHX36 levels increase downstream RAP1A protein levels by enhancing RAP1A mRNA translation, consequently activating the MAPK pathway to promote platinum-resistance in HGSOC. Antisense oligonucleotide mediated knockdown of CATED reverse platinum-resistance in sEV-transmitted mouse models via the DHX36-RAP1A-MAPK pathway. This study newly identifies a sEV-transmitted lncRNA CATED in driving HGSOC platinum-resistance and elucidates the mechanism it regulates the interacting protein through SUMOylation. These findings also provide a novel strategy for improving chemotherapy in HGSOC by targeting CATED.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Mitochondrial Transfer Promotes Tip Cell Phenotype via Glutathione Metabolic Reprogramming in Stroke Mice

Angiogenesis is crucial to improving neurovascular remodeling poststroke. Therein, the transformation of endothelial cells (ECs) to tip cells is essential in initiating angiogenesis. Mitochondrial damage in ECs poststroke and associated metabolic disorder are key factors repressing angiogenesis, but the mechanisms are unknown. Here, we designed an Arg-Gly-Asp peptide (RGD)-modified, mitochondria-enriched, and extracellular vesicle mimetics (mitoEVMs) platform for mitochondrial transfer. RGD mediated the mesenchymal stem cell-derived mitochondria transfer to ECs around the lesion targetedly. We found MSC-derived mitochondria promoted tip cell transition and further stimulated angiogenesis after stroke, alleviated brain atrophy, and improved functional rehabilitation. We noticed mitochondrial transfer rescued mitochondrial function in ECs and reprogrammed glutathione metabolism to activate the mTORC1 pathway, upregulated the expression of p4E-BP1 and VEGFR2, and ultimately facilitated tip cell transition. Our work elucidates the mechanism of MSC-derived mitochondrial transfer in poststroke treatment and proposes a potential approach for rehabilitation after stroke.

An updated review on the inhibition of exosome biogenesis, release, and uptake: a potential anticancer approach

Extracellular vesicles, exosomes, have garnered significant attention in the field of cancer therapy, one of the world's deadliest diseases. Exosomes from cancer cells participate in the development of cancer. Inhibition of exosome biogenesis may be a promising way to combat cancer. Numerous drugs and agents have been assessed to inhibit exosome biogenesis, release, and uptake, which are the main factors contributing to cancer progression. Different drugs target several intracellular mechanisms to stop the exosome signalling pathway. They affect various intracellular pathways; for example, they can disrupt the endosomal sorting complex or interfere with the intracellular trafficking of exosomes Furthermore, some of them suppress or modulate genes and proteins involved in exosome generation and release. Exosome inhibition may also be associated with different side and non-targeting effects. Pre-clinical studies show promising outcomes; however, some challenges need to be addressed in future studies. This review describes the properties of exosome inhibitor agents, focusing on the specific pathways involved in exosome biogenesis, release, and uptake.

Cell-derived exosome therapy for diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a preclinical animal studies systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUNDS

Exosomes is a promising cell-free therapy for Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) that imposes long-term negative effects on patients' finances, mental health, and quality of life. We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the therapeutic effects of exosomes (such as SCs-derived, FCs-derived, BMSCs-derived, MSCs-derived, and Plasma-derived) on DPN.

METHODS

We searched nine databases from inception to February 2025, then two researchers independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed the quality of included studies using SYRCLE's tool. The outcome indicators consisted of at least one of the three key DPN endpoints (electrophysiology, behavioural assessment, and nerve structure) based on the Neurodiab guidelines. R 4.4.2 software was used to conduct all statistical analyses.

RESULTS

11 studies were identified, and the risk of bias in most studies was unclear generally. Pooled analyses demonstrated that exosome improved the nerve conduction velocity [MCV (SMD = 4.71 [2.18;7.25], P = 0.0003; I²= 91.8%), SCV (SMD = 1.07 [0.30;1.85], P = 0.0069; I²= 85.3%)], may restore IENFD [SMD = 1.46 [-0.85; 3.77], P = 0.2164; I²=88.7%], alleviated neuropathic pain [mechanical allodynia (SMD= -0.27 [-1.02;0.47], P = 0.4697; I2 = 85.0%), thermal hyperalgesia (SMD= -1.48 [-2.45;-0.50], P = 0.003; I2 = 88.4%)], ameliorated vascular function [blood flow perfusion in plantar (SMD = 2.84 [0.89; 4.80], P = 0.0043; I2 = 74.9%), blood flow perfusion in sciatic nerves (SMD = 2.62 [0.80; 4.43], P = 0.0047; I2 = 75.9%), vessel density (SMD = 2.69 [0.90; 4.49], P = 0.0032; I2 = 0%)], and restored the peripheral nerve structure [sciatic nerve fiber diameter (SMD = 3.29 [1.61; 4.96], P = 0.0066; I2 = 75.5%), axon diameter (SMD = 2.26 [1.64; 2.88], P < 0.0001; I2 = 54.3%), myelin sheath thickness (SMD = 2.56 [1.39; 3.72], P < 0.0001; I2 = 73.0%), g-ratio (SMD= -1.64 [-3.28; 0.00], P = 0.0502; I2 = 34.17)]. Furthermore, after exosome therapy, the expressions of NF-200 (SMD = 2.57 [0.39; 4.75], P = 0.0210; I2 = 33.0%), MBP (SMD = 2.27 [-1.49; 6.02], P = 0.1064; I2 = 59.0%), and S-100β (SMD = 1.90 [0.09; 3.72], P = 0.0399; I2 = 32.5%) evaluating axonal regeneration and remyelination increased significantly. Notably, high-glucose pretreatment of exosomes significantly attenuated these effects, while genetic overexpression modifications or novel dressings-mediated delivery partially counteracted this suppression.

CONCLUSIONS

Exosome therapy provides a novel therapeutic strategy for the benefit of neurovascular remodeling and functional recovery of DPN, especially when used in conjunction with exosome modification and novel dressings. To bridge the translational gap between preclinical and clinical studies, future research should conduct more large-scale, meticulously designed preclinical trials adhering to ARRIVE criteria before proceeding to clinical translation, to enhance translational rigor and mitigate risks associated with variability in study design.

The effects of Klotho delivering mesenchymal stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles on acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a life-threating syndrome characterized by sudden loss of kidney function, and its management is challenging and often suboptimal. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown promise in AKI therapy in pre-clinical and clinical trials; however, their clinical application still faces many challenges. MSC-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEV) may help overcome these challenges. In the current study, we overexpressed Klotho in MSCs and then isolated Klotho-loaded sEV (Klotho-sEV) using anion-exchange chromatography. Klotho-sEV displayed characteristics comparable to those of sEV in terms of size, morphology, conventional markers, and biosafety, as well as a higher abundance of Klotho protein. In rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI, sEV showed preferential tropism in injured kidneys. We found significantly and stably accelerated renal recovery, mitigated functional and histological abnormalities, stimulated tubular cell proliferation, reduced injury and inflammatory marker expression, and restored endogenous Klotho loss in mice after the administration of Klotho-sEV. In addition, Klotho-sEV treatment activated the mTOR and MEK1/2 signaling pathways. Proteomics and small RNA sequencing analyses of sEV and Klotho-sEV revealed abundant proteins and miRNAs involved in anti-inflammation and reno-protection, and Klotho-sEV showed characteristics that were different from those of sEV. In conclusion, Klotho-sEV may be a promising cell-free strategy for the treatment of AKI.

Exosomes in cancer nanomedicine: biotechnological advancements and innovations

​​Exosomes, as natural intercellular messengers, are gaining prominence as delivery vehicles in nanomedicine, offering a superior alternative to conventional synthetic nanoparticles for cancer therapeutics. Unlike lipid, polymer, or metallic nanoparticles, which often face challenges related to immunogenicity, targeting precision, and off-tumor toxicity, exosomes can effectively encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic agents while exhibiting low toxicity, favorable pharmacokinetics, and organotropic properties. This review examines recent advancements in exosome bioengineering over the past decade. Innovations such as microfluidics-based platforms, nanoporation, fusogenic hybrids, and genetic engineering have significantly improved loading efficiencies, production scalability, and pharmacokinetics of exosomes. These advancements facilitate tumor-specific cargo delivery, resulting in substantial improvements in retention and efficacy essential for clinical success. Moreover, enhanced biodistribution, targeting, and bioavailability-through strategies such as cell selection, surface modifications, membrane composition alterations, and biomaterial integration-suggests a promising future for exosomes as an ideal nanomedicine delivery platform. We also highlight the translational impact of these strategies through emerging clinical trials. Additionally, we outline a framework for clinical translation that focuses on: cargo selection, organotropic cell sourcing, precision loading methodologies, and route-specific delivery optimization. In summary, this review emphasizes the potential of exosomes to overcome the pharmacokinetic and safety challenges that have long impeded oncology drug development, thus enabling safer and more effective cancer treatments.

Glycolytic control proteins in urinary extracellular vesicles are elevated during kidney transplant T cell-mediated rejection

BACKGROUND

A priority in kidney transplant management is the ability to monitor allograft health accurately, frequently and less-invasively. Metabolic reprogramming from fatty acid oxidation to glycolysis has been associated with kidney injury. Given the histological localisation of T cell-mediated rejection (TCMR) to the tubulointerstitium, we hypothesised that expression of glycolytic control proteins contained in urinary extracellular vesicles (UEV) may increase during TCMR.

METHODS

In this prospective observational study, urine samples were collected from kidney transplant recipients prior to indication biopsy. UEV were separated by differential ultracentrifugation. Vesicle markers, glycolytic control proteins and CD3 were assayed by immunoblotting. Differences in protein detection were compared across biopsy diagnoses (TCMR versus not) and Banff lesion scores.

RESULTS

51 paired urine and biopsy samples from 43 subjects were included. The TCMR group comprised of 6 cases of TCMR and 1 borderline TCMR. The remaining 44 samples comprised a "No TCMR" group. There was significant increase in phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 4 (PFKFB4) (p = 0.018) in TCMR compared to No TCMR, and similarly when tubulitis (p = 0.037) and interstitial inflammation (p = 0.047) were present. Total inflammation score ≥ 1 was associated with increases in PFKFB2 (p = 0.027), PFKFB3 (p = 0.090) and PFKFB4 (p = 0.0098). Interstitial fibrosis was associated with increased PFKFB2 (p = 0.0045) and PFKFB3 (p = 0.045). CD3 + UEV did not correlate with TCMR diagnosis. When combining the four glycolytic control proteins governing the phosphofructokinase-1 step of glycolysis (PFK-L, PFKFB2, PFKFB3 and PFKFB4), presence of ≥ 3 markers discriminated TCMR with ROC AUC of 0.73 (95% CI 0.50-0.96).

CONCLUSION

Increased rate-limiting enzymes of glycolysis in UEV were detected in association with tubulointerstitial inflammation and fibrosis. This suggests altered energy metabolism in the form of increased renal glycolysis occurring in the tubular epithelium, consistent with findings in native kidney injury. Further work is required to evaluate whether this could serve as a non-invasive strategy to study pathology in kidney transplantation.

Extracellular vesicle heterogeneity through the lens of multiomics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous in size, biogenesis, content, and function. Aggressive cancer cells release a distinct, poorly characterized, and particularly large EV subtype, namely large oncosomes (LOs). This study employs an optimized method to improve LO yields and integrates mass spectrometry and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to profile their molecular cargo. A consistent set of proteins enriched in LOs is identified across glioma, prostate, and breast cancer cell lines. These proteins are also present as mRNA in LOs from the prostate cancer model and are abundant in plasma LOs from 20 patients with metastasis. Single-LO RNA-seq confirms bulk LO cargo, demonstrating the utility of single-cell technologies for large vesicle analysis. Our patient study provides proof-of-principle evidence that we can use multiomics to delve into EV heterogeneity, biogenesis, and composition. It also suggests that plasma LOs help stratify patients, supporting their potential prognostic value for developing a multi-analyte approach for liquid biopsy.

Dysregulation of the Bone Marrow Microenvironment in Pediatric Tumors: The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Acute Leukemias and Neuroblastoma

The role of extracellular vesicles has been extensively studied in physiological and pathological conditions, and growing evidence has pinpointed them as key players in tumor progression, regulation of the metastatic niche, and modulation of anti-tumor immune responses. Indeed, a dynamic transfer of extracellular vesicles between cancer cells and immunological or non-immunological cells homing in the tumor microenvironment exists, and the balance between their release by cancer cells and by normal cells determines cancer progression. Here, we focused on the role of extracellular vesicles in the dysregulation of the bone marrow environment in pediatric tumors such as acute leukemias and neuroblastomata, whose poor prognosis is strictly related to the involvement of such anatomical site. Acute leukemias arise from bone marrow progenitors, whereas approximately 50% of neuroblastoma patients have bone marrow metastases at diagnosis. Thus, here, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the bone marrow dysregulation in pediatric acute leukemias and neuroblastomata with particular emphasis on the involvement of extracellular vesicles.

Protocol for isolating extracellular vesicles from human or mouse airway macrophages for functional assays and in vivo or in vitro experimentation

Macrophages are key players in host defense and lung injury, and their crosstalk with other cells dictates the course of the inflammatory response and tissue remodeling. Here, we present a protocol for isolating extracellular vesicles (EVs) from human bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and for generating EVs from primary human or murine alveolar macrophages following stimulation by cigarette smoke extract. Furthermore, we describe how to measure matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-12 activity on macrophage-derived EVs using a Förster resonance energy transfer assay.

Minimum information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV) as toolbox for rigorous, reproducible and homogeneous studies on extracellular vesicles

Studies based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been multiplying exponentially for almost two decades, since they were first identified as vectors of cell-cell communication. However, several of these studies display a lack of rigor in EVs characterization and isolation, without discriminating between the different EV populations, thus generating conflicting and unreproducible results. There is therefore a strong need for standardization and guidelines to conduct studies that are rigorous, transparent, reproducible and comply with certain nomenclatures concerning the type of EVs used. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) published the Minimum Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) in 2014, updating it in 2018 and 2023 to reflect different study contexts and technical advancements. The primary objective of this review is to inform future authors about EVs, including their history, nomenclature, and technical recommendations for the for isolation and functionality analysis for conducing EV-based studies according to current standards. Additionally, it aims to inform reviewers about the key parameters required for characterizing EV preparations.

Nanoparticle-Based Pulmonary Immune Engineering

Respiratory conditions represent a significant global healthcare burden impacting hundreds of millions worldwide and necessitating new treatment paradigms. Pulmonary immune engineering using synthetic nanoparticle (NP) platforms can reprogram immune responses for therapeutically beneficial or protective responses directly within the lung tissue. However, effectively localizing these game-changing approaches to the lung remains a significant challenge due to the lung's natural defense. We highlight the target pulmonary immune cells and address advances to localize NPs to the lung via both aerosol and vascular delivery. For each administration route, we discuss physiochemical design rules and recent immune-modulatory successes of synthetic, extracellular vesicle, and cell-mediated NP delivery. We aim to provide readers with an updated summary of this emerging field and offer a roadmap for future research aimed at enhancing the efficacy of pulmonary immunotherapies.

A pH-responsive PEG coating strategy for enhancing the enrichment of small extracellular vesicles towards disease regions with acidic microenvironment

The clinical translation of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) as nanocarriers and therapeutic agents is severely hindered by their rapid clearance, leading to significant off-target effects. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) coating of sEVs provides a straightforward approach to address this challenge, yet it compromises their cellular internalization. To overcome this issue, we developed an acid-responsive PEG coating strategy for sEVs using 2,5-dihydroxy-4-methyl-2,5-dioxo-3-furanpropanoic acid (CDM)-modified methoxy PEG (mPEG-CDM). Western blot analysis and cellular uptake studies demonstrated that mPEG-CDM anchors to sEV membrane proteins through acid-labile cis-aconityl bonds, significantly reducing macrophage-mediated phagocytosis under physiological conditions, while restoring cellular internalization in endothelial cells (bEnd.3) and tumor cells (GL261) under weakly acidic conditions. In vivo imaging revealed that mPEG-CDM-modified sEVs, derived from glioma cells (GsEVs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (IsEVs), selectively accumulated in glioma tumor sites and ischemic brain regions in orthotopic glioma and stroke mouse models, respectively. Furthermore, in vivo studies demonstrated enhanced anti-tumor efficacy of GsEVs as drug carriers for glioma therapy and improved angiogenesis in ischemic stroke using IsEVs. Overall, this pH-responsive PEG coating strategy provides an effective approach for passive enrichment and offers valuable guidance for the design of surface-engineered sEVs in disease therapy.