What does the nature of the stimuli tell us about the Global Precedence Effect?

Effects of general anaesthesia in early childhood on local and global visual processing: a post hoc analysis of the APEX cohort study

BACKGROUND

Preclinical studies suggest that early exposure to anaesthesia alters the visual system in mice and non-human primates. We investigated whether exposure to general anaesthesia leads to visual attention processing changes in children, which could potentially impact essential life skills, including learning.

METHODS

This was a post hoc analysis of data from the APprentissages EXécutifs et cerveau chez les enfants d'âge scolaire (APEX) cohort study. A total of 24 healthy 9-10-yr-old children who were or were not exposed to general anaesthesia (for surgery) by a mean age of 3.8 (2.6) yr performed a visual attention task to evaluate ability to process either local details or general global visual information. Whether children were distracted by visual interference during global and local information processing was also assessed.

RESULTS

Participants included in the analyses (n=12 participants exposed to general anaesthesia and n=12 controls) successfully completed (>90% of correct answers) the trial tasks. Children from both groups were equally distracted by visual interference. However, children who had been exposed to general anaesthesia were more attracted to global visual information than were control children (P=0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest lasting effects of early-life exposure to general anaesthesia on visuospatial abilities. Further investigations of the mechanisms by which general anaesthesia could have delayed effects on how children perceive their visual environment are needed.

Neural correlates underlying local and global processing during visual search across adulthood

Visual processing relies on the identification of both local and global features of visual stimuli. While well investigated at the behavioral level, the underlying brain mechanisms are less clear, especially in the context of aging. Using fMRI, we aimed to investigate the neural correlates underlying local and global processing in early and late adulthood. We recruited 77 healthy adults aged 19-77 who completed a visual search task based on 2-level hierarchical stimuli made of squares and/or circles. Participants were instructed to detect a target (a square) at either a local (small) or global (large) level of a hierarchical geometrical form, in the presence or absence of other hierarchical geometrical forms (distractors). At the behavioral level, we revealed high accuracy for all participants, but older participants were slower to detect local targets, specifically in presence of distractors. At the brain level, while both local and global processing were associated with occipital activation, local processing also recruited the anterior insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, that are core regions of the salience network. However, while the presence of distractors in the local condition elicited specifically stronger activation within the right anterior insula for the young group, it was not observed for older participants. In addition, older participants showed less activation than younger participants in the occipital cortex, especially for the most complex conditions. Our findings suggest that the brain correlates underlying local and global processing change with aging, especially for complex visual patterns. These results are discussed in terms of top-down reduction effects from the salience network on primary visual areas, that may lead to specific difficulties to process local visual details in older adults.

Acute stress does not modulate selective attention in a composite letter task

Acute stress has been demonstrated to affect a diverse array of attentional processes, one of which is selective attention. Selective attention refers to the cognitive process of deliberately allocating attentional resources to a specific stimulus, while ignoring other, distracting stimuli. While catecholamines have been shown to narrow attention, investigations on the influence of the stress hormone cortisol have yielded ambiguous results. We conducted two separate studies utilizing different laboratory stress induction paradigms to examine if cortisol influences the ability to selectively attend to local or global elements of a visual stimulus. In Study 1, 72 healthy young men took part either in the stressful Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test (SECPT) or a non-stressful (warm water) control, before being exposed to a composite letter task (CLT). Study 2 comprised a sample of 72 healthy young men and women and made use of a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) as well as a non-stressful control version, the friendly-TSST (f-TSST). Via endocrine, physiological, and subjective markers, we confirmed a successful stress induction. As verified with Bayesian statistics, stress did not affect selective attention in neither of the two studies. Furthermore, we were able to replicate the previously demonstrated absence of global precedence for composite figures composed of letters. Our results offer novel insights into the temporal dynamics of the effects of acute stress on attentional processes. Future studies should manipulate the timing of stress induction and investigate the effects of stress on letter vs. non-letter composite figures to shed further light on the underlying mechanisms.

Global Processing Deficit in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment

Background

Visuo-perceptual and visuo-attentional disorders, such as global processing deficit and simultanagnosia, are not routinely investigated in prodromal forms of typical Alzheimer's disease, as amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

Objective

This study evaluated global processing abilities through Navon's classical paradigm in individuals with amnestic MCI and investigated the related visuo-perceptual and attentional components involved in simultanagnosia.

Methods

Sixteen consecutive patients with amnestic MCI (6 single-domain, 10 multiple-domain) and 16 matched controls were requested to identify global and local elements of hierarchical Navon letters, and to name large and small solid letters.

Results

While correctly identifying solid letters, patients with multiple-domain amnestic MCI were less accurate in processing the global level of hierarchical stimuli compared to controls. Single-case analyses suggested that global processing may also be impaired in single-domain amnestic MCI. In addition, patients with pathological performance in the Navon task showed perceptual and/or visual focal attention deficits.

Conclusions

Early dysfunction of holistic processing can be detected in amnestic MCI. Visuo-perceptual and/or visual focal attention mechanisms, which have been shown to be damaged in Posterior Cortical Atrophy patients with simultanagnosia, may be impaired in individuals with amnestic MCI. Investigation and identification of global processing deficits in MCI could contribute to early diagnosis and longitudinal monitoring of the disease.

Impaired Global Precedence Effect in Severe Alcohol Use Disorder and Korsakoff's Syndrome: A Pilot Exploration through a Global/Local Visual Paradigm

In healthy populations, visual abilities are characterized by a faster and more efficient processing of global features in a stimulus compared to local ones. This phenomenon is known as the global precedence effect (GPE), which is demonstrated by (1) a global advantage, resulting in faster response times for global features than local features and (2) interference from global distractors during the identification of local targets, but not vice versa. This GPE is essential for adapting visual processing in everyday life (e.g., extracting useful information from complex scenes). We investigated how the GPE is affected in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome (KS) compared to patients with severe alcohol use disorder (sAUD). Three groups (including healthy controls, patients with KS and patients with sAUD) completed a global/local visual task in which predefined targets appeared at the global or local level during either congruent or incongruent (i.e., interference) situations. The results showed that healthy controls (N = 41) presented a classical GPE, while patients with sAUD (N = 16) presented neither a global advantage nor global interference effects. Patients with KS (N = 7) presented no global advantage and an inversion of the interference effect, characterized by strong interference from local information during global processing. The absence of the GPE in sAUD and the interference from local information in KS have implications in daily-life situations, providing preliminary data for a better understanding of how these patients perceive their visual world.

Seeing the forest or the tree depends on personality: Evidence from process communication model during global/local visual search task

In everyday life, we are continuously confronted with multiple levels of visual information processes (e.g., global information, the forest, and local information, the tree) and we must select information that has to be processed. In the present study, we investigated the relation between personality and the ability to process global and local visual information. Global precedence phenomenon was assessed by a standard global/local visual search task used in many visuo-spatial precedent studies, and the 77 participants were also presented with the standard Process Communication Model (PCM) questionnaire. Results suggest that the ability to process global and local properties of visual stimuli varied according to the Base type of participants. Even if four among six Base types (Thinker, Persister, Harmonizer and Promoter) presented a classical global visual precedence, the two other Base types (Rebel and Imaginer) presented only an effect of distractors and an effect of global advantage, respectively. Taken together, these results evidenced that each human being does not equally perceive the "forest" (global information) and the "tree" (local information). Even if objectively presented with similar visual stimuli, individual responses differ according to the Base, an inter-individual variability that could be taken into account during daily life situations.

Link between fluid/crystallized intelligence and global/local visual abilities across adulthood

Human visual processing involves the extraction of both global and local information from a visual stimulus. Such processing may be related to cognitive abilities, which is likely going to change over time as we age. We aimed to investigate the impact of healthy aging on the association between visual global vs local processing and intelligence. In this context, we collected behavioral data during a visual search task in 103 adults (50 younger/53 older). We extracted three metrics reflecting global advantage (faster global than local processing), and visual interference in detecting either local or global features (based on interfering visual distractors). We found that older, but not younger, adults with higher levels of fluid and crystallized intelligence showed stronger signs of global advantage and interference effects during local processing, respectively. The present findings also provide promising clues regarding how participants consider and process their visual world in healthy aging.

Linking the neural basis of distributional statistical learning with transitional statistical learning: The paradox of attention

Statistical learning, the process of tracking distributional information and discovering embedded patterns, is traditionally regarded as a form of implicit learning. However, recent studies proposed that both implicit (attention-independent) and explicit (attention-dependent) learning systems are involved in statistical learning. To understand the role of attention in statistical learning, the current study investigates the cortical processing of distributional patterns in speech across local and global contexts. We then ask how these cortical responses relate to statistical learning behavior in a word segmentation task. We found Event-Related Potential (ERP) evidence of pre-attentive processing of both the local (mismatching negativity) and global distributional information (late discriminative negativity). However, as speech elements became less frequent and more surprising, some participants showed an involuntary attentional shift, reflected in a P3a response. Individuals who displayed attentive neural tracking of distributional information showed faster learning in a speech statistical learning task. These results suggest that an involuntary attentional shift might play a facilitatory, but not essential, role in statistical learning.

The forest, the trees, and the leaves across adulthood: Age-related changes on a visual search task containing three-level hierarchical stimuli

Selecting relevant visual information in complex scenes by processing either global information or local parts helps us act efficiently within our environment and achieve goals. A global advantage (faster global than local processing) and global interference (global processing interferes with local processing) comprise an evidentiary global precedence phenomenon in early adulthood. However, the impact of healthy aging on this phenomenon remains unclear. As such, we collected behavioral data during a visual search task, including three-levels hierarchical stimuli (i.e., global, intermediate, and local levels) with several hierarchical distractors, in 50 healthy adults (26 younger (mean age: 26 years) and 24 older (mean age: 62 years)). Results revealed that processing information presented at the global and intermediate levels was independent of age. Conversely, older adults were slower for local processing compared to the younger adults, suggesting lower efficiency to deal with visual distractors during detail-oriented visual search. Although healthy older adults continued exhibiting a global precedence phenomenon, they were disproportionately less efficient during local aspects of information processing, especially when multiple visual information was displayed. Our results could have important implications for many life situations by suggesting that visual information processing is impacted by healthy aging, even with similar visual stimuli objectively presented.

Global-local consistency benefits memory-guided tracking of a moving target

INTRODUCTION

Previous findings have demonstrated that several Gestalt principles do facilitate VSTM performance in change detection tasks. However, few studies have investigated the role of and time-course of global-local consistency in motion perception.

METHODS

Participants were required to track a moving target surrounded by three different backgrounds: blank, inconsistent, or consistent. Global-local objects were be bound to move together (covariation). During the PMT, participants had to follow the moving target with their eyes and react as fast as possible when the target had just vanished behind the obstruction or would arrive at a predetermined point of interception. Variable error (VE) and constant error (CE) of estimated time-to-contact (TTC) and gain of smooth pursuit eye movements were calculated in various conditions and analyzed qualitatively.

RESULTS

Experiment 1 established the basic finding that VSTM performance could benefit from global-local consistency. Experiment 2 extended this finding by eye-tracking device. Both in visible phase and in occluded phase, CEs were smaller for the target in a consistent background than for the target in an inconsistent background and for the target in a blank background, with both differences significant (ps < .05). However, the difference in VE among three conditions was not significant. At early stage (100-250 ms), later stage (2750-3000 ms), and termination stage (5750-6000 ms) of smooth pursuit, the velocity gains were higher in the trials with consistent backgrounds than in the trials with inconsistent backgrounds and blank backgrounds (ps < .001). With the exception of 100-250 ms phase, the means did not differ between the inconsistent background and the blank background trials (ps > .1).

CONCLUSIONS

Global-local consistency could be activated within the first few hundred milliseconds to prioritize the deployment of attention and eye movement to component target. Meanwhile, it also removes ambiguity from motion tracking and TTC estimation under some unpredictable conditions, leading to the consistency advantage during smooth-pursuit termination phase. Global-local consistency may act as an important information source to TTC estimation and oculomotor response in PMT.

Framing the area: An efficient approach for avoiding visual interference and optimising visual search in adolescents

Attentional resources are limited, and resistance to interference plays a critical role during cognitive tasks and learning. Previous studies have shown that participants find it difficult to avoid being distracted by global visual information when processing local details. In this study, we investigated an innovative approach for enhancing the processing of local visual details by middle-school adolescents. Two groups completed a classic global/local visual search task in which a predefined target could appear at the global or local level, either with or without a frame. The results from the no-frame display group provided a direct replication in adolescents of previous findings in adults, with increasing number of interferent stimuli presented in the display adversely affecting detection of local targets. In addition, by varying the numbers of distractors inside and outside the frame, we showed that distractors only interfered with the processing of local information inside the frame, while the deleterious impact of increases in distracting information was prevented when the distractors were outside the frame. These findings suggest that when a frame delimits an attentional area, the influence of an increasing number of distractors present outside the frame is eliminated. We assume that application of a frame allows for efficient delimitation of attention deployment to a restricted topographical visual area in adolescents. These results evidence that processing of local details can be improved without modifying the structure of the stimuli, and provide promising clues for optimising attentional resources during time-absorbing visual searches. Applicable implications in the educational field are discussed.

How to Lay Bricks: Local-Global Alignment Predicts Preference for Shifted Tile Patterns

We examine the aesthetic characteristics of row tile patterns defined by repeating strips of polygons. In experiment 1 participants rated the perceived beauty of equilateral triangle, square and rectangular tilings presented at vertical and horizontal orientations. The tiles were shifted by one-fourth increments of a complete row cycle. Shifts that preserved global symmetry were liked the most. Local symmetry by itself did not predict ratings but tilings with a greater number of emergent features did. In a second experiment we presented row tiles using all types of three- and four-sided geometric figures: acute, obtuse, isosceles and right triangles, kites, parallelograms, a rhombus, trapezoid, and trapezium. Once again, local polygon symmetry did not predict responding but measures of correspondence between local and global levels did. In particular, number of aligned polygon symmetry axes and number of aligned polygon sides were significantly and positively correlated with beauty ratings. Preference was greater for more integrated tilings, possibly because they encourage the formation of gestalts and exploration within and across levels of spatial scale.

A cross-cultural study showing deficits in gaze-language coordination during rapid automatized naming among individuals with ASD

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their first-degree relatives demonstrate automaticity deficits reflected in reduced eye-voice coordination during rapid automatized naming (RAN), suggesting that RAN deficits may be a genetically meaningful marker of ASD language-related impairments. This study investigated whether RAN deficits in ASD extend to a language typologically distinct from English. Participants included 23 Cantonese-speaking individuals with ASD and 39 controls from Hong Kong (HK), and age- and IQ-comparable groups of previously-studied English-speaking individuals with ASD (n = 45) and controls (n = 44) from the US. Participants completed RAN on an eye tracker. Analyses examined naming time, error rate, measures of eye movement reflecting language automaticity, including eye-voice span (EVS; location of eyes versus the named item) and refixations. The HK-ASD group exhibited longer naming times and more refixations than HK-Controls, in a pattern similar to that observed in the US-ASD group. Cultural effects revealed that both HK groups showed longer EVS and more fixations than US groups. Naming time and refixation differences may be ASD-specific impairments spanning cultures/languages, whereas EVS and fixation frequency may be more variably impacted. A potential underlying mechanism of visual "stickiness" may be contributing to this breakdown in language automaticity in ASD.

Responses to Navon tasks differ across development and between tasks with differing attentional demands

Navon hierarchical stimuli are designed to measure responses to the global level (grouped local elements, e.g. a forest) and the local level (individuated local elements, e.g. trees) of a visual scene. Cross-sectional evidence suggests that there are developmental changes in global and local processing. We examined global and local processing in 135 typically developing children in Year 1 (aged 5-6 year), Year 3 (aged 7-8 years), and Year 5 (aged 9-10 years). Participants completed a range of Navon tasks, each with different attentional demands. The design of the Navon stimuli remained constant across the tasks, ensuring that any task-related differences were not due to stimulus characteristics. Sixty children from Years 1 and 3 repeated the testing session two years later. Linear mixed model analyses combined longitudinal and cross-sectional data to assess developmental changes and the influence of attentional task demands on responses. The results revealed differing patterns of global and local processing responses according to Year group and attentional task demands. We found some evidence of developmental change in responses from a relatively more local advantage to a relatively more global advantage, which is consistent with the literature. However, the age at which this transition occurred varied across the tasks. We conclude that responses to hierarchical Navon stimuli are modulated by attentional task characteristics which mask any underlying global or local processing advantage.

Forest Before Trees: Letter Stimulus and Sex Modulate Global Precedence in Visual Perception

The global precedence effect (GPE), originally referring to processing hierarchical visual stimuli composed of letters, is characterised by both global advantage and global interference. We present herein a study of how this effect is modulated by the variables letter and sex. The Navon task, using the letters “H” and “S,” was administered to 78 males and 168 females (69 follicular women, 52 luteal women, and 47 hormonal contraceptive users). No interaction occurred between the letter and sex variables, but significant main effects arose from each of these. Reaction times (RTs) revealed that the letter “H” was identified more rapidly in the congruent condition both in the global and the local task, and the letter “S” in the incongruent condition for the local task. Also, although RTs showed a GPE in both males and females, males displayed shorter reaction times in both global and local tasks. Furthermore, luteal women showed higher d’ index (discrimination sensitivity) in the congruent condition for the local task than both follicular women and hormonal contraceptive users, as well as longer exploration time of the irrelevant level during the global task than males. We conclude that, according to the linear periodicity law, the GPE is enhanced for compound letters with straight vs. curved strokes, whereas it is stronger in males than in females. Relevantly, luteal phase of the menstrual cycle seems to tilt women to rely on finer grained information, thus exhibiting an analytical processing style in global/local visual processing.

The forest, the trees, and the leaves in preterm children: the impact of prematurity on a visual search task containing three-level hierarchical stimuli

Very preterm (VPT; < 33 gestational weeks) children are at risk of developing visuospatial deficits, including local/global attention deficits. They are also more likely to develop poorer inhibitory control. Here, we investigated, using the same stimuli, the potential local/global attention and inhibitory control deficits of VPT children using three levels compound stimuli (global, intermediate, and local levels), more ecological than the ones used in a classic global/local task (Navon task). We compared the results from 22 VPT children to those of a control group of 21 children to investigate (1) how VPT children processed compound stimuli with three-level information and (2) how inhibitory control in a visual task differs between VPT and control children. The results revealed that VPT children had no difficulty processing information presented at the local level. By contrast, VPT children were impaired when considering the intermediate and global levels of processing in comparison to control children. Finally, a reduced efficiency in VPT children in inhibiting visual distractors was evidenced for the conditions with a larger number of distractors. These results are discussed in terms of neurodevelopmental disorders of both dorsal stream (global visual processing) and prefrontal regions (inhibitory control) in VPT children. Given the central role of visuospatial and inhibitory control in day-to-day situations, the present results provide important clues for pedagogical implications regarding the organization of visual information presented to VPT children.

How the forest interacts with the trees: Multiscale shape integration explains global and local processing

Hierarchical stimuli have been widely used to study global and local processing. Two classic phenomena have been observed using these stimuli: the global advantage effect (we identify the global shape faster) and an interference effect (we identify shape slower when the global and local shapes are different). Because these phenomena have been observed during shape categorization tasks, it is unclear whether they reflect the categorical judgment or the underlying shape representation. Understanding the underlying shape representation is also critical because both global and local processing are modulated by stimulus properties. We performed two experiments to investigate these issues. In Experiment 1, we show that these phenomena can be observed in a same-different task, and that participants show systematic variation in response times across image pairs. We show that the response times to any pair of images can be accurately predicted using two factors: their dissimilarity and their distinctiveness relative to other images. In Experiment 2, we show that these phenomena can also be observed in a visual search task where participant did not have to make any categorical shape judgments. Here too, participants showed highly systematic variations in response time that could be explained as a linear sum of shape comparisons across global and local scales. Finally, the dissimilarity and distinctiveness factors estimated from the same-different task were systematically related to the search dissimilarities observed during visual search. In sum, our results show that global and local processing phenomena are properties of a systematic shape representation governed by simple rules.

The effects of emotional valence on insight problem solving in global-local processing: An ERP study

Recently, some studies have reported that the joint effects of different processing types and emotions can lead to different task outcomes, but it remains unclear how they affect insight problem solving. In this study, we used event-related potentials (ERP) to examine the joint effect and neural mechanism of processing type and emotional valence on insight problem solving. Behavioural results found that, compared to positive emotion, negative emotion promoted insight problem solving in the global processing condition. In contrast, in the local processing condition, positive emotion promoted insight problem solving compared to negative emotion. ERP results further found that local processing elicited larger N1 compared with global processing, indicating more focused visual processing. Importantly, negative emotion in global processing and positive emotion in local processing elicited more negative N450 amplitudes and N600-1200 amplitudes. The findings suggest that negative emotion in global processing and positive emotion in local processing facilitated insight problem solving by promoting the breaking of mental impasses and forming novel associations. The findings contribute to a new understanding of the relationship between emotional valence and insight problem solving.

Skilled readers show different serial-position effects for letter versus non-letter target detection in mixed-material strings

The study explored whether target detection in a five-character string depends on whether a letter or a non-letter was presented, as a predesignated target. Skilled readers had to identify a single letter or non-letter in a five-character string, randomly composed of letters and non-letters. It was found that an analytic processing strategy is automatically elicited if participants were instructed to detect a letter target. In this instance, a linear model best explained the RT variance for letters: with increasing RTs from left to right, suggesting a serial item-by-item reading-specific strategy comparable to alphabetic reading. For non-letters, in contrast, a symmetrical U-shaped function best explained the RT variance, suggesting a symmetrical scanning-out from the central to the terminal positions of the string. Since the design precludes orthographic and semantic influences, it can be concluded that a reading-specific strategy for alphabetic processing is automatically activated if the string is scanned for a letter-target. Thus, the pre-designated target triggers the strategy for processing the string and determines related position effects. The results suggest that effects from earlier studies, which showed an analytic processing preference for isolated letters (APPLE) in recognition tasks, as a consequence of literacy acquisition, generalize to the processing of letters in strings.

Lost in the forest? Global to local interference depends on children's reading skills

We studied the global precedence effect in primary school children with and without developmental dyslexia, using a compound figures task with familiar (Latin) or unfamiliar (Hebrew) letters. The two components of the global precedence effect were considered separately: global advantage (faster processing of global than local letters) and asymmetric interference (global distracters interfere with local targets but not vice versa). Both groups of children showed a global advantage with familiar as well as with unfamiliar letters. Children without developmental dyslexia showed asymmetric interference on familiar letters, but not on unfamiliar ones. Children with developmental dyslexia showed no asymmetric interference, neither for familiar letters nor for unfamiliar ones. The results distinguish between alternative hypothesis regarding the roles of familiarity and visual processing strategies in the compound figures task. Consequences for understanding literacy acquisition and developmental dyslexia are discussed.

Does task relevance shape the 'shift to global' in ambiguous motion perception?

Perception can differ even when the stimulus information is the same. Previous studies have demonstrated the importance of experience and relevance on visual perception. We examined the influence of perceptual relevance in an auxiliary task on subsequent perception of an ambiguous stimulus. Observers were presented with an ambiguous motion stimulus that could either be perceived as rotating dot pairs ("local") or pulsating geometrical figures ("global"). Prolonged perception of this stimulus is characterized by a "shift to global", but it remained unclear whether this process is due to relevance of the global percept or mere exposure to the stimulus. During a relevance learning phase over 5 successive days, participants were divided into conditions determining the relevant percept in an auxiliary task: local, global, or none (active exposure). In a pre- and posttest, individual points of subjective equality between local and global percepts were measured. Results indicate that there is indeed a shift to global. Interestingly, auxiliary task relevance does not seem to modify this process.

Warm-up cognitive activity enhances inhibitory function

Society is aging worldwide. To promote the health and quality of life in elderly people, we must find a way to enhance and improve cognitive function, especially inhibitory function that suppresses inappropriate behaviors. Previous studies have indicated that warm-up cognitive activities enhanced the activation of appropriate behavior. As with the activation of appropriate behavior, inhibitory function is expected to be enhanced by a warm-up activity, although this theory has not yet been directly tested. Here, we investigated whether inhibitory function in a task was enhanced by a warm-up activity. We used a Navon task as a warm-up activity, in which reading small letters (local Navon task) required inhibitory function more than reading a large letter (global Navon task). The Stroop task was used as the subsequent task. Our results showed that the accuracy of the Stroop task after the local Navon task was higher than after the global Navon task. This outcome suggests that inhibitory function in the Stroop task was enhanced by the local Navon task, which was an inhibitory warm-up cognitive activity. Moreover, this study contributes to the development of new techniques of cognitive training to prevent the decline in inhibitory function during aging or other clinical scenarios, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

An investigation of global-local processing bias in a large sample of typical individuals varying in autism traits

Although individuals with an autism spectrum disorder display impaired function across several social and behavioral domains, they possess intact, and often superior visual processing abilities for local relative to global aspects of their visual environment. To address whether differences in visual processing similarly vary within typical individuals as a function of their level of social competence, using the Navon hierarchical figures task, here we examined the relationship between global-local visual processing style and the number of autism-like traits in a large sample of 434 typically developed persons. In line with the existing literature, our data indicated an overall global processing bias. However, this overall visual processing style did not vary with participants' number of autism-like traits. These results suggest that the visual processing of Navon figures may be different in typical individuals vs. those with an autism spectrum disorder, with those differences potentially reflecting specific stimulus and task settings.

The global precedence effect in English and Korean native speakers with Roman, Korean Hangul and Thai compound letters

The aim was to investigate whether native English speakers (Experiment 1) and native Korean speakers (Experiment 2) processed familiar letters in an analytic manner in comparison to unfamiliar letters or symbols. Participants performed a two-alternative-forced-choice identification task with Roman, Korean Hangul and Thai Navon compound letters (large letters made up of small letters). The English speakers were familiar with Roman script but not Korean or Thai, whereas the Korean speakers were familiar with Korean and Roman script but not Thai. The global precedence effect (GPE), an indication of holistic processing, is characterised by a global advantage (global processing is faster than local processing) and asymmetric congruence (global processing interferes with the processing of local features). Based on previous research, it was predicted that there would be a global precedence effect for unfamiliar but not familiar letters. Results from the English speakers did not support this prediction as we found a GPE for familiar Roman as well as unfamiliar Thai letters but not for unfamiliar Korean letters. In contrast, for the Korean speakers, we found support for the prediction as we found a GPE for Thai letters but not for familiar Korean and Roman letters. Based on this evidence, we propose that the Koreans are processing Korean and Roman letters in a more analytic manner than the English native speakers for Roman script. Due to the characteristics of Korean Hangul, Korean readers may be processing letters in a more analytic manner than the English readers.

Children inhibit global information when the forest is dense and local information when the forest is sparse

Visual environments are composed of global shapes and local details that compete for attentional resources. In adults, the global level is processed more rapidly than the local level, and global information must be inhibited in order to process local information when the local information and global information are in conflict. Compared with adults, children present less of a bias toward global visual information and appear to be more sensitive to the density of local elements that constitute the global level. The current study aimed, for the first time, to investigate the key role of inhibition during global/local processing in children. By including two different conditions of global saliency during a negative priming procedure, the results showed that when the global level was salient (dense hierarchical figures), 7-year-old children and adults needed to inhibit the global level to process the local information. However, when the global level was less salient (sparse hierarchical figures), only children needed to inhibit the local level to process the global information. These results confirm a weaker global bias and the greater impact of saliency in children than in adults. Moreover, the results indicate that, regardless of age, inhibition of the most salient hierarchical level is systematically required to select the less salient but more relevant level. These findings have important implications for future research in this area.

Links between global and local shape perception, coloured backgrounds, colour discrimination, and non-verbal IQ

This study explored associations between local and global shape perception on coloured backgrounds, colour discrimination, and non-verbal IQ (NVIQ). Five background colours were chosen for the local and global shape tasks that were tailored for the cone-opponent pathways early in the visual system (cardinal colour directions: L-M, loosely, reddish-greenish; and S-(L + M), or tritan colours, loosely, blueish-yellowish; where L, M and S refer to the long, middle and short wavelength sensitive cones). Participants also completed the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test (FM100) to determine whether performance on the local and global shape tasks correlated with colour discrimination overall, or with performance on the L-M and tritan subsets of the FM100 test. Overall performance on the local and global shape tasks did correlate with scores on the FM100 tests, despite the colour of the background being irrelevant to the shape tasks. There were also significantly larger associations between scores for the L-M subset of the FM100 test, compared to the tritan subset, and accuracy on some of the shape tasks on the reddish, greenish and neutral backgrounds. Participants also completed the non-verbal components of the WAIS and the SPM+ version of Raven's progressive matrices, to determine whether performance on the FM100 test, and on the local and global shape tasks, correlated with NVIQ. FM100 scores correlated significantly with both WAIS and SPM+ scores. These results extend previous work that has indicated FM100 performance is not purely a measure of colour discrimination, but also involves aspects of each participant's NVIQ, such as the ability to attend to local and global aspects of the test, part-whole relationships, perceptual organisation and good visuomotor skills. Overall performance on the local and global shape tasks correlated only with the WAIS scores, not the SPM+. These results indicate that those aspects of NVIQ that engage spatial comprehension of local-global relationships and manual manipulation (WAIS), rather than more abstract reasoning (SPM+), are related to performance on the local and global shape tasks. Links are presented between various measures of NVIQ and performance on visual tasks, but they are currently seldom addressed in studies of either shape or colour perception. Further studies to explore these issues are recommended.

Navon's classical paradigm concerning local and global processing relates systematically to visual object classification performance

Forty years ago David Navon tried to tackle a central problem in psychology concerning the time course of perceptual processing: Do we first see the details (local level) followed by the overall outlay (global level) or is it rather the other way around? He did this by developing a now classical paradigm involving the presentation of compound stimuli; large letters composed of smaller letters. Despite the usefulness of this paradigm it remains uncertain whether effects found with compound stimuli relate directly to visual object recognition. It does so because compound stimuli are not actual objects but rather formations of elements and because the elements that form the global shape of compound stimuli are not features of the global shape but rather objects in their own right. To examine the relationship between performance on Navon’s paradigm and visual object processing we derived two indexes from Navon’s paradigm that reflect different aspects of the relationship between global and local processing. We find that individual differences on these indexes can explain a considerable amount of variance in two standard object classification paradigms; object decision and superordinate categorization, suggesting that Navon’s paradigm does relate to visual object processing.

Delayed processing of global shape information in developmental prosopagnosia

There is accumulating evidence suggesting that a central deficit in developmental prosopagnosia (DP), a disorder characterized by profound and lifelong difficulties with face recognition, concerns impaired holistic processing. Some of this evidence comes from studies using Navon’s paradigm where individuals with DP show a greater local or reduced global bias compared with controls. However, it has not been established what gives rise to this altered processing bias. Is it a reduced global precedence effect, changes in susceptibility to interference effects or both? By analyzing the performance of 10 individuals with DP in Navon’s paradigm we find evidence of a reduced global precedence effect: The DPs are slower than controls to process global but not local shape information. Importantly, and in contrast to previous studies, we demonstrate that the DPs perform normally in a comprehensive test of visual attention, showing normal: visual short-term memory capacity, speed of visual processing, efficiency of top-down selectivity, and allocation of attentional resources. Hence, we conclude that the reduced global precedence effect reflects a perceptual rather than an attentional deficit. We further show that this reduced global precedence effect correlates both with the DPs’ face recognition abilities, as well as their ability to recognize degraded (non-face) objects. We suggest that the DPs’ impaired performance in all three domains (Navon, face and object recognition) may be related to the same dysfunction; delayed derivation of global relative to local shape information.

Connections are not enough for membership: Letter/non-letter distinction persists through phonological association learning

In compound, hierarchical stimuli (also known as Navon figures), a Global Precedence Effect (GPE) can reliably be observed for both letters and non-letters. However, when presentation conditions sufficiently resemble those of reading, the GPE for letters has occasionally been found to disappear. We corroborate this effect in a study with a large group of participants. In addition, in-between two sessions, participants were trained in associating the non-letters with either phonological or non-phonological sounds. We reasoned that learning distinctive phonological associations might be akin to the acquisition of letter knowledge. This might eliminate the GPE also for the non-letters. However, the GPE persisted for the trained non-letters in both conditions. The large number of participants in this study revealed additional effects in the letter condition, which enabled further insights in the processing dissociation between letters and non-letter shapes.

Long-range correlations and patterns of recurrence in children and adults' attention to hierarchical displays

In order to make sense of a scene, a person must pay attention to several levels of nested order, ranging from the most differentiated details of the display to the integrated whole. In adults, research shows that the processes of integration and differentiation have the signature of self-organization. Does the same hold for children? The current study addresses this question with children between 6 and 9 years of age, using two tasks that require attention to hierarchical displays. A group of adults were tested as well, for control purposes. To get at the question of self-organization, reaction times were submitted to a detrended fluctuation analysis and a recurrence quantification analysis. H exponents show a long-range correlations (1/f noise), and recurrence measures (percent determinism, maximum line, entropy, and trend), show a deterministic structure of variability being characteristic of self-organizing systems. Findings are discussed in terms of organism-environment coupling that gives rise to fluid attention to hierarchical displays.

You can detect the trees as well as the forest when adding the leaves: evidence from visual search tasks containing three-level hierarchical stimuli

The present study investigated how multiple levels of hierarchical stimuli (i.e., global, intermediate and local) are processed during a visual search task. Healthy adults participated in a visual search task in which a target was either present or not at one of the three levels of hierarchical stimuli (global geometrical form made by intermediate forms themselves constituted by local forms). By varying the number of distractors, the results showed that targets presented at global and intermediate levels were detected efficiently (i.e., the detection times did not vary with the number of distractors) whereas local targets were processed less efficiently (i.e., the detection times increased with the number of distractors). Additional experiments confirmed that these results were not due to the size of the target elements or to the spatial proximity among the structural levels. Taken together, these results show that the most local level is always processed less efficiently, suggesting that it is disadvantaged during the competition for attentional resources compared to higher structural levels. The present study thus supports the view that the processing occurring in visual search acts dichotomously rather than continuously. Given that pure structuralist and pure space-based models of attention cannot account for the pattern of our findings, we discuss the implication for perception, attentional selection and executive control of target position on hierarchical stimuli.

The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition

The visual magnocellular-dorsal (M-D) deficit theory of developmental dyslexia (DD) is still highly debated. Many researchers have made great efforts to investigate the relationship between M-D dysfunction and reading disability. Given that visual analysis plays an important role in Chinese reading, the present study tried to examine how the M-D dysfunction affected Chinese character recognition in Chinese children with DD. Sixteen DD children with M-D deficit, fifteen DD children with normal M-D function and twenty-seven age-matched typically developing children participated in this study. A global/local decision task was adopted, in which we manipulated the spatial frequency of target characters to separate an M-D condition from an unfiltered condition. Results of reaction times and error rates showed that in the M-D condition both M-D normal dyslexics and controls exhibited a significant global precedence effect, with faster responses and lower error rates in global decision than in local decision. In contrast, this global advantage was absent for the M-D impaired dyslexics. Accordingly, we propose that the M-D impairment present in some but not all dyslexics might influence global recognition of Chinese characters in this subgroup of children with DD, which might be implicated in their difficulties in learning to read.

Do You Want to See the Tree? Ignore the Forest

The visual environment consists of global structures (e.g., a forest) made up of local parts (e.g., trees). When compound stimuli are presented (e.g., large global letters composed of arrangements of small local letters), the global unattended information slows responses to local targets. Using a negative priming paradigm, we investigated whether inhibition is required to process hierarchical stimuli when information at the local level is in conflict with the one at the global level. The results show that when local and global information is in conflict, global information must be inhibited to process local information, but that the reverse is not true. This finding has potential direct implications for brain models of visual recognition, by suggesting that when local information is conflicting with global information, inhibitory control reduces feedback activity from global information (e.g., inhibits the forest) which allows the visual system to process local information (e.g., to focus attention on a particular tree).

Same, same—but different: on the use of Navon derived measures of global/local processing in studies of face processing

Some studies have reported a significant correlation between face discrimination/recognition ability and indexes of global/local processing derived from the Navon paradigm. Other studies, however, have failed to find such a relationship. In this paper we examine three aspects related to the Navon paradigm that may have contributed to this discrepancy but which have been largely neglected: (i) the use of different types of compound stimuli across studies, (ii) differences between studies in the type of index derived from the Navon paradigm, and (iii) the reliability of these indexes. In a Navon experiment comparing performance with compound letters and compound shapes in normal participants, we find little consistency both within and across participants in how they perform with these stimulus types, despite the fact that both stimulus types give rise to the typical effects. In addition we find that many of the Navon derived indexes of global/local effects used in studies examining face processing have low reliability and do not measure the same aspects of global/local processing. Echoing the results from the normal participants, we also find little consistency in how a congenital prosopagnosic performs in the Navon paradigm. With compound letters, she responds much faster to local than to global aspects of the stimuli; a pattern not seen in a single of the normal participants. With compound shapes, however, she exhibits no such abnormality. These findings question the validity of the conclusions in studies relating Navon derived indexes of global/local processing to face processing.

Changes in cortical thickness in 6-year-old children open their mind to a global vision of the world

Even if objectively presented with similar visual stimuli, children younger than 6 years of age exhibit a strong attraction to local visual information (e.g., the trees), whereas children older than 6 years of age, similar to adults, exhibit a visual bias toward global information (e.g., the forest). Here, we studied the cortical thickness changes that underlie this bias shift from local to global visual information. Two groups, matched for age, gender, and handedness, were formed from a total of 30 children who were 6 years old, and both groups performed a traditional global/local visual task. The first group presented a local visual bias, and the other group presented a global visual bias. The results indicated that, compared with the local visual bias group, children with a global visual bias exhibited (1) decreased cortical thickness in the bilateral occipital regions and (2) increased cortical thickness in the left frontoparietal regions. These findings constitute the first structural study that supports the view that both synaptic pruning (i.e., decreased cortical thickness) and expansion mechanisms (i.e., increased cortical thickness) cooccur to allow healthy children to develop a global perception of the visual world.

Letters in the forest: global precedence effect disappears for letters but not for non-letters under reading-like conditions

Normally skilled reading involves special processing strategies for letters, which are habitually funneled into an abstract letter code. On the basis of previous studies we argue that this habit leads to the preferred usage of an analytic strategy for the processing of letters, while non-letters are preferably processed via a holistic strategy. The well-known global precedence effect (GPE) seems to contradict to this assumption, since, with compound, hierarchical figures, including letter items, faster responses are observed to the global than to the local level of the figure, as well as an asymmetric interference effect from global to local level. We argue that with letters these effects depend on presentation conditions; only when they elicit the processing strategies automatized for reading, an analytic strategy for letters in contrast to non-letters is to be expected. We compared the GPE for letters and non-letters in central viewing, with the global stimulus size close to the functional visual field in whole word reading (6.5° of visual angle) and local stimuli close to the critical size for fluent reading of individual letters (0.5° of visual angle). Under these conditions, the GPE remained robust for non-letters. For letters, however, it disappeared: letters showed no overall response time advantage for the global level and symmetric congruence effects (local-to-global as well as global-to-local interference). We interpret these results as according to the view that reading is based on resident analytic visual processing strategies for letters.

Auditory local bias and reduced global interference in autism

Processing local elements of hierarchical patterns at a superior level and independently from an intact global influence is a well-established characteristic of autistic visual perception. However, whether this confirmed finding has an equivalent in the auditory modality is still unknown. To fill this gap, 18 autistics and 18 typical participants completed a melodic decision task where global and local level information can be congruent or incongruent. While focusing either on the global (melody) or local level (group of notes) of hierarchical auditory stimuli, participants have to decide whether the focused level is rising or falling. Autistics showed intact global processing, a superior performance when processing local elements and a reduced global-to-local interference compared to typical participants. These results are the first to demonstrate that autistic processing of auditory hierarchical stimuli closely parallels processing of visual hierarchical stimuli. When analyzing complex auditory information, autistic participants present a local bias and a more autonomous local processing, but not to the detriment of global processing.

Working memory load can both improve and impair selective attention: evidence from the Navon paradigm

Selective attention to relevant targets has been shown to depend on the availability of working memory (WM). Under conditions of high WM load, processing of irrelevant distractors is enhanced. Here we showed that this detrimental effect of WM load on selective attention efficiency is reversed when the task requires global- rather than local-level processing. Participants were asked to attend to either the local or the global level of a hierarchical Navon stimulus while keeping either a low or a high load in WM. In line with previous findings, during attention to the local level, distractors at the global level produced more interference under high than under low WM load. By contrast, loading WM had the opposite effect of improving selective attention during attention to the global level. The findings demonstrate that the impact of WM load on selective attention is not invariant, but rather is dependent on the level of the to-be-attended information.

Global processing training to improve visuospatial memory deficits after right-brain stroke

Visuospatial stimuli are normally perceived from the global structure to local details. A right-brain stroke often disrupts this perceptual organization, resulting in piecemeal encoding and thus poor visuospatial memory. Using a randomized controlled design, the present study examined whether promoting the global-to-local encoding improves retrieval accuracy in right-brain-damaged stroke survivors with visuospatial memory deficits. Eleven participants received a single session of the Global Processing Training (global-to-local encoding) or the Rote Repetition Training (no encoding strategy) to learn the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure. The result demonstrated that the Global Processing Training significantly improved visuospatial memory deficits after a right-brain stroke. On the other hand, rote practice without a step-by-step guidance limited the degree of memory improvement. The treatment effect was observed both immediately after the training procedure and 24 h post-training. Overall, the present findings are consistent with the long-standing principle in cognitive rehabilitation that an effective treatment is based on specific training aimed at improving specific neurocognitive deficits. Importantly, visuospatial memory deficits after a right-brain stroke may improve with treatments that promote global processing at encoding.

Visual perception: larger is faster

A recent study has shown that neurons in the inferior temporal cortex of the macaque monkey brain show earlier selectivity to global and large shapes than to local and small ones, which may underlie the faster behavioral responses to global aspects of a scene.

Representing the forest before the trees: a global advantage effect in monkey inferotemporal cortex

Hierarchical stimuli (large shapes composed of small shapes) have long been used to study how humans perceive the global and the local content of a scene--the forest and the trees. Studies using these stimuli have revealed a global advantage effect: humans consistently report global shape faster than local shape. The neuronal underpinnings of this effect remain unclear. Here we demonstrate a correlate and possible mechanism in monkey inferotemporal cortex (IT). Inferotemporal neurons signal the global content of a hierarchical display approximately 30 ms before they signal its local content. This is a specific expression of a general principle, related to spatial scale or spatial frequency rather than to hierarchical level, whereby the representation of a large shape develops in IT before that of a small shape. These findings provide support for a coarse-to-fine model of visual scene representation.