Mitochondrial translation is required for sustained killing by cytotoxic T cells

Unraveling the roles and mechanisms of mitochondrial translation in normal and malignant hematopoiesis

Due to spatial and genomic independence, mitochondria possess a translational mechanism distinct from that of cytoplasmic translation. Several regulators participate in the modulation of mitochondrial translation. Mitochondrial translation is coordinated with cytoplasmic translation through stress responses. Importantly, the inhibition of mitochondrial translation leads to the inhibition of cytoplasmic translation and metabolic disruption. Therefore, defects in mitochondrial translation are closely related to the functions of hematopoietic cells and various immune cells. Finally, the inhibition of mitochondrial translation is a potential therapeutic target for treating multiple hematologic malignancies. Collectively, more in-depth insights into mitochondrial translation not only facilitate our understanding of its functions in hematopoiesis, but also provide a basis for the discovery of new treatments for hematological malignancies and the modulation of immune cell function.

Mitochondria in tumor immune surveillance and tumor therapies targeting mitochondria

Mitochondria play a central role in cellular energy production and metabolic regulation, and their function has been identified as a key factor influencing tumor immune responses. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in understanding the role of mitochondria in tumor immune surveillance, covering both innate and adaptive immune responses. Specifically, it outlines how mitochondria influence the function of the tumor immune system, underscoring their crucial role in modulating immune cell behavior to either promote or inhibit tumor development and progression. Additionally, this review highlights emerging drug interventions targeting mitochondria, including novel small molecules with significant potential in cancer therapy. Through an in-depth analysis, it explores how these innovative strategies could improve the efficacy and outlook of tumor treatment.

Inherent metabolic preferences differentially regulate the sensitivity of Th1 and Th2 cells to ribosome-inhibiting antibiotics

Mitochondrial translation is essential to maintain mitochondrial function and energy production. Mutations in genes associated with mitochondrial translation cause several developmental disorders, and immune dysfunction is observed in many such patients. Besides genetic mutations, several antibiotics targeting bacterial ribosomes are well-established to inhibit mitochondrial translation. However, the effect of such antibiotics on different immune cells is not fully understood. Here, we addressed the differential effect of mitochondrial translation inhibition on different subsets of helper T cells (Th) of mice and humans. Inhibition of mitochondrial translation reduced the levels of mitochondrially encoded electron transport chain subunits without affecting their nuclear-encoded counterparts. As a result, mitochondrial oxygen consumption reduced dramatically, but mitochondrial mass was unaffected. Most importantly, we show that inhibition of mitochondrial translation induced apoptosis, specifically in Th2 cells. This increase in apoptosis was associated with higher expression of Bim and Puma, two activators of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. We propose that this difference in the sensitivity of Th1 and Th2 cells to mitochondrial translation inhibition reflects the intrinsic metabolic demands of these subtypes. Though Th1 and Th2 cells exhibit similar levels of oxidative phosphorylation, Th1 cells exhibit higher levels of aerobic glycolysis than Th2 cells. Moreover, Th1 cells are more sensitive to the inhibition of glycolysis, while higher concentrations of glycolysis inhibitor 2-deoxyglucose are required to induce cell death in the Th2 lineage. These observations reveal that selection of metabolic pathways for substrate utilization during differentiation of Th1 and Th2 lineages is a fundamental process conserved across species.

Mitochondrial control of lymphocyte homeostasis

Mitochondria play a multitude of essential roles within mammalian cells, and understanding how they control immunity is an emerging area of study. Lymphocytes, as integral cellular components of the adaptive immune system, rely on mitochondria for their function, and mitochondria can dynamically instruct their differentiation and activation by undergoing rapid and profound remodelling. Energy homeostasis and ATP production are often considered the primary functions of mitochondria in immune cells; however, their importance extends across a spectrum of other molecular processes, including regulation of redox balance, signalling pathways, and biosynthesis. In this review, we explore the dynamic landscape of mitochondrial homeostasis in T and B cells, and discuss how mitochondrial disorders compromise adaptive immunity.

Cytosolic protein translation regulates cell asymmetry and function in early TCR activation of human CD8+ T lymphocytes

Introduction

CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are highly effective in defending against viral infections and tumours. They are activated through the recognition of peptide-MHC-I complex by the T-cell receptor (TCR) and co-stimulation. This cognate interaction promotes the organisation of intimate cell-cell connections that involve cytoskeleton rearrangement to enable effector function and clearance of the target cell. This is key for the asymmetric transport and mobilisation of lytic granules to the cell-cell contact, promoting directed secretion of lytic mediators such as granzymes and perforin. Mitochondria play a role in regulating CTL function by controlling processes such as calcium flux, providing the necessary energy through oxidative phosphorylation, and its own protein translation on 70S ribosomes. However, the effect of acute inhibition of cytosolic translation in the rapid response after TCR has not been studied in mature CTLs.

Methods

Here, we investigated the importance of cytosolic protein synthesis in human CTLs after early TCR activation and CD28 co-stimulation for the dynamic reorganisation of the cytoskeleton, mitochondria, and lytic granules through short-term chemical inhibition of 80S ribosomes by cycloheximide and 80S and 70S by puromycin.

Results

We observed that eukaryotic ribosome function is required to allow proper asymmetric reorganisation of the tubulin cytoskeleton and mitochondria and mTOR pathway activation early upon TCR activation in human primary CTLs.

Discussion

Cytosolic protein translation is required to increase glucose metabolism and degranulation capacity upon TCR activation and thus to regulate the full effector function of human CTLs.

Targeted degradation of extracellular mitochondrial aspartyl-tRNA synthetase modulates immune responses

The severity of bacterial pneumonia can be worsened by impaired innate immunity resulting in ineffective pathogen clearance. We describe a mitochondrial protein, aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (DARS2), which is released in circulation during bacterial pneumonia in humans and displays intrinsic innate immune properties and cellular repair properties. DARS2 interacts with a bacterial-induced ubiquitin E3 ligase subunit, FBXO24, which targets the synthetase for ubiquitylation and degradation, a process that is inhibited by DARS2 acetylation. During experimental pneumonia, Fbxo24 knockout mice exhibit elevated DARS2 levels with an increase in pulmonary cellular and cytokine levels. In silico modeling identified an FBXO24 inhibitory compound with immunostimulatory properties which extended DARS2 lifespan in cells. Here, we show a unique biological role for an extracellular, mitochondrially derived enzyme and its molecular control by the ubiquitin apparatus, which may serve as a mechanistic platform to enhance protective host immunity through small molecule discovery.

YTHDF2 favors protumoral macrophage polarization and implies poor survival outcomes in triple negative breast cancer

Patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) frequently experience resistance to chemotherapy, leading to recurrence. The approach of optimizing anti-tumoral immunological effect is promising in overcoming such resistance, given the heterogeneity and lack of biomarkers in TNBC. In this study, we focused on YTHDF2, an N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA-reader protein, in macrophages, one of the most abundant intra-tumoral immune cells. Using single-cell sequencing and ex vivo experiments, we discovered that YTHDF2 significantly promotes pro-tumoral phenotype polarization of macrophages and is closely associated with down-regulated antigen-presentation signaling to other immune cells in TNBC. The in vitro deprivation of YTHDF2 favors anti-tumoral effect. Expressions of multiple transcription factors, especially SPI1, were consistently observed in YTHDF2-high macrophages, providing potential therapeutic targets for new strategies. In conclusion, YTHDF2 in macrophages appears to promote pro-tumoral effects while suppressing immune activity, indicating the treatment targeting YTHDF2 or its transcription factors could be a promising strategy for chemoresistant TNBC.

Optimizing Spectronaut Search Parameters to Improve Data Quality with Minimal Proteome Coverage Reductions in DIA Analyses of Heterogeneous Samples

Data-independent acquisition has seen breakthroughs that enable comprehensive proteome profiling using short gradients. As the proteome coverage continues to increase, the quality of the data generated becomes much more relevant. Using Spectronaut, we show that the default search parameters can be easily optimized to minimize the occurrence of false positives across different samples. Using an immunological infection model system to demonstrate the impact of adjusting search settings, we analyzed Mus musculus macrophages and compared their proteome to macrophages spiked withCandida albicans. This experimental system enabled the identification of "false positives" as Candida albicans peptides and proteins should not be present in the Mus musculus-only samples. We show that adjusting the search parameters reduced "false positive" identifications by 89% at the peptide and protein level, thereby considerably increasing the quality of the data. We also show that these optimized parameters incurred a moderate cost, only reducing the overall number of "true positive" identifications across each biological replicate by <6.7% at both the peptide and protein level. We believe the value of our updated search parameters extends beyond a two-organism analysis and would be of great value to any DIA experiment analyzing heterogeneous populations of cell types or tissues.

Remodeling of T-cell mitochondrial metabolism to treat autoimmune diseases

T cells are key drivers of the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases by producing cytokines, stimulating the generation of autoantibodies, and mediating tissue and cell damage. Distinct mitochondrial metabolic pathways govern the direction of T-cell differentiation and function and rely on specific nutrients and metabolic enzymes. Metabolic substrate uptake and mitochondrial metabolism form the foundational elements for T-cell activation, proliferation, differentiation, and effector function, contributing to the dynamic interplay between immunological signals and mitochondrial metabolism in coordinating adaptive immunity. Perturbations in substrate availability and enzyme activity may impair T-cell immunosuppressive function, fostering autoreactive responses and disrupting immune homeostasis, ultimately contributing to autoimmune disease pathogenesis. A growing body of studies has explored how metabolic processes regulate the function of diverse T-cell subsets in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), multiple sclerosis (MS), autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and psoriasis. This review describes the coordination of T-cell biology by mitochondrial metabolism, including the electron transport chain (ETC), oxidative phosphorylation, amino acid metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and one‑carbon metabolism. This study elucidated the intricate crosstalk between mitochondrial metabolic programs, signal transduction pathways, and transcription factors. This review summarizes potential therapeutic targets for T-cell mitochondrial metabolism and signaling in autoimmune diseases, providing insights for future studies.

Ileitis promotes MASLD progression via bile acid modulation and enhanced TGR5 signaling in ileal CD8+ T cells

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Clinical evidence substantiates a link between inflammatory bowel disease, particularly Crohn's disease (CD), and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). This study aims to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for this association.

METHODS

MASLD was induced by administering high-fat and western diets, while inflammatory bowel disease was induced using DSS (dextran sulfate sodium) and the Il10 knockout (KO) mouse model. The investigation into the role of secondary bile acids (SBAs) in ileitis involved employing metagenomic sequencing, conducting metabolomics detection, performing fecal microbiota transplantation, and constructing CD8+ T cell-specific gene knockout mice.

RESULTS

In MASLD+DSS and Il10 KO MASLD mice, we observed ileitis characterized by T-cell infiltration and activation in the terminal ileum. This condition resulted in decreased bile acid levels in the portal vein and liver, inhibited hepatic farnesoid X receptor (FXR) activation, and exacerbated MASLD. Metagenomic and metabolomic analysis of ileal contents revealed increased Clostridium proliferation and elevated SBA levels in MASLD-associated ileitis. Experiments using germ-free mice and fecal microbiota transplantation suggested an association between SBA and MASLD-related ileitis. In vitro, SBAs promoted CD8+ T-cell activation via the TGR5, mTOR, and oxidative phosphorylation pathways. In vivo, TGR5 KO in CD8+ T cells effectively alleviated ileitis and reversed the MASLD phenotype. Clinical data further supported these findings, demonstrating a positive correlation between ileitis and MASLD.

CONCLUSION

MASLD-induced changes in intestinal flora result in elevated levels of SBAs in the ileum. In the presence of a compromised intestinal barrier, this leads to severe CD8+ T cell-mediated ileitis through the TGR5/mTOR/oxidative phosphorylation signaling pathway. Ileitis-induced tissue damage impairs enterohepatic circulation, inhibits hepatic FXR activation, and exacerbates the MASLD phenotype.

IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

Our study provides a comprehensive investigation of the interplay and underlying mechanisms connecting ileitis and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). Secondary bile acids produced by intestinal bacteria act as the critical link between MASLD and ileitis. Secondary bile acids exert their influence by disrupting liver lipid metabolism through the promotion of CD8+ T cell-mediated ileitis. In future endeavors to prevent and treat MASLD, it is essential to thoroughly account for the impact of the intestinal tract, especially the ileum, on liver function via the enterohepatic circulation.

The potential role of CMC1 as an immunometabolic checkpoint in T cell immunity

T cell immunity is critical for human defensive immune response. Exploring the key molecules during the process provides new targets for T cell-based immunotherapies. CMC1 is a mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) complex IV chaperon protein. By establishing in-vitro cell culture system and Cmc1 gene knock out mice, we evaluated the role of CMC1 in T cell activation and differentiation. The B16-OVA tumor model was used to test the possibility of targeting CMC1 for improving T cell anti-tumor immunity. We identified CMC1 as a positive regulator in CD8+T cells activation and terminal differentiation. Meanwhile, we found that CMC1 increasingly expressed in exhausted T (Tex) cells. Genetic lost of Cmc1 inhibits the development of CD8+T cell exhaustion in mice. Instead, deletion of Cmc1 in T cells prompts cells to differentiate into metabolically and functionally quiescent cells with increased memory-like features and tolerance to cell death upon repetitive or prolonged T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation. Further, the in-vitro mechanistic study revealed that environmental lactate enhances CMC1 expression by inducing USP7, mediated stabilization and de-ubiquitination of CMC1 protein, in which a mechanism we propose here that the lactate-enriched tumor microenvironment (TME) drives CD8+TILs dysfunction through CMC1 regulatory effects on T cells. Taken together, our study unraveled the novel role of CMC1 as a T cell regulator and its possibility to be utilized for anti-tumor immunotherapy.

Bioorthogonal photocatalytic proximity labeling in primary living samples

In situ profiling of subcellular proteomics in primary living systems, such as native tissues or clinic samples, is crucial for understanding life processes and diseases, yet challenging due to methodological obstacles. Here we report CAT-S, a bioorthogonal photocatalytic chemistry-enabled proximity labeling method, that expands proximity labeling to a wide range of primary living samples for in situ profiling of mitochondrial proteomes. Powered by our thioQM labeling warhead development and targeted bioorthogonal photocatalytic chemistry, CAT-S enables the labeling of mitochondrial proteins in living cells with high efficiency and specificity. We apply CAT-S to diverse cell cultures, dissociated mouse tissues as well as primary T cells from human blood, portraying the native-state mitochondrial proteomic characteristics, and unveiled hidden mitochondrial proteins (PTPN1, SLC35A4 uORF, and TRABD). Furthermore, CAT-S allows quantification of proteomic perturbations on dysfunctional tissues, exampled by diabetic mouse kidneys, revealing the alterations of lipid metabolism that may drive disease progression. Given the advantages of non-genetic operation, generality, and spatiotemporal resolution, CAT-S may open exciting avenues for subcellular proteomic investigations of primary samples that are otherwise inaccessible.

Bioinformatics and system biology approach to identify the influences among COVID-19, influenza, and HIV on the regulation of gene expression

Background

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by SARS-CoV-2, has emerged as a infectious disease, coexisting with widespread seasonal and sporadic influenza epidemics globally. Individuals living with HIV, characterized by compromised immune systems, face an elevated risk of severe outcomes and increased mortality when affected by COVID-19. Despite this connection, the molecular intricacies linking COVID-19, influenza, and HIV remain unclear. Our research endeavors to elucidate the shared pathways and molecular markers in individuals with HIV concurrently infected with COVID-19 and influenza. Furthermore, we aim to identify potential medications that may prove beneficial in managing these three interconnected illnesses.

Methods

Sequencing data for COVID-19 (GSE157103), influenza (GSE185576), and HIV (GSE195434) were retrieved from the GEO database. Commonly expressed differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified across the three datasets, followed by immune infiltration analysis and diagnostic ROC analysis on the DEGs. Functional enrichment analysis was performed using GO/KEGG and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA). Hub genes were screened through a Protein-Protein Interaction networks (PPIs) analysis among DEGs. Analysis of miRNAs, transcription factors, drug chemicals, diseases, and RNA-binding proteins was conducted based on the identified hub genes. Finally, quantitative PCR (qPCR) expression verification was undertaken for selected hub genes.

Results

The analysis of the three datasets revealed a total of 22 shared DEGs, with the majority exhibiting an area under the curve value exceeding 0.7. Functional enrichment analysis with GO/KEGG and GSEA primarily highlighted signaling pathways associated with ribosomes and tumors. The ten identified hub genes included IFI44L, IFI44, RSAD2, ISG15, IFIT3, OAS1, EIF2AK2, IFI27, OASL, and EPSTI1. Additionally, five crucial miRNAs (hsa-miR-8060, hsa-miR-6890-5p, hsa-miR-5003-3p, hsa-miR-6893-3p, and hsa-miR-6069), five essential transcription factors (CREB1, CEBPB, EGR1, EP300, and IRF1), and the top ten significant drug chemicals (estradiol, progesterone, tretinoin, calcitriol, fluorouracil, methotrexate, lipopolysaccharide, valproic acid, silicon dioxide, cyclosporine) were identified.

Conclusion

This research provides valuable insights into shared molecular targets, signaling pathways, drug chemicals, and potential biomarkers for individuals facing the complex intersection of COVID-19, influenza, and HIV. These findings hold promise for enhancing the precision of diagnosis and treatment for individuals with HIV co-infected with COVID-19 and influenza.

Defective mitochondria remodelling in B cells leads to an aged immune response

The B cell response in the germinal centre (GC) reaction requires a unique bioenergetic supply. Although mitochondria are remodelled upon antigen-mediated B cell receptor stimulation, mitochondrial function in B cells is still poorly understood. To gain a better understanding of the role of mitochondria in B cell function, here we generate mice with B cell-specific deficiency in Tfam, a transcription factor necessary for mitochondrial biogenesis. Tfam conditional knock-out (KO) mice display a blockage of the GC reaction and a bias of B cell differentiation towards memory B cells and aged-related B cells, hallmarks of an aged immune response. Unexpectedly, blocked GC reaction in Tfam KO mice is not caused by defects in the bioenergetic supply but is associated with a defect in the remodelling of the lysosomal compartment in B cells. Our results may thus describe a mitochondrial function for lysosome regulation and the downstream antigen presentation in B cells during the GC reaction, the dysruption of which is manifested as an aged immune response.

From Host Defense to Metabolic Signatures: Unveiling the Role of γδ T Cells in Bacterial Infections

The growth of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections necessitates focusing on host-derived immunotherapies. γδ T cells are an unconventional T cell subset, making up a relatively small portion of healthy circulating lymphocytes but a substantially increased proportion in mucosal and epithelial tissues. γδ T cells are activated and expanded in response to bacterial infection, having the capability to produce proinflammatory cytokines to recruit neutrophils and clear infection. They also play a significant role in dampening immune response to control inflammation and protecting the host against secondary challenge, making them promising targets when developing immunotherapy. Importantly, γδ T cells have differential metabolic states influencing their cytokine profile and subsequent inflammatory capacity. Though these differential metabolic states have not been well studied or reviewed in the context of bacterial infection, they are critical in understanding the mechanistic underpinnings of the host's innate immune response. Therefore, this review will focus on the context-specific host defense conferred by γδ T cells during infection with Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Identification of hypoxic-related lncRNAs prognostic model for revealing clinical prognostic and immune infiltration characteristic of cutaneous melanoma

BACKGROUND

Cutaneous melanoma (CM) remains a significant threat to human health. There are clues to the potential role of hypoxia in CM progression. However, the role of hypoxia-related lncRNAs (HRLs) in CM has not been clarified.

METHODS

We obtained hypoxia related genes from MSigDB database and subsequently identified HRLs by applying TCGA database. LASSO-univariate and multivariate Cox analysis were used to comprehensively analyze the survival characteristics and HRLs expressions, and a novel HRLs-related prognostic risk model was subsequently established for comprehensive analysis.

RESULTS

The established risk model could evaluate the clinical outcome of CM accurately. The ability of the model-related risk score was also validated as an independent prognostic indicator of CM. Immune infiltration, TMB analysis, drug sensitivity analysis and immunotherapy evaluation were conducted to comprehensively assess the possible causes of the difference in prognosis. The reliability of bioinformatics results was partially verified by RT-qPCR.

CONCLUSION

We established a new HRLs related risk model and discussed the potential role of hypoxia in the development of CM, which provided a novel basis for CM risk stratification.

Ribosome-targeting antibiotic control NLRP3-mediated inflammation by inhibiting mitochondrial DNA synthesis

While antibiotics are designed to target bacteria specifically, most are known to affect host cell physiology. Certain classes of antibiotics have been reported to have immunosuppressive effects, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we show that doxycycline, a ribosomal-targeting antibiotic, effectively inhibited both mitochondrial translation and nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-mediated caspase-1 activation and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production in bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). In addition, knockdown of mitochondrial methionyl-tRNA formyltransferase (Mtfmt), which is rate limiting for mitochondrial translation, also resulted in the inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated caspase-1 activation and IL-1β secretion. Furthermore, both doxycycline treatment and Mtfmt knockdown blocked the synthesis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the generation of oxidized mtDNA (Ox-mtDNA), which serves as a ligand for NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In addition, in vivo results indicated that doxycycline mitigated NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent inflammation, including lipopolysaccharide-induced systemic inflammation and endometritis. Taken together, the results unveil the antibiotics targeting the mitoribosome have the ability to mitigate NLRP3 inflammasome activation by inhibiting mitochondrial translation and mtDNA synthesis thus opening up new possibilities for the treatment of NLRP3-related diseases.

Translatomics to explore dynamic differences in immunocytes in the tumor microenvironment

Protein is an essential component of all living organisms and is primarily responsible for life activities; furthermore, its synthesis depends on a highly complex and accurate translation system. For proteins, the regulation at the translation level exceeds the sum of that during transcription, mRNA degradation, and protein degradation. Therefore, it is necessary to study regulation at the translation level. Imbalance in the translation process may change the cellular landscape, which not only leads to the occurrence, maintenance, progression, invasion, and metastasis of cancer but also affects the function of immune cells and changes the tumor microenvironment. Detailed analysis of transcriptional and protein atlases is needed to better understand how gene translation occurs. However, a more rigorous direct correlation between mRNA and protein levels is needed, which somewhat limits further studies. Translatomics is a technique for capturing and sequencing ribosome-related mRNAs that can effectively identify translation changes caused by ribosome stagnation and local translation abnormalities during cancer occurrence to further understand the changes in the translation landscape of cancer cells themselves and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, which can provide new strategies and directions for tumor treatment.

Knockout or inhibition of USP30 protects dopaminergic neurons in a Parkinson's disease mouse model

Mutations in SNCA, the gene encoding α-synuclein (αSyn), cause familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and aberrant αSyn is a key pathological hallmark of idiopathic PD. This α-synucleinopathy leads to mitochondrial dysfunction, which may drive dopaminergic neurodegeneration. PARKIN and PINK1, mutated in autosomal recessive PD, regulate the preferential autophagic clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria ("mitophagy") by inducing ubiquitylation of mitochondrial proteins, a process counteracted by deubiquitylation via USP30. Here we show that loss of USP30 in Usp30 knockout mice protects against behavioral deficits and leads to increased mitophagy, decreased phospho-S129 αSyn, and attenuation of SN dopaminergic neuronal loss induced by αSyn. These observations were recapitulated with a potent, selective, brain-penetrant USP30 inhibitor, MTX115325, with good drug-like properties. These data strongly support further study of USP30 inhibition as a potential disease-modifying therapy for PD.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes require transcription for infiltration but not target cell lysis

Effector cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are critical for ridding the body of infected or cancerous cells. CTL T cell receptor (TCR) ligation not only drives the delivery and release of cytolytic granules but also initiates a new wave of transcription. In order to address whether TCR-induced transcriptomic changes impact the ability of CTLs to kill, we asked which genes are expressed immediately after CTLs encounter targets and how CTL responses change when inhibiting transcription. Our data demonstrate that while expression of cytokines/chemokines and transcriptional machinery depend on transcription, cytotoxic protein expression and cytolytic activity are relatively robust to transcription blockade, with CTLs lysing nearby target cells for several hours after actinomycin D treatment. Monitoring CTL movement among target cells after inhibiting transcription demonstrates an infiltration defect that is not rectified by provision of exogenous cytokine/chemokine gradients, indicating a cell-intrinsic transcriptional requirement for infiltration. Together, our results reveal differential molecular control of CTL functions, separating recruitment and infiltration from cytolysis.

Bridging live-cell imaging and next-generation cancer treatment

By providing spatial, molecular and morphological data over time, live-cell imaging can provide a deeper understanding of the cellular and signalling events that determine cancer response to treatment. Understanding this dynamic response has the potential to enhance clinical outcome by identifying biomarkers or actionable targets to improve therapeutic efficacy. Here, we review recent applications of live-cell imaging for uncovering both tumour heterogeneity in treatment response and the mode of action of cancer-targeting drugs. Given the increasing uses of T cell therapies, we discuss the unique opportunity of time-lapse imaging for capturing the interactivity and motility of immunotherapies. Although traditionally limited in the number of molecular features captured, novel developments in multidimensional imaging and multi-omics data integration offer strategies to connect single-cell dynamics to molecular phenotypes. We review the effect of these recent technological advances on our understanding of the cellular dynamics of tumour targeting and discuss their implication for next-generation precision medicine.

Functional diversification and dynamics of CAR-T cells in patients with B-ALL

Understanding of cellular evolution and molecular programs of chimeric antigen receptor-engineered (CAR)-T cells post-infusion is pivotal for developing better treatment strategies. Here, we construct a longitudinal high-precision single-cell transcriptomic landscape of 7,578 CAR-T cells from 26 patients with B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) post-infusion. We molecularly identify eight CAR-T cell subtypes, including three cytotoxic subtypes with distinct kinetics and three dual-identity subtypes with non-T cell characteristics. Remarkably, long-term remission is coincident with the dominance of cytotoxic subtypes, while leukemia progression is correlated with the emergence of subtypes with B cell transcriptional profiles, which have dysfunctional features and might predict relapse. We further validate in vitro that the generation of B-featured CAR-T cells is induced by excessive tumor antigen stimulation or suppressed TCR signaling, while it is relieved by exogenous IL-12. Moreover, we define transcriptional hallmarks of CAR-T cell subtypes and reveal their molecular changes along computationally inferred cellular evolution in vivo. Collectively, these results decipher functional diversification and dynamics of peripheral CAR-T cells post-infusion.

αβ-T cell receptor transduction gives superior mitochondrial function to γδ-T cells with promising persistence

Adoptive cell therapy using allogeneic γδ-T cells is a promising option for off-the-shelf T cell products with a low risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Long-term persistence may boost the clinical development of γδ-T cell products. In this study, we found that genetically modified Vγ9+Vδ2+ T cells expressing a tumor antigen-specific αβ-TCR and CD8 coreceptor (GMC) showed target-specific killing and excellent persistence. To determine the mechanisms underlying these promising effects, we investigated metabolic characteristics. Cytokine secretion by γδ-TCR-stimulated nongene-modified γδ-T cells (NGMCs) and αβ-TCR-stimulated GMCs was equally suppressed by a glycolysis inhibitor, although the cytokine secretion of αβ-TCR-stimulated GMCs was more strongly inhibited by ATP synthase inhibitors than that of γδ-TCR-stimulated NGMCs. Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses, flow cytometry analysis using mitochondria-labeling dyes and extracellular flux analysis consistently suggest that αβ-TCR-transduced γδ-T cells acquire superior mitochondrial function. In conclusion, αβ-TCR-transduced γδ-T cells acquire superior mitochondrial function with promising persistence.

13C tracer analysis reveals the landscape of metabolic checkpoints in human CD8+ T cell differentiation and exhaustion

Introduction

Naïve T cells remain in an actively maintained state of quiescence until activation by antigenic signals, upon which they start to proliferate and generate effector cells to initiate a functional immune response. Metabolic reprogramming is essential to meet the biosynthetic demands of the differentiation process, and failure to do so can promote the development of hypofunctional exhausted T cells.

Methods

Here we used 13C metabolomics and transcriptomics to study the metabolism of CD8+ T cells in their complete course of differentiation from naïve over stem-like memory to effector cells and in exhaustion-inducing conditions.

Results

The quiescence of naïve T cells was evident in a profound suppression of glucose oxidation and a decreased expression of ENO1, downstream of which no glycolytic flux was detectable. Moreover, TCA cycle activity was low in naïve T cells and associated with a downregulation of SDH subunits. Upon stimulation and exit from quiescence, the initiation of cell growth and proliferation was accompanied by differential expression of metabolic enzymes and metabolic reprogramming towards aerobic glycolysis with high rates of nutrient uptake, respiration and lactate production. High flux in anabolic pathways imposed a strain on NADH homeostasis, which coincided with engagement of the proline cycle for mitochondrial redox shuttling. With acquisition of effector functions, cells increasingly relied on glycolysis as opposed to oxidative phosphorylation, which was, however, not linked to changes in mitochondrial abundance. In exhaustion, decreased effector function concurred with a reduction in mitochondrial metabolism, glycolysis and amino acid import, and an upregulation of quiescence-associated genes, TXNIP and KLF2, and the T cell suppressive metabolites succinate and itaconate.

Discussion

Overall, these results identify multiple metabolic features that regulate quiescence, proliferation and effector function, but also exhaustion of CD8+ T cells during differentiation. Thus, targeting these metabolic checkpoints may be a promising therapeutic strategy for both prevention of exhaustion and promotion of stemness of anti-tumor T cells.

Vutiglabridin exerts anti-ageing effects in aged mice through alleviating age-related metabolic dysfunctions

BACKGROUND

Ageing alters the ECM, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, which triggers an inflammatory response that exacerbates with age. Age-related changes impact satellite cells, affecting muscle regeneration, and the balance of proteins. Furthermore, ageing causes a decline in NAD+ levels, and alterations in fat metabolism that impact our health. These various metabolic issues become intricately intertwined with ageing, leading to a variety of individual-level diseases and profoundly affecting individuals' healthspan. Therefore, we hypothesize that vutiglabridin capable of alleviating these metabolic abnormalities will be able to ameliorate many of the problems associated with ageing.

METHOD

The efficacy of vutiglabridin, which alleviates metabolic issues by enhancing mitochondrial function, was assessed in aged mice treated with vutiglabridin and compared to untreated elderly mice. On young mice, vutiglabridin-treated aged mice, and non-treated aged mice, the Senescence-associated beta-galactosidase staining and q-PCR for ageing marker genes were carried out. Bulk RNA-seq was carried out on GA muscle, eWAT, and liver from each group of mice to compare differences in gene expression in various gene pathways. Blood from each group of mice was used to compare and analyze the ageing lipid profile.

RESULTS

SA-β-gal staining of eWAT, liver, kidney, and spleen of ageing mice showed that vutiglabridin had anti-ageing effects compared to the control group, and q-PCR of ageing marker genes including Cdkn1a and Cdkn2a in each tissue showed that vutiglabridin reduced the ageing process. In aged mice treated with vutiglabridin, GA muscle showed improved homeostasis compared to controls, eWAT showed restored insulin sensitivity and prevented FALC-induced inflammation, and liver showed reduced inflammation levels due to prevented TLO formation, improved mitochondrial complex I assembly, resulting in reduced ROS formation. Furthermore, blood lipid analysis revealed that ageing-related lipid profile was relieved in ageing mice treated with vutiglabridin versus the control group.

CONCLUSION

Vutiglabridin slows metabolic ageing mechanisms such as decreased insulin sensitivity, increased inflammation, and altered NAD+ metabolism in adipose tissue in mice experiments, while also retaining muscle homeostasis, which is deteriorated with age. It also improves the lipid profile in the blood and restores mitochondrial function in the liver to reduce ROS generation.

Modulation of lytic molecules restrain serial killing in γδ T lymphocytes

γδ T cells play a pivotal role in protection against various types of infections and tumours, from early childhood on and throughout life. They consist of several subsets characterised by adaptive and innate-like functions, with Vγ9Vδ2 being the largest subset in human peripheral blood. Although these cells show signs of cytotoxicity, their modus operandi remains poorly understood. Here we explore, using live single-cell imaging, the cytotoxic functions of γδ T cells upon interactions with tumour target cells with high temporal and spatial resolution. While γδ T cell killing is dominated by degranulation, the availability of lytic molecules appears tightly regulated in time and space. In particular, the limited co-occurrence of granzyme B and perforin restrains serial killing of tumour cells by γδ T cells. Thus, our data provide new insights into the cytotoxic arsenal and functions of γδ T cells, which may guide the development of more efficient γδ T cell based adoptive immunotherapies.

Inter-organellar nucleic acid communication by a mitochondrial tRNA regulates nuclear metabolic transcription

Efficient communication between mitochondria and the nucleus underlies homoeostatic metabolic control, though the involved mitochondrial factors and their mechanisms are poorly defined. Here, we report the surprising detection of multiple mitochondrial-derived transfer RNAs (mito-tRNAs) within the nuclei of human cells. Focused studies of nuclear-transported mito-tRNA-asparagine (mtAsn) revealed that its cognate charging enzyme (NARS2) is also present in the nucleus. MtAsn promoted interaction of NARS2 with histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2), and repressed HDAC2 association with specific chromatin loci. Perturbation of this axis using antisense oligonucleotides promoted nucleotide biogenesis and enhanced breast cancer growth, and RNA and nascent transcript sequencing demonstrated specific alterations in the transcription of nuclear genes. These findings uncover nucleic-acid mediated communication between two organelles and the existence of a machinery for nuclear gene regulation by a mito-tRNA that restricts tumor growth through metabolic control.

Highlights

Multiple mitochondrial-derived tRNAs are detected in human cell nucleiMtAsn promotes binding between NARS2 and HDAC2Metabolic alterations driven by mtAsn impact cell proliferationMtAsn inhibition releases HDAC2 to bind and transcriptionally regulate multiple nuclear genes.

Impact of chemotherapeutic agents on liver microenvironment: oxaliplatin create a pro-metastatic landscape

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapeutic agents are used to control tumor proliferation. However, their influence in the pre-metastatic niche of target organs has not been well studied. Oxaliplatin (OXA) is a drug applied in standard treatments of colorectal cancer (CRC), while the direct effect of which on the pre-metastatic microenvironment of the liver remains unclear.

METHODS

Models of liver metastases were established with luciferase expressing CT26 cells in BALB/c and BALB/c-nude mice. Single-cell RNA Sequencing was performed to examine the immune microenvironment in the liver elicited by OXA. Immunofluorescence and flowcytometry were utilized to confirm the changes in the number of immune cells. LDH, CellTrace CFSE Cell Proliferation and apoptosis assays were conducted to explore the impact of OXA on T cells ex vivo. The correlation between chemotherapy-related lymphopenia and metastases was assessed by meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Herein we discovered that administration of OXA prior to the occurrence of liver metastasis actually accelerated tumor development and colonization in the liver. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that the landscape of the liver immune microenvironment had been changed to immunosuppressive phenotype. Macrophages after the treatment of OXA exhibited a high ability to inhibit the activation of T cells. Further investigation revealed a significant decrease in the number of T cells in the liver, particularly CD8+ T cells with reduced capacity of proliferation, activation, and killing. When mice were treated with T cell supplementation, the OXA-induced metastasis was notably abolished, indicating that the OXA-primed liver microenvironment could be reversed by the infusion of T cells. Consistent with our findings in mice, a meta-analysis was performed to verify that chemotherapy-related lymphopenia was associated with an inferior prognosis related with high incidence of metastasis, suggesting the pivotal role of chemotherapy in pre-metastatic niche formation. Furthermore, a notable reduction in the count of both macrophages and T cells was observed in the liver of colorectal cancer (CRC) patient undergoing OXA-based chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings proposed that immunosuppressive microenvironment in liver induced by OXA enhanced liver metastasis of colorectal cancer, which highlighted a new consideration to balance the pro metastases and anti-cancer possibility of OXA treatment.

Vaccine-boosted CAR T crosstalk with host immunity to reject tumors with antigen heterogeneity

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy effectively treats human cancer, but the loss of the antigen recognized by the CAR poses a major obstacle. We found that in vivo vaccine boosting of CAR T cells triggers the engagement of the endogenous immune system to circumvent antigen-negative tumor escape. Vaccine-boosted CAR T promoted dendritic cell (DC) recruitment to tumors, increased tumor antigen uptake by DCs, and elicited the priming of endogenous anti-tumor T cells. This process was accompanied by shifts in CAR T metabolism toward oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and was critically dependent on CAR-T-derived IFN-γ. Antigen spreading (AS) induced by vaccine-boosted CAR T enabled a proportion of complete responses even when the initial tumor was 50% CAR antigen negative, and heterogeneous tumor control was further enhanced by the genetic amplification of CAR T IFN-γ expression. Thus, CAR-T-cell-derived IFN-γ plays a critical role in promoting AS, and vaccine boosting provides a clinically translatable strategy to drive such responses against solid tumors.

Mitochondrial Control for Healthy and Autoimmune T Cells

T cells are critical players in adaptive immunity, driving the tissue injury and organ damage of patients with autoimmune diseases. Consequently, investigations on T cell activation, differentiation, and function are valuable in uncovering the disease pathogenesis, thus exploring promising therapeutics for autoimmune diseases. In recent decades, accumulating studies have pinpointed immunometabolism as the fundamental determinant in controlling T cell fate. Specifically, mitochondria, as a hub of intracellular metabolism, connect glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolic pathways. Herein, we summarize metabolic adaptations of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and the relevant glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism during T cell activation, differentiation, and function. Further, we focused on current updates of the molecular bases for metabolic reprogramming in autoimmune T cells and advances in exploring metabolic-targeted therapeutics against autoimmune diseases. This might facilitate the in-depth understanding of autoimmune pathogeneses and the clinical management of autoimmune diseases.

Single-cell multi-omics of mitochondrial DNA disorders reveals dynamics of purifying selection across human immune cells

Pathogenic mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) compromise cellular metabolism, contributing to cellular heterogeneity and disease. Diverse mutations are associated with diverse clinical phenotypes, suggesting distinct organ- and cell-type-specific metabolic vulnerabilities. Here we establish a multi-omics approach to quantify deletions in mtDNA alongside cell state features in single cells derived from six patients across the phenotypic spectrum of single large-scale mtDNA deletions (SLSMDs). By profiling 206,663 cells, we reveal the dynamics of pathogenic mtDNA deletion heteroplasmy consistent with purifying selection and distinct metabolic vulnerabilities across T-cell states in vivo and validate these observations in vitro. By extending analyses to hematopoietic and erythroid progenitors, we reveal mtDNA dynamics and cell-type-specific gene regulatory adaptations, demonstrating the context-dependence of perturbing mitochondrial genomic integrity. Collectively, we report pathogenic mtDNA heteroplasmy dynamics of individual blood and immune cells across lineages, demonstrating the power of single-cell multi-omics for revealing fundamental properties of mitochondrial genetics.

Immunodeficiency with susceptibility to lymphoma with complex genotype affecting energy metabolism (FBP1, ACAD9) and vesicle trafficking (RAB27A)

Introduction

Inborn errors of immunity (IEI) are characterized by a dysfunction of the immune system leading to increased susceptibility to infections, impaired immune regulation and cancer. We present a unique consanguineous family with a history of Hodgkin lymphoma, impaired EBV control and a late onset hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH).

Methods and results

Overall, family members presented with variable impairment of NK cell and cytotoxic T cell degranulation and cytotoxicity. Exome sequencing identified homozygous variants in RAB27A, FBP1 (Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 1) and ACAD9 (Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family member 9). Variants in RAB27A lead to Griscelli syndrome type 2, hypopigmentation and HLH predisposition.

Discussion

Lymphoma is frequently seen in patients with hypomorphic mutations of genes predisposing to HLH. We hypothesize that the variants in FBP1 and ACAD9 might aggravate the clinical and immune phenotype, influence serial killing and lytic granule polarization by CD8 T cells. Understanding of the interplay between the multiple variants identified by whole exome sequencing (WES) is essential for correct interpretation of the immune phenotype and important for critical treatment decisions.

Dynamic mitochondrial transcription and translation in B cells control germinal center entry and lymphomagenesis

Germinal center (GC) B cells undergo proliferation at very high rates in a hypoxic microenvironment but the cellular processes driving this are incompletely understood. Here we show that the mitochondria of GC B cells are highly dynamic, with significantly upregulated transcription and translation rates associated with the activity of transcription factor A, mitochondrial (TFAM). TFAM, while also necessary for normal B cell development, is required for entry of activated GC precursor B cells into the germinal center reaction; deletion of Tfam significantly impairs GC formation, function and output. Loss of TFAM in B cells compromises the actin cytoskeleton and impairs cellular motility of GC B cells in response to chemokine signaling, leading to their spatial disorganization. We show that B cell lymphoma substantially increases mitochondrial translation and that deletion of Tfam in B cells is protective against the development of lymphoma in a c-Myc transgenic mouse model. Finally, we show that pharmacological inhibition of mitochondrial transcription and translation inhibits growth of GC-derived human lymphoma cells and induces similar defects in the actin cytoskeleton.

Lytic granule exocytosis at immune synapses: lessons from neuronal synapses

Regulated exocytosis is a central mechanism of cellular communication. It is not only the basis for neurotransmission and hormone release, but also plays an important role in the immune system for the release of cytokines and cytotoxic molecules. In cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), the formation of the immunological synapse is required for the delivery of the cytotoxic substances such as granzymes and perforin, which are stored in lytic granules and released via exocytosis. The molecular mechanisms of their fusion with the plasma membrane are only partially understood. In this review, we discuss the molecular players involved in the regulated exocytosis of CTL, highlighting the parallels and differences to neuronal synaptic transmission. Additionally, we examine the strengths and weaknesses of both systems to study exocytosis.

Fueling sentinel node via reshaping cytotoxic T lymphocytes with a flex-patch for post-operative immuno-adjuvant therapy

Clinical updates suggest conserving metastatic sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) of breast cancer (BC) patients during surgery; however, the immunoadjuvant potential of this strategy is unknown. Here we leverage an immune-fueling flex-patch to animate metastatic SLNs with personalized antitumor immunity. The flex-patch is implanted on the postoperative wound and spatiotemporally releases immunotherapeutic anti-PD-1 antibodies (aPD-1) and adjuvants (magnesium iron-layered double hydroxide, LDH) into the SLN. Genes associated with citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are enriched in activated CD8⁺ T cells (CTLs) from metastatic SLNs. Delivered aPD-1 and LDH confer CTLs with upregulated glycolytic activity, promoting CTL activation and cytotoxic killing via metal cation-mediated shaping. Ultimately, CTLs in patch-driven metastatic SLNs could long-termly maintain tumor antigen-specific memory, protecting against high-incidence BC recurrence in female mice. This study indicates a clinical value of metastatic SLN in immunoadjuvant therapy.

Orthogonal cytokine engineering enables novel synthetic effector states escaping canonical exhaustion in tumor-rejecting CD8+ T cells

To date, no immunotherapy approaches have managed to fully overcome T-cell exhaustion, which remains a mandatory fate for chronically activated effector cells and a major therapeutic challenge. Understanding how to reprogram CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes away from exhausted effector states remains an elusive goal. Our work provides evidence that orthogonal gene engineering of T cells to secrete an interleukin (IL)-2 variant binding the IL-2Rβγ receptor and the alarmin IL-33 reprogrammed adoptively transferred T cells to acquire a novel, synthetic effector state, which deviated from canonical exhaustion and displayed superior effector functions. These cells successfully overcame homeostatic barriers in the host and led-in the absence of lymphodepletion or exogenous cytokine support-to high levels of engraftment and tumor regression. Our work unlocks a new opportunity of rationally engineering synthetic CD8+ T-cell states endowed with the ability to avoid exhaustion and control advanced solid tumors.

Landscapes and mechanisms of CD8+ T cell exhaustion in gastrointestinal cancer

CD8+ T cells, a cytotoxic T lymphocyte, are a key component of the tumor immune system, but they enter a hyporeactive T cell state in long-term chronic inflammation, and how to rescue this depleted state is a key direction of research. Current studies on CD8+ T cell exhaustion have found that the mechanisms responsible for their heterogeneity and differential kinetics may be closely related to transcription factors and epigenetic regulation, which may serve as biomarkers and potential immunotherapeutic targets to guide treatment. Although the importance of T cell exhaustion in tumor immunotherapy cannot be overstated, studies have pointed out that gastric cancer tissues have a better anti-tumor T cell composition compared to other cancer tissues, which may indicate that gastrointestinal cancers have more promising prospects for the development of precision-targeted immunotherapy. Therefore, the present study will focus on the mechanisms involved in the development of CD8+ T cell exhaustion, and then review the landscapes and mechanisms of T cell exhaustion in gastrointestinal cancer as well as clinical applications, which will provide a clear vision for the development of future immunotherapies.

Single-cell discovery of the scene and potential immunotherapeutic target in hypopharyngeal tumor environment

Hypopharyngeal carcinoma is a cancer with the worst prognosis. We constructed the first single-cell transcriptome map for hypopharyngeal carcinoma and explored its underlying mechanisms. We systematically studied single-cell transcriptome data of 17,599 cells from hypopharyngeal carcinoma and paracancerous tissues. We identified categories of cells by dimensionality reduction and performed further subgroup analysis. Focusing on the potential mechanism in the cellular communication of hypopharyngeal carcinoma, we predicted ligand-receptor interactions and verified them via immunohistochemical and cellular experiments. In total, seven cell types were identified, including epithelial and myeloid cells. Subsequently, subgroup analysis showed significant tumor heterogeneity. Based on the pathological type of squamous cell carcinoma, we focused on intercellular communication between epithelial cells and various cells. We predicted the crosstalk and inferred the regulatory effect of cellular active ligands on the surface receptor of epithelial cells. From the top potential pairs, we focused on the BMPR2 receptor for further research, as it showed significantly higher expression in epithelial cancer tissue than in adjacent tissue. Further bioinformatics analysis, immunohistochemical staining, and cell experiments also confirmed its cancer-promoting effects. Overall, the single-cell perspective revealed complex crosstalk in hypopharyngeal cancer, in which BMPR2 promotes its proliferation and migration, providing a rationale for further study and treatment of this carcinoma.

Reversing T Cell Dysfunction to Boost Glioblastoma Immunotherapy by Paroxetine-Mediated GRK2 Inhibition and Blockade of Multiple Checkpoints through Biomimetic Nanoparticles

T cell dysfunction-induced tumor immune escape is particularly severe in glioblastoma (GBM), and significantly affects the efficacy of immunotherapy. It is crucial to innovatively reverse the T cell dysfunction for improving GBM immunotherapy. Herein, T cell dysfunction is remarkably reversed and immunotherapy of GBM is boosted by repurposing the U. S. Food and Drug Administration-approved antidepressant paroxetine (PX) with biomimetic nanoparticles (CS-J@CM/6 NPs). The PX is successfully applied to abrogate T cell sequestration in the bone marrow of GBM-bearing mice and increase their infiltration in tumor. The biomimetic NPs are composed of ultrasmall Cu_{2- x} Se NPs, JQ1, and tumor cell membrane modified with CD6, and are efficiently delivered into tumor through the specific interactions between CD6 and activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule. They ameliorate the T cell dysfunction through the double roles of loaded JQ1, which simultaneously decreases the expression of PD-1 and TIM-3 on T cells, and the expression of PD-L1 on tumor cells. The NP also induces the immunogenic cell death of tumor cells to activate immune response. The synergistic roles of PX and biomimetic CS-J@CM/6 NPs notably enhance the survival of GBM-bearing mice. This work provides new insights into tumor immunotherapy by repurposing "old drugs" with advanced NPs.

Resisting T cell attack: tumor-cell-intrinsic defense and reparation mechanisms

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are antigen-specific killer cells equipped to identify and eliminate host cells that have been altered through infection or transformation. Both chimeric antigen-receptor (CAR) T cell therapies and immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapies are based on successful elimination of tumor cells by cytotoxic effectors. In this opinion article, we outline cell-intrinsic mechanisms by which tumor cells defend against CTLs, highlighting pathways that confer resistance and proposing opportunities for combination therapies. We discuss how exogenous killing entities [e.g., supramolecular attack particles (SMAPs)] offer a novel strategy to circumvent cellular resistance mechanisms. Our opinion article highlights the importance of identifying, quantifying, and targeting tumor defense mechanisms at the interface between tumor cells and CTLs as a critical consideration in the development of immunotherapy approaches.

USP25 deficiency promotes T cell dysfunction and transplant acceptance via mitochondrial dynamics

BACKGROUND

During organ transplantation, pharmacologic drugs targeting T cell activation signal to inhibit T cell-mediated allo-rejection are insufficient and not durable to suppress chronic rejection. Recent advances highlight an exhausted or dysfunctional status of T cells, which favor transplant acceptance.

METHODS

The models of MHC-mismatched (BALB/c to C57BL/6 or USP25 KO mice) heterotopic heart transplantation and skin transplantation were utilized to evaluate the regulatory effects of ubiquitin-specific protease 25(USP25) deficiency in vivo. The consequences of USP25 deficiency on murine T-cell proliferation, activation, cytokine secretion, mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) and energy metabolism were investigated in vitro. The signaling pathway of T cells in knock out mice was detected by Western blotting and Co-IP.

RESULTS

We found T cells were dysfunctional inUSP25KO mice. Due to T cell dysfunction, skin and heart graft had a longer survival. In these dysfunctional T cells, mitochondria number and cristae condensation were decreased. Impaired mitochondrial mass and function favored to allo-graft acceptance. Furthermore, USP25 interacted with ATP5A and ATP5B to promote their stability.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that USP25 is a potential target to induce T cell dysfunction and allo-graft tolerance. And USP25 mediated mitochondrial homeostasis may contribute to reverse T cell exhaustion or dysfunction in tumor and chronic infection.

Arming a killer: mitochondrial regulation of CD8+ T cell cytotoxicity

While once regarded as ATP factories, mitochondria have taken the spotlight as important regulators of cellular homeostasis. The past two decades have witnessed an intensifying interest in the study of mitochondria in cells of the immune system, with many new and unexpected roles for mitochondria emerging. Immune cells offer intriguing insights as mitochondria appear to play different roles at different stages of T cell development, matching the changing functions of the cells. Here we briefly review the multifaceted roles of mitochondria during T cell differentiation, focusing on CD8⁺ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and we consider how mitochondrial dysfunction can contribute to CTL exhaustion. In addition, we highlight a newly appreciated role for mitochondria as homeostatic regulators of CTL-mediated killing and explore the emerging literature describing mechanisms linking cytosolic and mitochondrial protein synthesis.

Tumor Microenvironment and Metabolism: Role of the Mitochondrial Melatonergic Pathway in Determining Intercellular Interactions in a New Dynamic Homeostasis

There is a growing interest in the role of alterations in mitochondrial metabolism in the pathoetiology and pathophysiology of cancers, including within the array of diverse cells that can form a given tumor microenvironment. The 'exhaustion' in natural killer cells and CD8+ t cells as well as the tolerogenic nature of dendritic cells in the tumor microenvironment seems determined by variations in mitochondrial function. Recent work has highlighted the important role played by the melatonergic pathway in optimizing mitochondrial function, limiting ROS production, endogenous antioxidants upregulation and consequent impacts of mitochondrial ROS on ROS-dependent microRNAs, thereby impacting on patterned gene expression. Within the tumor microenvironment, the tumor, in a quest for survival, seeks to 'dominate' the dynamic intercellular interactions by limiting the capacity of cells to optimally function, via the regulation of their mitochondrial melatonergic pathway. One aspect of this is the tumor's upregulation of kynurenine and the activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which acts to metabolize melatonin and increase the N-acetylserotonin/melatonin ratio, with effluxed N-acetylserotonin acting as a brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mimic via its activation of the BDNF receptor, TrkB, thereby increasing the survival and proliferation of tumors and cancer stem-like cells. This article highlights how many of the known regulators of cells in the tumor microenvironment can be downstream of the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway regulation. Future research and treatment implications are indicated.

The role of interferons in ovarian cancer progression: Hinderer or promoter?

Ovarian cancer (OC) is a common gynecologic malignancy with poor prognosis and high mortality. Changes in the OC microenvironment are closely related to the genesis, invasion, metastasis, recurrence, and drug-resistance. The OC microenvironment is regulated by Interferons (IFNs) known as a type of important cytokines. IFNs have a bidirectional regulation for OC cells growth and survival. Meanwhile, IFNs positively regulate the recruitment, differentiation and activation of immune cells. This review summarizes the secretion and the role of IFNs. In particular, we mainly elucidate the actions played by IFNs in various types of therapy. IFNs assist radiotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy and biotherapy for OC, except for some IFN pathways that may cause chemo-resistance. In addition, we present some advances in OC treatment with the help of IFN pathways. IFNs have the ability to powerfully modulate the tumor microenvironment and can potentially provide new combination strategies for OC treatment.

Azithromycin promotes relapse by disrupting immune and metabolic networks after allogeneic stem cell transplantation

Administration of azithromycin after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for hematologic malignancies has been associated with relapse in a randomized phase 3 controlled clinical trial. Studying 240 samples from patients randomized in this trial is a unique opportunity to better understand the mechanisms underlying relapse, the first cause of mortality after transplantation. We used multi-omics on patients' samples to decipher immune alterations associated with azithromycin intake and post-transplantation relapsed malignancies. Azithromycin was associated with a network of altered energy metabolism pathways and immune subsets, including T cells biased toward immunomodulatory and exhausted profiles. In vitro, azithromycin exposure inhibited T-cell cytotoxicity against tumor cells and impaired T-cell metabolism through glycolysis inhibition, down-regulation of mitochondrial genes, and up-regulation of immunomodulatory genes, notably SOCS1. These results highlight that azithromycin directly affects immune cells that favor relapse, which raises caution about long-term use of azithromycin treatment in patients at high risk of malignancies. The ALLOZITHRO trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT01959100.

Immunometabolic alterations in lupus: where do they come from and where do we go from there?

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease in which the overactivation of the immune system has been associated with metabolic alterations. Targeting the altered immunometabolism has been proposed to treat SLE patients based on their results obtained and mouse models of the disease. Here, we review the recent literature to discuss the possible origins of the alterations in the metabolism of immune cells in lupus, the dominant role of mitochondrial defects, technological advances that may move the field forward, as well as how targeting lupus immunometabolism may have therapeutic potential.

Herpesvirus infections and post-COVID-19 manifestations: a pilot observational study

The global spread of SARS-CoV-2 points to unrivaled mutational variation of the virus, contributing to a variety of post-COVID sequelae in immunocompromised subjects and high mortality. Numerous studies have reported the reactivation of "sluggish" herpes virus infections in COVID-19, which exaggerate the course of the disease and complicate with lasting post-COVID manifestations CMV, EBV, HHV6). This study aimed to describe clinical and laboratory features of post-COVID manifestations accompanied by the reactivation of herpes virus infections (CMV, EBV, HHV6). 88 patients were recruited for this study, including subjects with reactivation of herpes viruses, 68 (72.3%) (main group) and 20 (27.7%) subjects without detectable DNA of herpesviruses (control group): 46 (52.3%) female and 42 (47.7%) male; median age was 41.4 ± 6.7 years. Patients with post-COVID manifestations presented with reactivation of EBV in 42.6%, HHV6 in 25.0%, and EBV plus HHV6 in 32.4%. Compared with controls, patients with herpes virus infections presented with more frequent slight fever temperature, headache, psycho-neurological disorders, pulmonary abnormalities and myalgia (p < 0.01), activation of liver enzymes, elevated CRP and D-dimer, and suppressed cellular immune response (p ≤ 0.05). Preliminary results indicate a likely involvement of reactivated herpes virus infections, primarily EBV infections in severe COVID-19 and the formation of the post-COVID syndrome. Patients with the post-COVID syndrome and reactivation of EBV and HHV6 infections are at high risk of developing various pathologies, including rheumatologic diseases.

CD38 reduces mitochondrial fitness and cytotoxic T cell response against viral infection in lupus patients by suppressing mitophagy

Infection is one of the major causes of mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We previously found that CD38, an ectoenzyme that regulates the production of NAD+, is up-regulated in CD8+ T cells of SLE patients and correlates with the risk of infection. Here, we report that CD38 reduces CD8+ T cell function by negatively affecting mitochondrial fitness through the inhibition of multiple steps of mitophagy, a process that is critical for mitochondria quality control. Using a murine lupus model, we found that administration of a CD38 inhibitor in a CD8+ T cell-targeted manner reinvigorated their effector function, reversed the defects in autophagy and mitochondria, and improved viral clearance. We conclude that CD38 represents a target to mitigate infection rates in people with SLE.

Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: How Tumor Cells Defend Against the Siege Weapons of Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes

CD8⁺ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are the main cellular effectors of the adaptive immune response against cancer cells, which in turn have evolved sophisticated cellular defense mechanisms to withstand CTL attack. Herein we provide a critical review of the pertinent literature on early and late attack/defense events taking place at the CTL/target cell lytic synapse. We examine the earliest steps of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity (“the poison arrows”) elicited within seconds of CTL/target cell encounter, which face commensurately rapid synaptic repair mechanisms on the tumor cell side, providing the first formidable barrier to CTL attack. We examine how breach of this first defensive barrier unleashes the inextinguishable “Greek fire” in the form of granzymes whose broad cytotoxic potential is linked to activation of cell death executioners, injury of vital organelles, and destruction of intracellular homeostasis. Herein tumor cells deploy slower but no less sophisticated defensive mechanisms in the form of enhanced autophagy, increased reparative capacity, and dysregulation of cell death pathways. We discuss how the newly discovered supra-molecular attack particles (SMAPs, the “scorpion bombs”), seek to overcome the robust defensive mechanisms that confer tumor cell resistance. Finally, we discuss the implications of the aforementioned attack/defense mechanisms on the induction of regulated cell death (RCD), and how different contemporary RCD modalities (including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis) may have profound implications for immunotherapy. Thus, we propose that understanding and targeting multiple steps of the attack/defense process will be instrumental to enhance the efficacy of CTL anti-tumor activity and meet the outstanding challenges in clinical immunotherapy.

The Expanding Arsenal of Cytotoxic T Cells

Cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) are the main cellular mediators of the adaptive immune defenses against intracellular pathogens and malignant cells. Upon recognition of specific antigen on their cellular target, CTLs assemble an immunological synapse where they mobilise their killing machinery that is released into the synaptic cleft to orchestrate the demise of their cell target. The arsenal of CTLs is stored in lysosome-like organelles that undergo exocytosis in response to signals triggered by the T cell antigen receptor following antigen recognition. These organelles include lytic granules carrying a cargo of cytotoxic proteins packed on a proteoglycan scaffold, multivesicular bodies carrying the death receptor ligand FasL, and the recently discovered supramolecular attack particles that carry a core of cytotoxic proteins encased in a non-membranous glycoprotein shell. Here we will briefly review the main features of these killing entities and discuss their interrelationship and interplay in CTL-mediated killing.