Role of interleukin-6 in cancer progression and therapeutic resistance

IL-6 family cytokines: Key inflammatory mediators as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets

IL-6 is a critical cytokine in acute phase response and involved in the pathogenesis of several chronic inflammatory diseases including cancer. Studies have highlighted that levels of IL-6 and its family members can be useful for diagnosis, prognosis of relapse-free survival and recurrence. IL-6 family cytokines have been identified as cancer biomarkers through screening of inflammatory mediators in different fluids including saliva, serum, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). IL-6 can be modulated by chemopreventive drugs, small molecules, monoclonal antibodies and immune checkpoint inhibitors. Unveiling the different sources of IL-6, the interaction between IL-6 and its cellular targets, the IL-6-dependent tumor resistance mechanisms, and the identification of novel regulators of IL-6 are some of the highly complex topics included in this review and their understanding could aid cancer biomarkers and therapy development.

Interleukin-6-174G>C gene promoter polymorphism and prognosis in patients with cancer

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is known to be involved in the pathogenesis of cancer progression. IL-6-174G>C polymorphism has shown several results in association studies. In this study, we evaluated the association the IL-6-174G>C polymorphism and overall survival (OS) of cancer using 17 eligible studies with 4,304 patients. Our meta-analysis indicated that IL-6-174G>C polymorphism is not associated with OS when assessed using 3 genotype comparison including GG/(GC+CC), CC/(GC+GG) and CC/GG. Interestingly, compared to GG carrier, patients with IL-6-174GC genotype showed a decreased hazard of poor OS (hazard ratio = 0.81, 95% confidence interval: 0.68–0.96, P = 0.018; I² = 34.5%, Phet = 0.107). However, for GG/(GC+CC) genotype comparison, this SNP is affect patients’ OS obviously in bladder cancer, ovarian and peritoneal cancer, neuroblastoma, gastric cancer and osteosarcoma, though pooled results showing negative association because adverse and protective effect on different type of cancer balance each other. These results suggest IL-6-174G>C polymorphism might play a role in modulating OS in different type of cancer and might contribute to individual treatment in the future.

Targeting the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signalling axis in cancer

The IL-6/JAK/STAT3 pathway is aberrantly hyperactivated in many types of cancer, and such hyperactivation is generally associated with a poor clinical prognosis. In the tumour microenvironment, IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signalling acts to drive the proliferation, survival, invasiveness, and metastasis of tumour cells, while strongly suppressing the antitumour immune response. Thus, treatments that target the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 pathway in patients with cancer are poised to provide therapeutic benefit by directly inhibiting tumour cell growth and by stimulating antitumour immunity. Agents targeting IL-6, the IL-6 receptor, or JAKs have already received FDA approval for the treatment of inflammatory conditions or myeloproliferative neoplasms and for the management of certain adverse effects of chimeric antigen receptor T cells, and are being further evaluated in patients with haematopoietic malignancies and in those with solid tumours. Novel inhibitors of the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 pathway, including STAT3-selective inhibitors, are currently in development. Herein, we review the role of IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signalling in the tumour microenvironment and the status of preclinical and clinical investigations of agents targeting this pathway. We also discuss the potential of combining IL-6/JAK/STAT3 inhibitors with currently approved therapeutic agents directed against immune-checkpoint inhibitors.

mTOR at the Transmitting and Receiving Ends in Tumor Immunity

Cancer is a complex disease and a leading cause of death worldwide. Immunity is critical for cancer control. Cancer cells exhibit high mutational rates and therefore altered self or neo-antigens, eliciting an immune response to promote tumor eradication. Failure to mount a proper immune response leads to cancer progression. mTOR signaling controls cellular metabolism, immune cell differentiation, and effector function. Deregulated mTOR signaling in cancer cells modulates the tumor microenvironment, thereby affecting tumor immunity and possibly promoting carcinogenesis.

The Complex Interplay between Chronic Inflammation, the Microbiome, and Cancer: Understanding Disease Progression and What We Can Do to Prevent It

Cancer is a multifaceted condition, in which a senescent cell begins dividing in an irregular manner due to various factors such as DNA damage, growth factors and inflammation. Inflammation is not typically discussed as carcinogenic; however, a significant percentage of cancers arise from chronic microbial infections and damage brought on by chronic inflammation. A hallmark cancer-inducing microbe is Helicobacter pylori and its causation of peptic ulcers and potentially gastric cancer. This review discusses the recent developments in understanding microbes in health and disease and their potential role in the progression of cancer. To date, microbes can be linked to almost every cancer, including colon, pancreatic, gastric, and even prostate. We discuss the known mechanisms by which these microbes can induce cancer growth and development and how inflammatory cells may contribute to cancer progression. We also discuss new treatments that target the chronic inflammatory conditions and their associated cancers, and the impact microbes have on treatment success. Finally, we examine common dietary misconceptions in relation to microbes and cancer and how to avoid getting caught up in the misinterpretation and over inflation of the results.

Nanoparticle-induced inflammation can increase tumor malignancy

Nanomaterials, such as aluminum oxide, have been regarded with high biomedical promise as potential immune adjuvants in favor of their bulk counterparts. For pathophysiological conditions where elevated immune activity already occurs, the contribution of nanoparticle-activated immune reactions remains unclear. Here, we investigated the effect of spherical and wire-shaped aluminum oxide nanoparticles on primary splenocytes and observed a clear pro-inflammatory effect of both nanoparticles, mainly for the high aspect ratio nanowires. The nanoparticles resulted in a clear activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, and also secreted transforming growth factor β. When cancer cells were exposed to these cytokines, this resulted in an increased level of epithelial-to-mesenchymal-transition, a hallmark for cancer metastasis, which did not occur when the cancer cells were directly exposed to the nanoparticles themselves. Using a syngeneic tumor model, the level of inflammation and degree of lung metastasis were significantly increased when the animals were exposed to the nanoparticles, particularly for the nanowires. This effect could be abrogated by treating the animals with inflammatory inhibitors. Collectively, these data indicate that the interaction of nanoparticles with immune cells can have secondary effects that may aggravate pathophysiological conditions, such as cancer malignancy, and conditions must be carefully selected to finely tune the induced aspecific inflammation into cancer-specific antitumor immunity.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Many different types of nanoparticles have been shown to possess immunomodulatory properties, depending on their physicochemical parameters. This can potentially be harnessed as a possible antitumor therapy. However, in the current work we show that inflammation elicited by nanomaterials can have grave effects in pathophysiological conditions, where non-specific inflammation was found to increase cancer cell mobility and tumor malignancy. These data show that immunomodulatory properties of nanomaterials must be carefully controlled to avoid any undesired side-effects.

Mean Platelet Volume and Platelet Distribution Width Are Associated with Gallbladder Cancer

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) represents the most common biliary tract malignancy. Activated platelets play an essential role in cancer development and progression. Mean platelet volume (MPV) and platelet distribution width (PDW) are commonly used indexes of activated platelets in clinical practice. The aim of the current study was to investigate the association of MPV and PDW with GBC. 104 GBC patients and 109 normal control subjects were entered in this study between January 2015 and December 2015. We collected all participants’ clinical and laboratory characteristics at initial diagnosis. The odds ratios (ORs) for GBC were calculated using multivariate logistic regression analysis after adjusting for confounding variables across MPV and PDW quartiles. MPV levels were markedly lower and PDW levels were remarkably higher in GBC patients than control subjects. A significant correlation between PDW and lymph node metastasis was detected. In addition, after adjusting for other risk factors, the ORs (95% CIs) for GBC in each MPV quartile were 5.117 (1.939-13.506), 2.444 (0.917-6.516), 3.718 (1.381-10.007), and 1.000, respectively. The ORs (95% CIs) for GBC in each PDW quartile were 1.000, 2.063 (0.825-5.162), 3.070 (1.108-8.507), and 12.108 (4.243-34.553), respectively. In conclusion, decreased MPV and elevated PDW were independently associated with GBC. Our findings suggest that MPV and PDW are available parameters for early detection of GBC.

The Role of the Estrogen Pathway in the Tumor Microenvironment

Estrogen receptors are broadly expressed in many cell types involved in the innate and adaptive immune responses, and differentially regulate the production of cytokines. While both genomic and non-genomic tumor cell promoting mechanisms of estrogen signaling are well characterized in multiple carcinomas including breast, ovarian, and lung, recent investigations have identified a potential immune regulatory role of estrogens in the tumor microenvironment. Tumor immune tolerance is a well-established mediator of oncogenesis, with increasing evidence indicating the importance of the immune response in tumor progression. Immune-based therapies such as antibodies that block checkpoint signals have emerged as exciting therapeutic approaches for cancer treatment, offering durable remissions and prolonged survival. However, only a subset of patients demonstrate clinical response to these agents, prompting efforts to elucidate additional immunosuppressive mechanisms within the tumor microenvironment. Evidence drawn from multiple cancer types, including carcinomas traditionally classified as non-immunogenic, implicate estrogen as a potential mediator of immunosuppression through modulation of protumor responses independent of direct activity on tumor cells. Herein, we review the interplay between estrogen and the tumor microenvironment and the clinical implications of endocrine therapy as a novel treatment strategy within immuno-oncology.

ADAM9 mediates the interleukin-6-induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal transition and metastasis through ROS production in hepatoma cells

Interleukin (IL)-6 has been implicated in the invasion and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the molecular events that mediate this process are poorly understood. Here, we showed that IL-6 promoted the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC cell lines, and upregulated a disintegrin and metalloprotease 9 (ADAM9) expression by activating the JNK signaling pathway. ADAM9 was upregulated in human HCCs which promoted HCC cell invasion and the EMT by interacting with NADPH oxidase 1 and inducing reactive oxygen species generation. Knockdown of ADAM9 inhibited the IL-6-induced EMT. Additionally, ADAM9 expression was positively correlated with IL-6 and Snail expression in human HCC specimens. Taken together, our results showed that ADAM9 is an important mediator of IL-6-induced HCC cell migration and invasion, and may provide a novel therapeutic target for HCC management.

Multifaceted Roles of Interleukin-6 in Adipocyte-Breast Cancer Cell Interaction

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide, with a developmental process spanning decades. The malignant cells recruit a variety of cells including fibroblasts, endothelial cells, immune cells, and adipocytes, creating the tumor microenvironment. The tumor microenvironment has emerged as active participants in breast cancer progression and response to treatment through autocrine and paracrine interaction with the malignant cells. Adipose tissue is abundant in the breast cancer microenvironment; interactions with cancer cells create cancer-associated adipocytes which produce a variety of adipokines that influence breast cancer initiation, metastasis, angiogenesis, and cachexia. Interleukin (IL)-6 has emerged as key compound significantly produced by breast cancer cells and adipocytes, with the potential of inducing proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal phenotype, stem cell phenotype, angiogenesis, cachexia, and therapeutic resistance in breast cancer cells. Our aim is to present a brief knowledge of IL-6’s role in breast cancer. This review summarizes our current understanding of the breast microenvironment, with emphasis on adipocytes as key players in breast cancer tumorigenesis. The effects of key adipocytes such as leptin, adipokines, TGF-b, and IL-6 are discussed. Finally, we discuss the role of IL-6 in various aspects of cancer progression.

Single and combined use of red cell distribution width, mean platelet volume, and cancer antigen 125 for differential diagnosis of ovarian cancer and benign ovarian tumors

BACKGROUND

Cancer is widely believed to result from chronic inflammation, and red cell distribution width (RDW) and mean platelet volume (MPV) are considered as inflammatory markers for cancer. We investigated the values of RDW, MPV, and cancer antigen 125 (CA125), alone or in combination, for distinguishing between ovarian cancer and benign ovarian tumors.

METHODS

The study included 326 patients with ovarian cancer, 290 patients with benign ovarian tumors, and 162 control subjects. Hematologic tests were performed at initial diagnosis.

RESULTS

RDW was increased and MPV was decreased in the ovarian cancer group compared with the control and benign ovarian tumor groups. RDW was positively correlated and MPV was negatively correlated with cancer stage. Area under the curve (AUC) analysis for ovarian cancer versus benign ovarian tumors revealed that the specificity and sensitivity were increased for the combination of MPV and CA125 compared with either marker alone, and the specificity was increased for the combination of RDW and CA125, compared with either alone. The AUCs for RDW plus CA125 and MPV plus CA125 were significantly larger than for any of the markers alone.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, combinations of the markers RDW, MPV, and CA125 may improve the differential diagnosis of ovarian cancer and benign ovarian tumors.

Interleukin-6: A promising cytokine to support liver regeneration and adaptive immunity in liver pathologies

Liver pathologies (fibrosis, cirrhosis, alcoholic, non-alcoholic diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma) represent one of the most common causes of death worldwide. A number of genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of liver diseases. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine, exerting variety of effects on inflammation, liver regeneration, and defence against infections by regulating adaptive immunity. Due to its high abundance in inflammatory settings, IL-6 is often viewed as a detrimental cytokine. However, accumulating evidence supports the view that IL-6 has a beneficial impact in numerous liver pathologies, due to its roles in liver regeneration and in promoting an anti-inflammatory response in certain conditions. IL-6 promotes proliferation, angiogenesis and metabolism, and downregulates apoptosis and oxidative stress; together these functions are critical for mediating hepatoprotection. IL-6 is also an important regulator of adaptive immunity where it induces T cell differentiation and regulates autoimmunity. It can augment antiviral adaptive immune responses and mitigate exhaustion of T cells during chronic infection. This review focuses on studies that present IL-6 as a key factor in regulating liver regeneration and in supporting effector immune functions and suggests that these functions of IL-6 can be exploited in treatment strategies for liver pathologies.

Modulating secreted components of tumor microenvironment: A masterstroke in tumor therapeutics

The microenvironment in which cancer resides plays an important role in regulating cancer survival, progression, malignancy and drug resistance. Tumor microenvironment (TME) consists of heterogeneous number and types of cellular and non-cellular components that vary in relation to tumor phenotype and genotype. In recent, non-cellular secreted components of microenvironmental heterogeneity have been suggested to contain various growth factors, cytokines, RNA, DNA, metabolites, structural matrix and matricellular proteins. These non-cellular components have been indicated to orchestrate numerous ways to support cancer survival and progression by providing metabolites, energy, growth signals, evading immune surveillance, drug resistance environment, metastatic and angiogenesis cues. Thus, switching action from pro-cancer to anti-cancer activities of these secreted components of TME has been considered as a new avenue in cancer therapeutics and drug resistance. In this report, we summarize the recent pre-clinical and clinical evidences to emphasize the importance of non-cellular components of TME in achieving precision therapeutics and biomarker study.

lncTCF7 is a negative prognostic factor, and knockdown of lncTCF7 inhibits migration, proliferation and tumorigenicity in glioma

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to play critical roles in cancer. lncTCF7 (gene symbol: WSPAR) has been reported to maintain stemness in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) stem cells. However, little is known about the role of lncTCF7 in glioma. The aim of this study was to identify the role of lncTCF7 in the pathogenesis of glioma. We analysed the relationship of lncTCF7 expression with clinicopathological characteristics in glioma patients. Our results showed that lncTCF7 expression was increased in glioma tissues compared with that in normal brain tissues (P < 0.001). Moreover, lncTCF7 was significantly associated with WHO grade (I–II vs. III–IV; P = 0.006) and tumour size (<3 cm vs. T ≥ 3 cm; P = 0.025). Meanwhile, patients with high lncTCF7 expression levels exhibited markedly worse overall survival prognoses (P < 0.01). Loss of function assays revealed that knockdown of lncTCF7 significantly inhibited glioma cell migration, proliferation and tumorigenicity in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we found that hypoxia induced lncTCF7 expression in an autocrine manner through IL-6 in glioma. In conclusion, lncTCF7 may play a vital role in glioma progression and serves as a potential prognostic biomarker in glioma patients, providing new targets for glioma therapy.

DcR3 combined with hematological traits serves as a valuable biomarker for the diagnosis of cancer metastasis

Decoy receptor 3 (DcR3) is abnormally up-regulated in many cancer cells. It may help cancer cells to escape from immune surveillance and establish metastatic lesions. However, whether DcR3 can be used as a biomarker for the diagnosis of cancer metastasis is unclear. In this study, sera from healthy controls and patients with different cancers were collected, and tested for their DcR3 levels by ELISA. Significantly elevated DcR3 levels were observed in the sera of patients with gastric cancer (2.04 ± 1.01, P = 0.0061), lymphoma (1.62 ± 0.75, P = 0.041), and breast cancer (1.53 ± 0.51, P = 0.023). DcR3 was found to be a suitable biomarker for identifying gastric cancer patients. Importantly, DcR3 was positively associated with platelet distribution width (PDW) (P = 2.45 × 10⁻⁶, R = 0.63) in metastatic cancers but negatively associated with hemoglobin (HGB) (P = 0.002, R = −0.59) and hematocrit (HCT) (P = 0.001, R = −0.62) in non-metastatic cancers. Combined with PDW, HGB and HCT, serum DcR3 could be used to predict the occurrence of cancer metastasis. These findings indicate that DcR3 could be used as a biomarker for the diagnosis of gastric cancer, and for cancer metastasis in combination with hematological traits.

Systematic Analysis of Transcriptomic Profile of Renal Cell Carcinoma under Long-Term Hypoxia Using Next-Generation Sequencing and Bioinformatics

Patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) are often diagnosed with both von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) mutations and the constitutive activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-dependent signaling. In this study, we investigated the effects of long-term hypoxia in 786-O, a VHL-defective renal cell carcinoma cell line, to identify potential genes and microRNAs associated with tumor malignancy. The transcriptomic profiles of 786-O under normoxia, short-term hypoxia and long-term hypoxia were analyzed using next-generation sequencing. The results showed that long-term hypoxia promoted the ability of colony formation and transwell migration compared to normoxia. In addition, the differentially expressed genes induced by long-term hypoxia were involved in various biological processes including cell proliferation, the tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, basal cell carcinoma and cancer pathways. The upregulated (L1CAM and FBN1) and downregulated (AUTS2, MAPT, AGT and USH1C) genes in 786-O under long-term hypoxia were also observed in clinical ccRCC samples along with malignant grade. The expressions of these genes were significantly correlated with survival outcomes in patients with renal cancer. We also found that long-term hypoxia in 786-O resulted in decreased expressions of hsa-mir-100 and hsa-mir-378 and this effect was also observed in samples of metastatic ccRCC compared to samples of non-metastatic ccRCC. These findings may provide a new direction for the study of potential molecular mechanisms associated with the progression of ccRCC.

The toxin BjussuLAAO-II induces oxidative stress and DNA damage, upregulates the inflammatory cytokine genes TNF and IL6, and downregulates the apoptotic-related genes BAX, BCL2 and RELA in human Caco-2 cells

Colorectal carcinoma is one of the most common cancers in adults. As chemotherapy, the first-choice treatment for colorectal carcinoma, is often infeasible due to acquired tumor resistance and several adverse effects, it is important to discover and explore new molecules with better therapeutic action. Snake venom toxins have shown promising results with high cytotoxicity against tumor cells, but their mechanisms of action remain unclear. Here we examined how BjussuLAAO-II, an L-amino acid oxidase isolated from Bothrops jararacussu snake venom, exerts cytotoxicity towards colorectal adenocarcinoma human cells (Caco-2) and human umbilical vein endothelial cell line (HUVEC). A 24-h treatment with BjussuLAAO-II at 0.25 - 5.00 μg/mL diminished cell viability by decreasing (i) mitochondrial activity, assessed by reduction of 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide and resazurin; (ii) the activity of acid phosphatases; and (iii) lysosomal function, assessed by neutral red uptake. BjussuLAAO-II also increased intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species and DNA damage, as assessed by fluorescence and the comet assay, respectively. BjussuLAAO-II altered the expression of cell proliferation-related genes, as determined by RT-qPCR: it elevated the expression of the inflammatory cytokine genes TNF and IL6, and lowered the expression of the apoptotic-related genes BAX, BCL2, and RELA. Therefore, BjussuLAAO-II induces Caco-2 cells death by acting on multiple intracellular targets, providing important data for further studies to assess whether these effects are seen in both tumor and normal cells, with the aim of selecting this drug for possible therapeutic purposes in the future.

Elevated red blood cell distribution width predicts poor prognosis in hilar cholangiocarcinoma

Background

Although the red blood cell distribution width (RDW) has been reported as a reliable predictor of prognosis in several types of cancer, the prognostic value of RDW in hilar cholangiocarcinoma (HC) has not been studied.

Methods

A retrospective analysis of 292 consecutively recruited HC patients undergoing radical resection was conducted. The optimal cutoff value of RDW was determined by the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC). Survival analysis by the Kaplan-Meier method, the difference between the clinico-pathologic variables and survival were evaluated by log-rank analysis. Multivariate analysis identified independent prognostic risk factors of overall survival (OS).

Results

ROC analysis suggested that the optimal cutoff value for the RDW was 14.95. Linear correlation analysis revealed that RDW is associated with white blood cell count (P = 0.007), neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (P = 0.02), and hemoglobin (P < 0.001), albumin (P < 0.001). In a multivariate analysis, the RDW was an independent prognostic factor for OS (HR = 1.755, 95% CI 1.311-2.349, P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Elevated RDW may be regarded as an indicator of systemic inflammatory response which might facilitate HC growth and metastasis. Current evidence suggests that RDW may have clinical significance in predicting OS after surgery in HC patients.

Complement anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a: Emerging roles in cancer progression and treatment

Recent insights into the role of complement anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a in cancer provide new opportunities for the development of innovative biomarkers and therapeutic strategies. These two complement activation products can maintain chronic inflammation, promote an immunosuppressive microenvironment, induce angiogenesis, and increase the motility and metastatic potential of cancer cells. Still, the diverse heterogeneity of responses mediated by these peptides poses a challenge both to our understanding of the role played by these molecules in cancer progression and to the development of effective treatments. This review attempts to summarize the evidence surrounding the involvement of anaphylatoxins in the biological contexts associated with tumor progression. We also describe the recent developments that support the inhibition of anaphylatoxins, or their cognate receptors C3aR and C5aR1, as a treatment option for maximizing the clinical efficacy of current immunotherapies that target the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint.

Blocking interleukin-6 signaling inhibits cell viability/proliferation, glycolysis, and colony forming activity of human medulloblastoma cells

Elevated levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) have tumor-promoting activity and are associated with poor survival outcomes in many cancers. Additionally, the IL-6/GP130/STAT3 axis has been widely studied due to its pivotal role in tumor development and maintenance in a number of tissue types, including the cerebellum. However, the connection between IL-6 signaling and medulloblastoma progression is largely unexplored. In the present study, we observed that IL-6 induced medulloblastoma cell viability, cell proliferation and glycolysis. Furthermore, it also upregulated the expression of phosphorylated STAT3, indicating that the IL-6/GP130/STAT3 pathway plays a central role in medulloblastoma. The FDA-approved drug bazedoxifene, a blocker of the formation of the hexameric IL-6/IL-6R/GP130 complex, was re-purposed in this study to inhibit the IL-6/GP130/STAT3 signaling pathway. Bazedoxifene not only inhibited IL-6 mediated cell viability and cell proliferation, and increased phosphorylated STAT3 expression, but it also decreased cell glycolysis, demonstrating a certain level of therapeutic efficacy in vitro. Collectively, our findings offer new insight into the molecular mechanism underlying the biological aggressiveness of medulloblastoma, the roles of IL-6 in these processes and a possible efficacious adjuvant therapy for medulloblastoma.

Novel TREM-1 Inhibitors Attenuate Tumor Growth and Prolong Survival in Experimental Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a highly lethal cancer with an urgent need to expand the limited treatment options for patients. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) promote tumor aggressiveness and metastasis. High expression of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM-1) on TAMs directly correlates with poor survival in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We have previously hypothesized that blockade of TREM-1 could be a promising therapeutic strategy to treat cancer and shown that the novel, ligand-independent TREM-1 inhibitory peptides rationally designed using the signaling chain homooligomerization (SCHOOL) strategy suppress NSCLC growth in vivo. Here, we evaluated the therapeutic potential of these inhibitors in three human PC xenograft mouse models. Administration of SCHOOL peptides resulted in a strong antitumor effect achieving an optimal treatment/control (T/C) value of 19% depending on the xenograft and formulation used and persisting even after treatment was halted. The effect correlated significantly with increased survival and suppressed TAM infiltration. The peptides were well-tolerated when deployed either in free form or formulated into lipopeptide complexes for peptide half-life extension and targeted delivery. Finally, blockade of TREM-1 significantly reduced serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-6, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), but not vascular endothelial growth factor, suggesting M-CSF-dependent antitumor mechanisms. Collectively, these promising data suggest that SCHOOL TREM-1-specific peptide inhibitors have a cancer type independent, therapeutically beneficial antitumor activity and can be potentially used as a stand-alone therapy or as a component of combinational therapy for PC, NSCLC, and other solid tumors.

Regulatory T Cells and Tumor-Associated Macrophages in the Tumor Microenvironment in Non-Muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer Treated with Intravesical Bacille Calmette-Guérin: A Long-Term Follow-Up Study of a Japanese Cohort

The clinical significance of regulatory T cells (Treg) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) in the tumor microenvironment of human bladder cancer remains unclear. The aim of this study is to explore their relevance to oncological features in non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). We carried out immunohistochemical analysis of forkhead box P3 (FOXP3, Treg maker), CD204 (TAM marker), and interleukin-6 (IL6) using surgical specimens obtained from 154 NMIBC patients. The Treg and TAM counts surrounding the cancer lesion and IL6-positive cancer cell counts were evaluated against clinicopathological variables. We focused on the ability of the Treg and TAM counts around the cancer lesion to predict outcomes after adjuvant intravesical Bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) treatment. High Treg counts were associated with female patients, older age, T1 category, and high tumor grade. TAM count was significantly correlated with Treg count and with IL6-positive cancer cell count. In our analysis of 71 patients treated with BCG, high counts of Treg and TAM were associated with shorter recurrence-free survival, and the former was an independent predictor of recurrence. Poor response to intravesical BCG was associated with Treg and TAM in the tumor microenvironment. Disrupting the immune network can be a supplementary therapeutic approach for NMIBC patients receiving intravesical BCG.

Downregulation of caspase‑3 alleviates Mycoplasma pneumoniae‑induced apoptosis in alveolar epithelial cells

Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M. pneumoniae) infection is closely associated with pneumonia in children. Apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells is involved in the development of pneumonia in children. The present study aimed to examine how caspase‑3 influences apoptosis rates in M. pneumoniae‑infected alveolar epithelial cells. A549 alveolar epithelial cells were treated with M. pneumoniae, and cells and culture supernatant were collected at different time points. Alterations in apoptosis rates and caspase‑3 mRNA and protein levels were measured for each treatment group. Cell apoptosis was detected using flow cytometry and TUNEL assay, and cell proliferation was detected using Cell Counting Kit‑8 assay. Caspase‑3 expression in A549 cells was inhibited via small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown and relative alterations in mRNA and protein levels and apoptosis rates were measured. Cytokine levels were measured using ELISA assay. Apoptosis rates of alveolar epithelial cells increased with prolonged exposure to M. pneumoniae (P<0.05). M. pneumoniae infection increased interleukin (IL)‑4, IL‑6 and IL‑13 levels and reduced IL‑10 levels. Caspase‑3 was upregulated, whereas B cell lymphoma (Bcl)‑2 was downregulated upon M. pneumoniae exposure for 24 h (P<0.05). Following 12 and 24 h of treatment, caspase‑3 levels in the siRNA‑treated cells were decreased compared with control group (P<0.05). M. pneumoniae also significantly altered caspase‑3 and Bcl‑2 protein expression. M. pneumoniae promoted apoptosis in alveolar epithelial cells via activation of the external death receptor pathway. Therefore, M. pneumoniae infection may affect the development of pneumonia in children by regulating caspase‑3 expression and promoting apoptosis.

The relationship between inflammatory mediator expression in the aqueous humor and secondary glaucoma incidence after silicone oil tamponade

The expression of inflammatory mediators in the aqueous humor and the incidence of secondary glaucoma after vitreous body resection combined with silicone oil tamponade for patients with retinal detachment were inestigated, and the roles of IL-17, IL-6 and TNF-α in secondary glaucoma after silicone oil tamponade were analyzed. Fifty-eight cases of retinal detachment treated by vitrectomy combined with silicone oil tamponade were examined at the time of silicone oil removal surgery. All patients underwent unilateral surgery. Patients were divided into observation (19 cases with) and control (39 cases without) groups depending on development of secondary glaucoma. Prior to silicone oil removal, expression levels of IL-17, IL-6 and TNF-α in the aqueous humor were examined. IL-17, IL-6 and TNF-α levels in the aqueous humor in the observation group were 204.2±18.3, 351.1±28.4 and 850.0±51.7 pg/ml, respectively, vs. 152.3±22.2, 254.4±26.8 and 625.6±61.2 pg/ml, respectively in the control group (P<0.001). The expression of IL-17 was positively correlated with those of IL-6 and TNF-α (r=0.687, 0.745; P<0.001). IL-17, IL-6 and TNF-α presented good diagnostic values for glaucoma. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) areas were 0.957, 0.980 and 0.975, respectively (P<0.001). The expression of inflammatory mediators such as IL-17, IL-6 and TNF-α in the aqueous humor of patients with secondary glaucoma after silicone oil tamponade significantly increased relative to patients without secondary glaucoma. The resultant inflammation may be involved in the development of secondary glaucoma.

Irisin reverses the IL-6 induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in osteosarcoma cell migration and invasion through the STAT3/Snail signaling pathway

As a novel discovered myokine, irisin is considered to be a promising candidate for the treatment of metabolic disorders and cancer. However, little is known about the anti-metastasic effect of irisin on osteosarcoma cells and its underlying mechanisms. In the present study, we aimed to explore the effect of irisin on the migration and invasion of osteosarcoma cells and the underlying mechanisms involved. Viability and proliferation of osteosarcoma cells were examined by MTT assay. Then, by using scratch wound healing assay and Transwell assays, we evaluated migratory and invasive ability of the cells, respectively. Moreover, the expression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers were determined by qPCR, western blot and immunofluorescence staining after treatment with IL-6 and irisin. Furthermore, the expression of ERK, p38, STAT3 and Snail were detected by western blot analysis. Finally, an inhibitor of STAT3, WP1066 was applied to testify the effect of irisin on the expression of EMT markers and Snail. It was found that irisin treatment significantly suppressed the proliferation, migration and invasion of osteosarcoma cells. Furthermore, irisin reversed the IL-6-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in osteosarcoma cells by regulating the expression of E-cadherin, N-cadherin, vimentin, fibronectin, MMP-2, MMP-7 and MMP-9. In addition, irisin suppressed the IL-6-activated phosphorylation of STAT3 and the expression of Snail in osteosarcoma cells. Finally, blockade of STAT3 by WP1066 (a STAT3 inhibitor) further enhanced the effect of irisin on the EMT and Snail expression in osteosarcoma cells. Collectively, our findings revealed that irisin may play a critical role in the IL-6-induced EMT of osteosarcoma cells via the STAT3/Snail signaling pathway.

Platelet distribution width correlates with prognosis of gastric cancer

Background

Activated platelets promote tumor cell growth, aberrant angiogenesis, and invasion. However, the value of platelet indices for predicting survival in gastric cancer remains unknown. The goal of this study was to investigate the predictive significance of platelet indices in gastric cancer.

Result

Reduced platelet distribution width (PDW) was significantly correlated with age, carcinoembryonic antigen, tumor stage, nodule stage, and tumor-nodule-metastases stage. Moreover, decreased PDW correlated with a shorter overall survival in gastric cancer. Multivariate analysis identified PDW as an independent prognostic factor for overall survival (hazard ratio: 0.493, 95% confidence interval: 0.319-0.761, p = 0.001).

Method

A total of 294 patients with gastric cancer were retrospectively analyzed between January 2009 and December 2009. The association between platelet indices and overall survival were evaluated. The prognostic analysis was carried out with Cox regression model.

Conclusion

PDW is easily available with routine blood counts. Our data revealed that reduced PDW is unfavorable prognostic factor in gastric cancer. Further studies are warranted.

Obesity and Cancer Metabolism: A Perspective on Interacting Tumor-Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors

Obesity is associated with increased risk and poor prognosis of many types of cancers. Several obesity-related host factors involved in systemic metabolism can influence tumor initiation, progression, and/or response to therapy, and these have been implicated as key contributors to the complex effects of obesity on cancer incidence and outcomes. Such host factors include systemic metabolic regulators including insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1, adipokines, inflammation-related molecules, and steroid hormones, as well as the cellular and structural components of the tumor microenvironment, particularly adipose tissue. These secreted and structural host factors are extrinsic to, and interact with, the intrinsic metabolic characteristics of cancer cells to influence their growth and spread. This review will focus on the interplay of these tumor cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors in the context of energy balance, with the objective of identifying new intervention targets for preventing obesity-associated cancer.

Regulation of cell signaling pathways by dietary agents for cancer prevention and treatment

Although it is widely accepted that better food habits do play important role in cancer prevention and treatment, how dietary agents mediate their effects remains poorly understood. More than thousand different polyphenols have been identified from dietary plants. In this review, we discuss the underlying mechanism by which dietary agents can modulate a variety of cell-signaling pathways linked to cancer, including transcription factors, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), activator protein-1 (AP-1), β-catenin/Wnt, peroxisome proliferator activator receptor- gamma (PPAR-γ), Sonic Hedgehog, and nuclear factor erythroid 2 (Nrf2); growth factors receptors (EGFR, VEGFR, IGF1-R); protein Kinases (Ras/Raf, mTOR, PI3K, Bcr-abl and AMPK); and pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, interleukins, COX-2, 5-LOX). In addition, modulation of proteasome and epigenetic changes by the dietary agents also play a major role in their ability to control cancer. Both in vitro and animal based studies support the role of dietary agents in cancer. The efficacy of dietary agents by clinical trials has also been reported. Importantly, natural agents are already in clinical trials against different kinds of cancer. Overall both in vitro and in vivo studies performed with dietary agents strongly support their role in cancer prevention. Thus, the famous quote "Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food" made by Hippocrates 25 centuries ago still holds good.

Pilot Evaluation of Angiogenesis Signaling Factor Response after Transcatheter Arterial Embolization for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Purpose To identify changes in a broad panel of circulating angiogenesis factors after bland transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE), a purely ischemic treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Materials and Methods This prospective HIPAA-compliant study was approved by the institutional review board. Informed written consent was obtained from all participants prior to entry into the study. Twenty-five patients (21 men; mean age, 61 years; range, 30-81 years) with Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System category 5 or biopsy-proven HCC and who were undergoing TAE were enrolled from October 15, 2014, through December 2, 2015. Nineteen plasma angiogenesis factors (angiopoietin 2; hepatocyte growth factor; platelet-derived growth factor AA and BB; placental growth factor; vascular endothelial growth factor A and D; vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1, 2, and 3; osteopontin; transforming growth factor β1 and β2; thrombospondin 2; intercellular adhesion molecule 1; interleukin 6 [IL-6]; stromal cell-derived factor 1; tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1; and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 [VCAM-1]) were measured by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays at 1 day, 2 weeks, and 5 weeks after TAE and were compared with baseline levels by using paired Wilcoxon tests. Tumor response was assessed according to modified Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (mRECIST). Angiogenesis factor levels were compared between responders and nonresponders by mRECIST criteria by using unpaired Wilcoxon tests. Results All procedures were technically successful with no complications. Fourteen angiogenesis factors showed statistically significant changes following TAE, but most changes were transient. IL-6 was upregulated only 1 day after the procedure, but showed the largest increases of any factor. Osteopontin and VCAM-1 demonstrated sustained upregulation at all time points following TAE. At 3-month follow-up imaging, 11 patients had responses to TAE (complete response, n = 6; partial response, n = 5) and 11 patients were nonresponders (stable disease, n = 9; progressive disease, n = 2). In nonresponders, the percent change in IL-6 on the day after TAE (P = .033) and the mean percent change in osteopontin after TAE (P = .024) were significantly greater compared with those of responders. Conclusion Multiple angiogenesis factors demonstrated significant upregulation after TAE. VCAM-1 and osteopontin demonstrated sustained upregulation, whereas the rest were transient. IL-6 and osteopontin correlated significantly with radiologic response after TAE. ^© RSNA, 2017.

Decreased Mean Platelet Volume is Associated with Cervical Cancer Development

Background:

Cervical cancer is the most common gynecological malignant disorder worldwide. Activated platelets play a key role in cancer development and progression. Mean platelet volume (MPV) is an early indicator of platelet activation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate MPV levels in patients with cervical cancer.

Materials and methods:

A total of 181 patients with cervical cancer and 181 controls between January 2015 and June 2015 were included in the study. Patient characteristics and hematologic test data at initial diagnosis were collected and odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for risk of cervical cancer were calculated using multivariate logistic regression analyses across MPV quartiles.

Results:

MPV levels were decreased in patients with cervical cancer compared with control subjects. A significant correlation between MPV and FIGO stage was found. Moreover, after adjusting for other risk factors, the ORs (95%CIs) for cervical cancer according to MPV quartiles were 4.450 (1.975-10.026), 2.505 (1.206-5.202), 0.573 (0.261-1.259), and 1.000, respectively.

Conclusions:

MPV was found to be independently associated with the presence of cervical cancer. Our results suggest that MPV could be potential diagnostic screening tool.

Cancer antigen 15-3, platelet distribution width, and fibrinogen in combination to distinguish breast cancer from benign breast disease in non-conclusive mammography patients

Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer death among females. However, mammographic diagnosis is sometimes non-conclusive with a Breast imaging Reporting and Data System (Bi-RaDS) result of 0. Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3) is the most widely used serum tumor marker for breast cancer screening. Platelet distribution width (PDW) is an early indicator of platelet activation. Fibrinogen contributed to angiogenesis and distant metastasis. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of CA15-3, PDW, and fibrinogen individually or in combination, to distinguish breast cancer from benign breast disease. 200 consecutive patients with breast cancer and 187 patients with benign breast disease were included in this retrospective study. Patients’ characteristics and hematologic tests data at initial diagnosis were collected. The benefit of adding PDW and fibrinogen to a model with only CA15-3 was evaluated as an increased in the area under the curve (AUC) obtained by receiver operating curve (ROC). CA15-3, PDW and fibrinogen are higher in breast cancer patients than in patients with benign breast disease. Single biomarkers had AUC values ranging from 0.687 for fibrinogen to 0.810 for CA15-3. In addition, the combination of PDW, CA15-3, and fibrinogen increased the AUC to 0.900 (0.866-0.928) (p<0.0001), significantly higher than those of any single marker. In conclusion, the combined use of CA15-3, PDW and fibrinogen may be clinically useful in discriminating between breast cancer and benign breast disease in non-conclusive mammography patients.

Interleukin-6, C/EBP-β and PPAR-γ expression correlates with intramuscular liposarcoma growth in mice: The impact of voluntary physical activity levels

IL-6 is an axial cytokine overexpressed in cancer to promote growth and increase resistance to anti-cancer therapies. As the application of IL-6-targeting therapies are still limited, alternative non-aggressive and adjuvant approaches, like physical activity (PA) could be useful to reverse IL-6 effects. To get more insights into liposarcoma (LS) pathophysiology, we investigated potential molecular links between IL-6 and LS growth and we tested the impact of PA on such mechanism in an orthotopic model of intramuscular LS. Initially active nude mice have received an intramuscular injection of either human SW872 cells or vehicle, then were respectively randomized into voluntary-active or inactive mice with open or restricted access to activity-wheels. We found that LS-bearing mice exhibited ∼6 fold increase in circulating IL-6 comparing to controls, with a concomitant decrease in hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes expression. Circulating IL-6 levels were positively correlated with intra-tumor IL-6 expression (r = 0.85, P < 0.01). Interestingly, intra-tumor IL-6, C/EBP-α/β and PPAR-γ expression were correlated together and with greater tumor mass and autophagy markers, notably, GABARAPL-1. Intriguingly, we found that maintaining a spontaneous PA after tumor injection did not reduce the levels of IL-6, but even enhanced tumor growth, induced body weight loss and increased the risk of developing lung metastasis. Our findings suggest that (1) IL-6, C/EBP-β and PPAR-γ exert a potential role in promoting growth of dedifferentiated LS and (2) that PA failed to mechanistically interfere with these factors, but enhanced LS growth via other independent-mechanisms. The preclinical data reported here could be helpful in the sub-molecular classification of LS patients to improve diagnosis and design a low-risk treatment. Circulating IL-6 could serve as an indicator for treatment follow-up and, perhaps, for infra-radiologic LS relapses.

Platelet distribution width correlates with prognosis of non-small cell lung cancer

Platelets play a multifaceted role in cancer progression and metastasis. Mean platelet volume (MPV) and platelet distribution width (PDW) are commonly used platelet parameters from routine blood test. The aim of the present study was to investigate the correlation between platelet indices and prognosis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). A total of 270 patients who were diagnosed with NSCLC between January 2009 and December 2009 were retrospectively analyzed. Patients’ characteristics and hematologic tests data at initial diagnosis were collected. The overall survival rate was estimated using Kaplan-Meier method. The prognostic analysis was carried out with univariate and multivariate Cox regressions model. Reduced PDW was significantly correlated with T stage, N stage, TNM stage, and histological type of the disease. Moreover, survival analysis showed that the overall survival of patients with PDW ≥ 16.3% was significantly longer than that of those with PDW < 16.3% (P < 0.001). In multivariate Cox regression model, age, sex, TNM stage, and PDW were identified as independent prognostic factors for overall survival (for PDW, P < 0.001). In conclusion, reduced PDW is an unfavorable predictive factor of NSCLC patient survival. Further studies are warranted.

Exploiting the Ref-1-APE1 node in cancer signaling and other diseases: from bench to clinic

Reduction-oxidation factor 1-apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease (Ref-1/APE1) is a critical node in tumor cells, both as a redox regulator of transcription factor activation and as part of the DNA damage response. As a redox signaling protein, Ref-1/APE1 enhances the transcriptional activity of STAT3, HIF-1α, nuclear factor kappa B, and other transcription factors to promote growth, migration, and survival in tumor cells as well as inflammation and angiogenesis in the tumor microenvironment. Ref-1/APE1 is activated in a variety of cancers, including prostate, colon, pancreatic, ovarian, lung and leukemias, leading to increased aggressiveness. Transcription factors downstream of Ref-1/APE1 are key contributors to many cancers, and Ref-1/APE1 redox signaling inhibition slows growth and progression in a number of tumor types. Ref-1/APE1 inhibition is also highly effective when paired with other drugs, including standard-of-care therapies and therapies targeting pathways affected by Ref-1/APE1 redox signaling. Additionally, Ref-1/APE1 plays a role in a variety of other indications, such as retinopathy, inflammation, and neuropathy. In this review, we discuss the functional consequences of activation of the Ref-1/APE1 node in cancer and other diseases, as well as potential therapies targeting Ref-1/APE1 and related pathways in relevant diseases. APX3330, a novel oral anticancer agent and the first drug to target Ref-1/APE1 for cancer is entering clinical trials and will be explored in various cancers and other diseases bringing bench discoveries to the clinic.

Increased platelet distribution width predicts poor prognosis in melanoma patients

Activated platelets promote cancer progression and metastasis. Nevertheless, the prognostic value of platelet indices in melanoma had been rarely reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive significance of platelet indices in melanoma. A total of 220 consecutive patients with melanoma were retrospectively enrolled between January 2009 and December 2009. The relationship between PDW and clinicopathological characteristics were analyzed. Kaplan-Meier method and Cox regression were used to evaluate the prognostic impact of PDW. Of the 220 patients, high platelet distribution width (PDW) levels were observed in 63 (28.6%) patients. Increased PDW was associated with tumor subtype (P < 0.001). Survival curves found that patients with increased PDW had significantly shorter survival time than those with normal PDW (P < 0.001). Cox regression analysis revealed that elevated PDW was an independent prognostic factor for overall survival (hazard ratio, 2.480; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.386–4.436, P = 0.002). In conclusion, PDW is easily available in routine blood test. Our findings indicated that PDW is an independent predictor and that it may also be a potential parameter for targeted therapy in melanoma.

Peptidylarginine Deiminases-Roles in Cancer and Neurodegeneration and Possible Avenues for Therapeutic Intervention via Modulation of Exosome and Microvesicle (EMV) Release?

Exosomes and microvesicles (EMVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed structures released from cells and participate in cell-to-cell communication via transport of biological molecules. EMVs play important roles in various pathologies, including cancer and neurodegeneration. The regulation of EMV biogenesis is thus of great importance and novel ways for manipulating their release from cells have recently been highlighted. One of the pathways involved in EMV shedding is driven by peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) mediated post-translational protein deimination, which is calcium-dependent and affects cytoskeletal rearrangement amongst other things. Increased PAD expression is observed in various cancers and neurodegeneration and may contribute to increased EMV shedding and disease progression. Here, we review the roles of PADs and EMVs in cancer and neurodegeneration.

Co-Inflammatory Roles of TGFβ1 in the Presence of TNFα Drive a Pro-inflammatory Fate in Mesenchymal Stem Cells

High plasticity is a hallmark of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and as such, their differentiation and activities may be shaped by factors of their microenvironment. Bones, tumors, and cardiomyopathy are examples of niches and conditions that contain MSCs and are enriched with tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1). These two cytokines are generally considered as having opposing roles in regulating immunity and inflammation (pro- and anti-inflammatory, respectively). Here, we performed global gene expression analysis of human bone marrow-derived MSCs and identified overlap in half of the transcriptional programs that were modified by TNFα and TGFβ1. The two cytokines elevated the mRNA expression of soluble factors, including mRNAs of pro-inflammatory mediators. Accordingly, the typical pro-inflammatory factor TNFα prominently induced the protein expression levels of the pro-inflammatory mediators CCL2, CXCL8 (IL-8), and cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) in MSCs, through the NF-κB/p65 pathway. In parallel, TGFβ1 did not elevate CXCL8 protein levels and induced the protein expression of CCL2 at much lower levels than TNFα; yet, TGFβ1 readily induced Cox-2 and acted predominantly via the Smad3 pathway. Interestingly, combined stimulation of MSCs by TNFα + TGFβ1 led to a cooperative induction of all three inflammatory mediators, indicating that TGFβ1 functioned as a co-inflammatory cytokine in the presence of TNFα. The cooperative activities of TNFα + TGFβ1 that have led to CCL2 and CXCL8 induction were almost exclusively dependent on p65 activation and were not regulated by Smad3 or by the upstream regulator TGFβ-activated kinase 1 (TAK1). In contrast, the TNFα + TGFβ1-induced cooperative elevation in Cox-2 was mostly dependent on Smad3 (demonstrating cooperativity with activated NF-κB) and was partly regulated by TAK1. Studies with MSCs activated by TNFα + TGFβ1 revealed that they release factors that can affect other cells in their microenvironment and induce breast tumor cell elongation, migration, and scattering out of spheroid tumor masses. Thus, our findings demonstrate a TNFα + TGFβ1-driven pro-inflammatory fate in MSCs, identify specific molecular mechanisms involved, and propose that TNFα + TGFβ1-stimulated MSCs influence the tumor niche. These observations suggest key roles for the microenvironment in regulating MSC functions, which in turn may affect different health-related conditions.

Programmed cell senescence: role of IL-6 in the pituitary

IL-6 is a pleiotropic cytokine with multiple pathophysiological functions. As a key factor of the senescence secretome, it can not only promote tumorigenesis and cell proliferation but also exert tumor suppressive functions, depending on the cellular context. IL-6, as do other cytokines, plays important roles in the function, growth and neuroendocrine responses of the anterior pituitary gland. The multiple actions of IL-6 on normal and adenomatous pituitary function, cell proliferation, angiogenesis and extracellular matrix remodeling indicate its importance in the regulation of the anterior pituitary. Pituitary tumors are mostly benign adenomas with low mitotic index and rarely became malignant. Premature senescence occurs in slow-growing benign tumors, like pituitary adenomas. The dual role of IL-6 in senescence and tumorigenesis is well represented in pituitary tumor development, as it has been demonstrated that effects of paracrine IL-6 may allow initial pituitary cell growth, whereas autocrine IL-6 in the same tumor triggers senescence and restrains aggressive growth and malignant transformation. IL-6 is instrumental in promotion and maintenance of the senescence program in pituitary adenomas.

Mean platelet volume, platelet distribution width and carcinoembryonic antigen to discriminate gastric cancer from gastric ulcer

Activated platelets are involved in cancer development and progression. Mean platelet volume (MPV) and platelet distribution width (PDW) are early indexes of platelet activation. The objectives of this study were to investigate the ability of MPV, PDW and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) individually or in combination, to distinguish between gastric cancer and gastric ulcer. The study involved 194 patients with gastric cancer, 191 patients with gastric ulcer, and 185 control subjects. Subjects’ characteristics and hematologic tests data at initial diagnosis were collected. We found that MPV levels are significantly increased and PDW levels are significantly reduced in patients with gastric ulcer and in control subjects compared with those in gastric cancer. When the area under the curve (AUC) was used to analyze control subjects versus gastric cancer, the combination of PDW and CEA exhibited a significantly larger AUC of 0.939 (0.910-0.961) compared with the combination of MPV and CEA (p = 0.0045). When AUC was used to analyze gastric ulcer versus gastric cancer, PDW alone had the high specificity (98.5%) and high sensitivity (97.4%). In conclusion, combined use of MPV, PDW and CEA can accurately distinguish gastric cancer from gastric ulcer and controls. Further studies in larger samples are warranted.

Macrophages Polarized by Expression of ToxoGRA15II Inhibit Growth of Hepatic Carcinoma

A growing body of evidence suggests that tumor-associated macrophages are deeply involved in the hepatocellular carcinoma proliferation and account for the large proportion of infiltrated cells in tumor tissues and play a major role in promotion of tumor growth. On the other hand, studies have demonstrated that Toxoplasma gondii virulence-associated molecule of dense granule protein (ToxoGRA15_II) tends to induce classically activated macrophages (M1) differentiation. Thus, we explored the M1 induced by ToxoGRA15_IIin vitro and its inhibitory impact on the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of hepatic carcinoma in murine model. Here, we constructed recombinant plasmid of pegfp-gra15_II and subsequently ligate it to lentivirus (Lv) vector, with which RAW264.7 was transfected. The results showed that the transfected macrophages were polarized to M1. Coculture of the M1 with Hepa1-6 cells showed a remarkable inhibition of migration and invasion of the tumor cells and decreased expressions of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and MMP-2 without notable apoptosis of Hepa1-6 cells. Subsequently, ToxoGRA15_II-polarized macrophages inoculated to tumor-bearing C57BL/6 mice were seen in both spleen and tumor tissues, and tumor growth was sharply restricted. Particularly, interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression, which is closely associated with the cancer malignant behaviors, was significantly dampened in tumor tissues. In addition, expression of TNF-α and IL-12 mRNAs was increased, whereas IL-6 and interleukin-10 mRNAs were downregulated in splenocytes. Our results indicate that the effector molecule of ToxoGRA15_II may induce macrophage polarization to M1 that has a restrictive effect on tumor growth via its related cytokines profile in tumor and spleen tissues. Besides, ToxoGRA15_II, due to its early activation of specified cell population and non-toxicity to mammalians, has a potential value for a novel therapeutic strategy of enhancing host innate immunity against tumor development.

BAY 1143269, a novel MNK1 inhibitor, targets oncogenic protein expression and shows potent anti-tumor activity

The initiation of mRNA translation has received increasing attention as an attractive target for cancer treatment in the recent years. The oncogenic eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) is the major substrate of MAP kinase-interacting kinase 1 (MNK1), and it is located at the junction of the cancer-associated PI3K and MAPK pathways. The fact that MNK1 is linked to cell transformation and tumorigenesis renders the kinase a promising target for cancer therapy. We identified a novel small molecule MNK1 inhibitor, BAY 1143269, by high-throughput screening and lead optimization. In kinase assays, BAY 1143269 showed potent and selective inhibition of MNK1. By targeting MNK1 activity, BAY 1143269 strongly regulated downstream factors involved in cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, immune response and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in vitro or in vivo. In addition, BAY 1143269 demonstrated strong efficacy in monotherapy in cell line and patient-derived non-small cell lung cancer xenograft models as well as delayed tumor regrowth in combination treatment with standard of care chemotherapeutics. In summary, the inhibition of MNK1 activity with a highly potent and selective inhibitor BAY 1143269 may provide an innovative approach for anti-cancer therapy.

Expression, Purification, and Characterization of Interleukin-11 Orthologues

Interleukin-11 (IL-11) is a multifunctional cytokine implicated in several normal and pathological processes. The decoding of IL-11 function and development of IL-11-targeted drugs dictate the use of laboratory animals and need of the better understanding of species specificity of IL-11 signaling. Here, we present a method for the recombinant interleukin-11 (rIL-11) production from the important model animals, mouse and macaque. The purified mouse and macaque rIL-11 interact with extracellular domain of human IL-11 receptor subunit α and activate STAT3 signaling in HEK293 cells co-expressing human IL-11 receptors with efficacies resembling those of human rIL-11. Hence, the evolutionary divergence does not impair IL-11 signaling. Furthermore, compared to human rIL-11 its macaque orthologue is 8-fold more effective STAT3 activator, which favors its use for treatment of thrombocytopenia as a potent substitute for human rIL-11. Compared to IL-6, IL-11 signaling exhibits lower species specificity, likely due to less conserved intrinsic disorder propensity within IL-6 orthologues. The developed express method for preparation of functionally active macaque/mouse rIL-11 samples is suited for exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying IL-11 action and for development of the drug candidates for therapy of oncologic/hematologic/inflammatory diseases related to IL-11 signaling.

The biology and function of fibroblasts in cancer

Among all cells, fibroblasts could be considered the cockroaches of the human body. They survive severe stress that is usually lethal to all other cells, and they are the only normal cell type that can be live-cultured from post-mortem and decaying tissue. Their resilient adaptation may reside in their intrinsic survival programmes and cellular plasticity. Cancer is associated with fibroblasts at all stages of disease progression, including metastasis, and they are a considerable component of the general host response to tissue damage caused by cancer cells. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) become synthetic machines that produce many different tumour components. CAFs have a role in creating extracellular matrix (ECM) structure and metabolic and immune reprogramming of the tumour microenvironment with an impact on adaptive resistance to chemotherapy. The pleiotropic actions of CAFs on tumour cells are probably reflective of them being a heterogeneous and plastic population with context-dependent influence on cancer.

The biology and function of fibroblasts in cancer

Among all cells, fibroblasts could be considered the cockroaches of the human body. They survive severe stress that is usually lethal to all other cells, and they are the only normal cell type that can be live-cultured from post-mortem and decaying tissue. Their resilient adaptation may reside in their intrinsic survival programmes and cellular plasticity. Cancer is associated with fibroblasts at all stages of disease progression, including metastasis, and they are a considerable component of the general host response to tissue damage caused by cancer cells. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) become synthetic machines that produce many different tumour components. CAFs have a role in creating extracellular matrix (ECM) structure and metabolic and immune reprogramming of the tumour microenvironment with an impact on adaptive resistance to chemotherapy. The pleiotropic actions of CAFs on tumour cells are probably reflective of them being a heterogeneous and plastic population with context-dependent influence on cancer.