Aluminium and lead: molecular mechanisms of brain toxicity

Role of Environmental Toxicants on Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegeneration leads to the loss of structural and functioning components of neurons over time. Various studies have related neurodegeneration to a number of degenerative disorders. Neurological repercussions of neurodegeneration can have severe impacts on the physical and mental health of patients. In the recent past, various neurodegenerative ailments such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s illnesses have received global consideration owing to their global occurrence. Environmental attributes have been regarded as the main contributors to neural dysfunction-related disorders. The majority of neurological diseases are mainly related to prenatal and postnatal exposure to industrially produced environmental toxins. Some neurotoxic metals, like lead (Pb), aluminium (Al), Mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As), and also pesticides and metal-based nanoparticles, have been implicated in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. The contaminants are known for their ability to produce senile or amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which are the key features of these neurological dysfunctions. Besides, solvent exposure is also a significant contributor to neurological diseases. This study recapitulates the role of environmental neurotoxins on neurodegeneration with special emphasis on major neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.

Health Hazard Assessment Due to Slimming Medicinal Plant Intake

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of people rely on medicinal plants for their primary health needs. Traditional medicine's principal benefits are their vast population knowledge, low severe adverse effects rate, low cost, and the lack of a medical prescription to use them. While obesity has become a global health issue, an increase in finding cheap and fast ways to lose weight escalates medicinal herbs' use for this purpose, both in dietary supplements or in teas. At the same time that Brazil aims to expand traditional medicine, reports regarding toxicology and poisoning put natural products' safety in check. Plants can accumulate heavy metals and metalloids leading to health risks; however, there is a lack of information on that matter, possibly due to a lack of international standardization regarding elemental contamination - this study aimed to determine metal and metalloid concentrations in slimming medicinal plants and their respective teas and evaluate their safety consumption. Metal and metalloid content were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES). All plants and teas were within the set limits for tolerable upper intake level (UL), provisional tolerable daily maximum intake (PTDMI), and provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). The hazard quotient index (HQ) was above 1 for almost all plants, and the Hibiscus sabdariffa tea regarding aluminum content. The arsenic level was above the Brazilian Pharmacopeia limit in natura plants demonstrating risk in their consumption. Some herbs also presented detection for elements with no safety limits set, such as lead, cadmium, and arsenic, which could mark as a red flag for consumption once their security intake is not precise yet.

BcGR1.1, a Cytoplasmic Localized Glutathione Reductase, Enhanced Tolerance to Copper Stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Copper is a mineral element, which is necessary for the normal growth and development of plants, but high levels of copper will seriously damage plants. Studies have shown that AtGR1 improves the tolerance of Arabidopsis to aluminum and cadmium stress. However, the role of GR in the copper stress response of plants is still unclear. Here, we identified four genes (named BcGR1.1, BcGR1.2, BcGR2.1 and BcGR2.2, respectively) encoding glutathione reductase (GR) in non-heading Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris (syn. Brassica rapa) ssp. chinensis), which could be divided into two types based on the subcellular localization. Among them, BcGR1.1, which belonged to the cytoplasmic localization type, was significantly upregulated under copper stress. Compared to WT (the wild type), Arabidopsis thaliana heterologously overexpressed BcGR1.1 had longer roots, higher fresh weight, higher GSH levels and GSH/GSSG (oxidized form of GSH) ratio, and accumulated more superoxide dismutase and peroxidase under copper stress. However, in the AsA-GSH cycle under copper stress, the contents of AsA and AsA/DHA were significantly downregulated, and the contents of DHA and T-AsA (total AsA) were upregulated, in the BcGR1.1-overexpressing Arabidopsis. Therefore, BcGR1.1 could improve the scavenging ability of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by increasing the activity of GR, antioxidant enzymes and the utilization of AsA, and then enhance the copper stress tolerance of plants.

Early-life lead exposure induces long-term toxicity in the central nervous system: From zebrafish larvae to juveniles and adults

Lead induced neurotoxicity has been extensively investigated. However, the potential connections between early-life lead exposure and the frequently observed aberrant neurobehavior in juveniles and adults remain unclear. In this study, zebrafish model was used to explore the immediate and long-term effects of early-life exposure to environmental levels of lead on the central nervous system, and the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the consequent abnormal neurobehavior. Lead exposed zebrafish larvae exhibited neurologic damage and defective neurobehavior. Consistent with clinical studies, despite being raised in lead-free conditions, the juvenile and adult fish experienced lead exposure earlier, presented ADHD-like symptoms, and the adult fish exhibited remarkably affected vitality and shoaling behavior. Their anxiety levels were elevated, whereas their social interaction, as well as learning and memory were strongly depressed. The expression profiles of key genes involved in neurodevelopment and neurotransmitter systems were significantly modulated, in similar patterns as in the larval stage. Notably, the density of neurons was decreased and varicosities in neuronal axons were frequently observed in the lead-exposed groups. It's tempting to speculate that the disruption of early neurodevelopment as well as the prolonged modulation of neuromorphic and neurotransmitter systems contribute to the lead-induced neurobehavioral disorders observed in juveniles and adulthood.

Selective recognition of aluminum ions using an esculetin@Q[8] host–guest supramolecular fluorescent probe

Esculetin (ESC) and non-toxic Q[8] form a supramolecular compound combination, which can effectively monitor Al3+ in the water environment.

Corrosion of titanium under simulated inflammation conditions: clinical context and in vitro investigations

Titanium and alloys thereof are widely utilized for biomedical applications in the fields of orthopedics and dentistry. The corrosion resistance and perceived biocompatibility of such materials are essentially related to the presence of a thin passive oxide layer on the surface. However, during inflammation phases, the immune system and its leukocytic cells generate highly aggressive molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide and radicals, that can significantly alter the passive film resulting in the degradation of the titanium implants. In combination with mechanical factors, this can lead to the release of metal ions, nanoparticles or microscaled debris in the surrounding tissues (which may sustain chronic inflammation), bring about relevant health issues and contribute to implant loss or failure. After briefly presenting the context of inflammation, this review article analyses the state-of-the-art knowledge of the in vitro corrosion of titanium, titanium alloys and coated titanium by reactive oxygen species and by living cells with an emphasis on electrochemical and microstructural aspects. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Inflammation involves the production of reactive oxygen species that are known to alter the passive layer protecting titanium implants against the aggressive environment of the human body. Inflammatory processes therefore contribute to the deterioration of biomedical devices. Although review articles on biomaterials for implant applications are regularly published in the literature, none has ever focused specifically on the topic of inflammation. After briefly recalling the clinical context, this review analyses the in vitro studies on titanium corrosion under simulated inflammation conditions from the pioneer works of the 80s and the 90s till the most recent investigations. It reports about the status of this research area for a multidisciplinary readership covering the fields of materials science, corrosion and implantology.

The modulatory potential of herbal antioxidants against oxidative stress and heavy metal pollution: plants against environmental oxidative stress

Free radicals, principally reactive oxygen species (ROS), contribute to oxidative stress in human beings. Free radicals have different mechanisms of action and affect lipids, proteins, and DNA. Heavy metals including cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and arsenic are environmental pollutants that may induce oxidative stress and produce ROS, leading to harmful effects on different body systems such as the liver and brain. On the other side, antioxidants can have protective effects against oxidative stress and decrease their toxicity. Herbal antioxidants have potential antioxidative effects. These antioxidants positively affect neurodegenerative diseases, atherosclerotic diseases, lung fibrosis, kidney injuries, and liver toxicities induced by oxidative agents, including heavy metals. In this manuscript, we explained the mechanisms of oxidative stress, and also discussed heavy metals which contribute to human oxidative stress. We further discussed different herbal antioxidants, their mechanisms of action, and their clinical use for various diseases.

N,N'bis-(2-mercaptoethyl) isophthalamide (NBMI) exerts neuroprotection against lead-induced toxicity in U-87 MG cells

N,N'-bis(2-mercaptoethyl)isophthalamide (NBMI) is a novel lipophilic heavy metal chelator and thiol redox antioxidant. This study was designed to investigate the neuroprotective activity of NBMI in U-87 MG cells exposed to lead acetate (PbAc). Cells were pretreated with NBMI for 24 h prior to a 48 h exposure to PbAc. Cell death (55%, p < 0.0001) and reduction of intracellular GSH levels (0.70-fold, p < 0.005) induced by 250 µM Pb were successfully attenuated by NBMI pretreatment at concentrations as low as 10 µM. A similar pretreatment with the FDA-approved Pb chelator dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) proved ineffective, indicating a superior PKPD profile for NBMI. Pretreatment with NBMI successfully counteracted Pb-induced neuroinflammation by reducing IL-1β (0.59-fold, p < 0.05) and GFAP expression levels. NBMI alone was also found to significantly increase ferroportin expression (1.97-fold, p < 0.05) thereby enhancing cellular ability to efflux heavy metals. While no response was observed on the apoptotic pathway, this study demonstrated for the first time that necrotic cell death induced by Pb in U-87 MG cells is successfully attenuated by NBMI. Collectively these data demonstrate NBMI to be a promising neuroprotective compound in the realm of Pb poisoning.

Trivalent Cations Detection of Magnetic-Sensitive Microcapsules by Controlled-Release Fluorescence Off-On Sensor

A pyrene-based derivative, 2-((pyrene-1-ylmethylene)amino)ethanol (PE) nanoparticle, was encapsulated via water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) double emulsion with the solvent evaporation method by one-pot reaction and utilized as a fluorescence turn-on sensor for detecting Fe³⁺, Cr³⁺, and Al³⁺ ions. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) embedded in polycaprolactone (PCL) were used as the magnetic-sensitive polyelectrolyte microcapsule-triggered elements in the construction of the polymer matrix. The microcapsules were characterized by ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) and photoluminescence (PL) titrations, quantum yield (Φ_f) calculations, ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and superconducting quantum interference device magnetometry (SQUID) studies. This novel responsive release of the microcapsule fluorescence of the turn-on sensor for detecting trivalent cations was due to the compound PE and the MNPs being incorporated well within the whole system, and an effective thermal and kinetic energy transfer between the core and shell structure efficiently occurred in the externally oscillating magnetic field. The magnetic-sensitive fluorescence turn-on microcapsules show potential for effective metal ion sensing in environmental monitoring and even biomedical applications. Under the optimal controlled-release probe fluorescence conditions with high-frequency magnetic field treatment, the limit of detection (LOD) reached 1.574–2.860 μM and recoveries ranged from 94.7–99.4% for those metals in tap water.

Acute Toxic and Genotoxic Effects of Aluminum and Manganese Using In Vitro Models

The objective of this study was to use the same concentrations of aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) detected previously in groundwater above those permitted by Brazilian law and assess their cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in hamster ovary cell lines and their mutagenic effects through the Salmonella microsome assay. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and CHO-XRS5 cells were treated with different concentrations of Al and Mn (0.2 to 2.0 mg/L and 0.1 to 3.0 mg/L, respectively). The Ames test was used to analyze the concentrations of Al and Mn ranging from 0.025 to 1.0 mg/L and 0.0125 to 1.5 mg/L, respectively. Both metals showed cytotoxic effects on both cell lines and two bacterial strains (TA98 and TA100). The genotoxic effects of the highest concentrations of Al and Mn in cell lines showed nuclear buds, micronuclei, and DNA damage; however, none of the concentrations showed a positive mutagenic response in the Ames test. This is one of the few studies to demonstrate the cytotoxic effects of Al and Mn through the Ames test. In addition, the metals caused genomic instability in cell lines. Therefore, this study may help hasten the review of established regulatory standards for human consumption of groundwater.

Additives in pet food: are they safe?

A good, nutritious diet is essential for the health and well-being of our domestic pets. Today, most pet dogs and cats are fed highly processed food bearing little resemblance to canine and feline ancestral diets. Additives are included in processed pet food to provide nutritional benefits, ensure food safety, and maintain the desirable features of colour, flavour, texture, stability and resistance to spoilage. This paper reviews the safety of various additives in processed pet food. Labelling, safety assessment, and ethical concerns regarding existing toxicity testing procedures are also considered. The adequacy of testing for many additives and the scientific basis for determining safety are questioned. Additives can be synthetic or 'natural' although the distinction can be blurred when naturally derived substances are synthesised in the laboratory, or extracted using a high level of physical and chemical processing. Although additives play important roles in processed food production, updated strategies and technologies may be required to establish their safety in the pet food industry.

Toxic Elements in Traditional Kohl-Based Eye Cosmetics in Spanish and German Markets

Kohl is a traditional cosmetic widely used in Asia and Africa. In recent years, demand for kohl-based eyelids and lipsticks has increased in Europe, linked to migratory phenomena of populations from these continents. Although the European legislation prohibits the use of heavy metals in cosmetics due to the harmful effects to human health, particularly to pregnant women and children, these elements are still present in certain products. The European Union recommended levels are Pb < 20 ppm, As < 5 ppm, Cd < 5 ppm, Sb < 100 ppm, and Ni < 200 ppm. In Germany, levels are more restrictive: Pb < 2 ppm, As < 0.5 ppm, Cd < 0.1 ppm, Sb < 0.5 ppm, and Ni < 10 ppm. Here, we analyzed 12 kohl-based cosmetics in different presentations (powder, paste, and pencil) that were purchased in Spanish and German local shops. An inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer was used to identify toxic elements and heavy metals. Levels of Pb ranged between 1.7 and 410,000 ppm in six of the study samples, four of which had levels above the recommended limit of at least two heavy metals. Arsenic (a carcinogenic element) values were within the range allowed by the EU in only 58% of the studied samples. Moreover, two products doubled this limit, reaching levels of 9.2 and 12.6 ppm. In one of the products, cadmium, related to toxic keratitis, was four times higher (20.7 ppm) than that allowed, while in two other products, these limits were doubled (11.8 and 12.7 ppm). Our results indicate the need to supervise the manufacture of kohl-based traditional products and the analysis of their composition prior distribution in European countries.

Ambient PM2.5 species and ultrafine particle exposure and their differential metabolomic signatures

BACKGROUND

The metabolomic signatures of short- and long-term exposure to PM_2.5 have been reported and linked to inflammation and oxidative stress. However, little is known about the relative contribution of the specific PM_2.5 species (hence sources) that drive these metabolomic signatures.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the relative contribution of the different species of PM_2.5 exposure to the perturbed metabolic pathways related to changes in the plasma metabolome.

METHODS

We performed mass-spectrometry based metabolomic profiling of plasma samples among men from the Normative Aging Study to identify metabolic pathways associated with PM_2.5 species. The exposure windows included short-term (one, seven-, and thirty-day moving average) and long-term (one year moving average). We used linear mixed-effect regression with subject-specific intercepts while simultaneously adjusting for PM_2.5, NO₂, O₃, temperature, relative humidity, and covariates and correcting for multiple testing. We also used independent component analysis (ICA) to examine the relative contribution of patterns of PM_2.5 species.

RESULTS

Between 2000 and 2016, 456 men provided 648 blood samples, in which 1158 metabolites were quantified. We chose 305 metabolites for the short-term and 288 metabolites for the long-term exposure in this analysis that were significantly associated (p-value < 0.01) with PM_2.5 to include in our PM_2.5 species analysis. On average, men were 75.0 years old and their body mass index was 27.7 kg/m². Only 3% were current smokers. In the adjusted models, ultrafine particles (UFPs) were the most significant species of short-term PM_2.5 exposure followed by nickel, vanadium, potassium, silicon, and aluminum. Black carbon, vanadium, zinc, nickel, iron, copper, and selenium were the significant species of long-term PM_2.5 exposure. We identified several metabolic pathways perturbed with PM_2.5 species including glycerophospholipid, sphingolipid, and glutathione. These pathways are involved in inflammation, oxidative stress, immunity, and nucleic acid damage and repair. Results were overlapped with the ICA.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified several significant perturbed plasma metabolites and metabolic pathways associated with exposure to PM_2.5 species. These species are associated with traffic, fuel oil, and wood smoke. This is the largest study to report a metabolomic signature of PM_2.5 species' exposure and the first to use ICA.

The Role of Nrf2 on the Cognitive Dysfunction of High-fat Diet Mice Following Lead Exposure

Lead (Pb) exposure can induce the severe deleterious damage on the central nervous system (CNS). High-fat diet also has been suggested that it had some adverse effects on learning and memory, cognitive function, but there is lack of study on Pb and high-fat diet co-exposure on the CNS damage. In this study, the goal was to explore the effect of Pb on the cognitive function of mice with high-fat diet and to investigate whether Nrf2 signaling pathway acts in the cerebral cortex. C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into control, high-fat diet, Pb (drinking water with 250 mg/L lead acetate), and high-fat diet with Pb (drinking water with 250 mg/L lead acetate) co-exposure groups for 12 weeks. Experiment data showed that learn memory and exploration ability of mice obviously decreased in Pb and high-fat diet, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased; then, the protein expressions of Nrf2, heme oxygenase-1, NADP(H):dehydrogenase quinone 1, and superoxide dismutase 2 were lower significantly compared with those in the control group. This study suggested that down-expressed Nrf2 signaling pathway possibly related to the cognitive dysfunction induced by Pb and high-fat diet co-exposure.

A novel calibration for L-shell x-ray fluorescence measurements of bone lead concentration using the strontium Kβ/Kαratio

Objective. Lead (Pb) is a well-known toxic element.In vivobone Pb concentration measurement is a long-term exposure metric complementary to blood Pb concentration measurement which is a metric of recent exposure.In vivohuman tibia bone Pb measurements using Pb K-shell or L-shell x-ray fluorescence (KXRF or LXRF) emissions were developed in the 1980s. KXRF bone Pb measurements using Cd-109 gamma rays and coherent-to-fluorescence ratio to account for differences between phantom andin vivomeasurements, was employed in human studies. Bone Pb LXRF method employed x-ray tubes. However, calibration procedures using ultrasound measurements of the soft tissue thickness (STT) proved inaccurate.Approach. In this study, bone and soft tissue (ST) phantoms simulatedin vivobone Pb measurements. Seven plaster-of-Paris cylindrical bone phantoms containing 1.01 mg g-1of strontium (Sr) were doped with Pb in 0, 8, 16, 29, 44, 59, and 74 μg g-1concentrations. Polyoxymethylene (POM), resin, and wax were each used to fabricate four ST phantoms in the approximate 1-4 mm thickness range. Pb LXRF measurements were performed using a previously developed optimal grazing incidence position method.Main results. Linear attenuation coefficients measurements of ST materials indicated that POM and resin mimicked well attenuation of Pb x-rays in skin and adipose tissue, respectively. POM and resin data indicated a bone Pb detection limit of 20 μg g-1for a 2 mm STT. Derived relationships between the Pb concentration, Pb LXRF and Sr Kβ/Kαratio data did not require STT knowledge. Applied to POM and resin data, the new calibration method yielded unbiased results.Significance.In vivobone Pb measurements in children were suggested following considerations of radiation dose, STT, detectability and distribution of Pb and Sr in bone. This research meets with the concerns regarding the negative effects of low levels of Pb exposure on neurodevelopment of children.

Multielemental Analysis of Bee Pollen, Propolis, and Royal Jelly Collected in West-Central Poland

Beehive products possess nutritional value and health-promoting properties and are recommended as so-called "superfoods". However, because of their natural origin, they may contain relevant elemental contaminants. Therefore, to assess the quality of bee products, we examined concentrations of a broad range of 24 selected elements in propolis, bee pollen, and royal jelly. The quantitative analyses were performed with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) techniques. The results of our research indicate that bee products contain essential macronutrients (i.e., K, P, and S) and micronutrients (i.e., Zn and Fe) in concentrations depending on the products' type. However, the presence of toxic heavy metals makes it necessary to test the quality of bee products before using them as dietary supplements. Bearing in mind that bee products are highly heterogenous and, depending on the environmental factors, differ in their elemental content, it is necessary to develop standards regulating the acceptable levels of inorganic pollutants. Furthermore, since bees and their products are considered to be an effective biomonitoring tool, our results may reflect the environment's condition in west-central Poland, affecting the health and well-being of both humans and bees.

Relations of blood lead levels to echocardiographic left ventricular structure and function in preschool children

Lead (Pb) has been proved to exert adverse effect on human cardiovascular system. However, the cardiotoxicity of Pb on children is still unclear. The aim of this study was to evaluate left ventricular (LV) structure and function, by using echocardiographic indices, in order to elucidate the effect of Pb on low-grade inflammation related to left ventricle in healthy preschool children. We recruited a total of 486 preschool children, 310 from Guiyu (e-waste-exposed area) and 176 from Haojiang (reference area). Blood Pb levels, complete blood counts, and LV parameters were evaluated. Associations between blood Pb levels and LV parameters and peripheral leukocyte counts were analyzed using linear regression models. The median blood level of Pb and the counts of white blood cells (WBCs), monocytes, and neutrophils were higher in exposed group. In addition, the exposed group showed smaller left ventricle (including interventricular septum, LV posterior wall, and LV mass index) and impaired LV systolic function (including LV fractional shortening and LV ejection fraction) regardless gender. After adjustment for confounding factors, elevated blood Pb levels were significantly associated with higher counts of WBCs and neutrophils, and lower levels of LV parameters. Furthermore, counts of WBCs, monocytes, and neutrophils were negatively correlated with LV parameters. Taken together, smaller left ventricle and impaired systolic function were found in e-waste-exposed children and associated with chronic low-grade inflammation and elevated blood Pb levels. It indicates that the heart health of e-waste-exposed children is at risk due to the long-term environmental chemical insults.

Dose-dependent effects of lead induced gut injuries: An in vitro and in vivo study

Lead (Pb) toxicity has been widely studied, but its dose-dependent toxic effects on the gut remain unclear, therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different doses of Pb exposure on the gut microbiota and gut barrier in vitro and in vivo. The HT-29 cell model was used to determine the Pb-induced effects on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and tight junction proteins (TJPs) in vitro, and C57BL/6 mice models exposed to 0, 20, 100, 500, and 1000 mg/kg Pb were used to investigate the Pb-induced dose-dependent effects on the gut microbiota, TJP expression, and colon histopathology. Our results showed that the exposure of HT-29 cells to 8 mM Pb decreased cell viability by 50%, elevated ROS levels by 200%, and suppressed the expression of the TJPs, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin by 23% and 35%, respectively. Consistently, Pb-exposed mice showed significant increases in colon tissue damage and inflammation and reductions in ZO-1 mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner. The occludin mRNA levels decreased in the 500 and 1000 mg/kg groups. At the genus level, the relative abundance of Coprococcus and Oscillospira decreased and that of Lactobacillus increased in linear manner with the Pb exposure dose. PICRUSt analysis based on 16S rRNA sequencing revealed Pb dose-dependent alterations in metabolism through the gut microbiota. These findings suggest that Pb exposure can not only disrupt the barrier by generating oxidative stress, but can also induce gut dysbiosis, colon tissue damage, and gut inflammation in a dose-dependent manner.

MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF LEAD NEUROTOXICITY

Lead (Pb2+) is a non-essential metal with numerous industrial applications that have led to ts ubiquity in the environment. Thus, not only occupational-exposed individuals' health is compromised, but also that of the general population and in particular children. Notably, although the central nervous system is particularly susceptible to Pb2+, other systems are affected as well. The present study focuses on molecular mechanisms that underlie the effects that arise from the presence of Pb2+ in situ in the brain, and the possible toxic effects that follows. As the brain barriers represent the first target of systemic Pb2+, mechanisms of Pb2+ entry into the brain are discussed, followed by a detailed discussion on neurotoxic mechanisms, with special emphasis on theories of ion mimicry, mitochondrial dysfunction, redox imbalance, and neuroinflammation. Most importantly, the confluence and crosstalk between these events is combined into a cogent mechanism of toxicity, by intertwining recent and old evidences from humans, in vitro cell culture and experimental animals. Finally, pharmacological interventions, including chelators, antioxidants substances, anti-inflammatory drugs, or their combination are reviewed as integrated approaches to ameliorate Pb2+ harmful effects in both developing or adult organisms.

Hydrogen sulfide protects hippocampal CA1 neurons against lead mediated neuronal damage via reduction oxidative stress in male rats

H2S plays vital roles in modulation brain function. It is associated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. We assessed the H2S impact on spatial learning and memory deficit and cell death due to lead exposure, and probable mechanisms of action. The 36 male Wistar rats that (200-220 g), were in random assigned to 3 groups, control group (12 rats), lead acetate group (12 rats), and lead acetate +H2S groups (NaHS as a H2S donor; 5/6 mg/kg; 12 rats). Administration of lead to rats was performed through acute lead poisoning (25 mg/kg of lead acetate, IP through 3 days). Using male Morris water maze, their spatial learning and memory function were measured. We carried out ELISA method to calculate TNF-α and antioxidant enzymes level. Immunohistochemical staining was applied for evaluating the caspase-3 expression levels. Treatment with H2S improved learning and memory impairment in Pb-exposed rats (P<0.05). H2S treatment suppressed Pb-related apoptosis in the hippocampal CA1 subfield (P<0.01). Also, the TNF-α over-expression in the CA1 region of hippocampus due to lead exposure showed a significant reduction (P<0.05) after administrating H2S. Simultaneously, H2S treatment reduced the MDA levels, enhanced SOD, GSH level than the Pb-exposed group in hippocampus (P<0.05). H2S was able to significantly improve Pb-related spatial learning and memory deficit, and neuronal cell death in the CA1 region of hippocampus in the male rats at least partly by reducing oxidative stress and TNF.

A metal–organic framework featuring highly sensitive fluorescence sensing for Al3+ ions

A new fluorescent MOF can detect Al3+ ions with high selectivity and sensitivity via turn-off effect and emission color change.

Organo-catalyzed/initiated ring opening co-polymerization of cyclic anhydrides and epoxides: an emerging story

This review deals with recent organo-catalyzed/initiated developments of co-polymerization of cyclic anhydrides and epoxides to access polyesters.

(Ascorb)ing Pb Neurotoxicity in the Developing Brain

Lead (Pb) neurotoxicity is a major concern, particularly in children. Developmental exposure to Pb can alter neurodevelopmental trajectory and has permanent neuropathological consequences, including an increased vulnerability to further stressors. Ascorbic acid is among most researched antioxidant nutrients and has a special role in maintaining redox homeostasis in physiological and physio-pathological brain states. Furthermore, because of its capacity to chelate metal ions, ascorbic acid may particularly serve as a potent therapeutic agent in Pb poisoning. The present review first discusses the major consequences of Pb exposure in children and then proceeds to present evidence from human and animal studies for ascorbic acid as an efficient ameliorative supplemental nutrient in Pb poisoning, with a particular focus on developmental Pb neurotoxicity. In doing so, it is hoped that there is a revitalization for further research on understanding the brain functions of this essential, safe, and readily available vitamin in physiological states, as well to justify and establish it as an effective neuroprotective and modulatory factor in the pathologies of the nervous system, including developmental neuropathologies.

Beyond the Mind-Serum Trace Element Levels in Schizophrenic Patients: A Systematic Review

The alterations in serum trace element levels are common phenomena observed in patients with different psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, or major depressive disorder. The fluctuations in the trace element concentrations might act as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of many psychiatric and neurological disorders. This paper aimed to assess the alterations in serum trace element concentrations in patients with a diagnosed schizophrenia. The authors made a systematic review, extracting papers from the PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Among 5009 articles identified through database searching, 59 of them were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, 33 articles were included in the qualitative synthesis. This review includes the analysis of serum levels of the following trace elements: iron, nickel, molybdenum, phosphorus, lead, chromium, antimony, uranium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, copper, selenium, calcium, and manganese. Currently, there is no consistency regarding serum trace element levels in schizophrenic patients. Thus, it cannot be considered as a reliable prognostic or diagnostic marker of schizophrenia. However, it can be assumed that altered concentrations of those elements are crucial regarding the onset and exaggeration of either psychotic or negative symptoms or cognitive dysfunctions.

Impact of phosphate dosing on the microbial ecology of drinking water distribution systems: Fieldwork studies in chlorinated networks

Phosphate is routinely dosed to ensure regulatory compliance for lead in drinking water distribution systems. Little is known about the impact of the phosphate dose on the microbial ecology in these systems and in particular the endemic biofilms. Disturbance of the biofilms and embedded material in distribution can cause regulatory failures for turbidity and metals. To investigate the impact of phosphate on developing biofilms, pipe wall material from four independent pipe sections was mobilised and collected using two twin-flushing operations a year apart in a chlorinated UK network pre- and post-phosphate dosing. Intensive monitoring was undertaken, including turbidity and water physico-chemistry, traditional microbial culture-based indicators, and microbial community structure via sequencing the 16S rRNA gene for bacteria and the ITS2 gene for fungi. Whole metagenome sequencing was used to study shifts in functional characteristics following the addition of phosphate. As an operational consequence, turbidity responses from the phosphate-enriched water were increased, particularly from cast iron pipes. Differences in the taxonomic composition of both bacteria and fungi were also observed, emphasising a community shift towards microorganisms able to use or metabolise phosphate. Phosphate increased the relative abundance of bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Paenibacillus, Massilia, Acinetobacter and the fungi Cadophora, Rhizophagus and Eupenicillium. Whole metagenome sequencing showed with phosphate a favouring of sequences related to Gram-negative bacterium type cell wall function, virions and thylakoids, but a reduction in the number of sequences associated to vitamin binding, methanogenesis and toxin biosynthesis. With current faecal indicator tests only providing risk detection in bulk water samples, this work improves understanding of how network changes effect microbial ecology and highlights the potential for new approaches to inform future monitoring or control strategies to protect drinking water quality.

Antioxidant Property of the Egyptian Propolis Extract Versus Aluminum Silicate Intoxication on a Rat's Lung: Histopathological Studies

In this study, we evaluated the inflammatory responses induced by aluminum silicate (AS) cytotoxicity in rat lungs. The prophylactic effect of propolis extract was evaluated in 60 adult male albino rats. The rats were divided into six groups: (1) a normal, healthy control group; (2) a normal group fed with 200 mL of propolis extract/Kg; (3) a low-dose positive control group injected with 5 mg/kg of AS; (4) a treated group given propolis and a low dose of AS; (5) a high-dose positive control group injected with 20 mg/kg of AS; and (6) a treated group given propolis with a high-dose of AS. At the end of the two-month experiment, the rats’ lungs were removed. For each pair of lungs, one portion was subjected to biochemical analysis and the other underwent hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining in order to study its histology. The rats that received AS doses displayed significant disorders in their antioxidant contents as well as in their enzymatic activities and their histopathological structures revealed severe damage to their lung tissues. Upon the rats being treated with propolis, the enzymatic and antioxidant contents improved and partial improvements in the lung structures appeared, including minimized congestion, a reduced hemorrhage of blood vessels and preserved bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli. The prophylactic effectiveness of propolis extract on the cytotoxicity of AS, owing to the antioxidant properties of propolis, were studied.

Benefits and Detriments of Gadolinium from Medical Advances to Health and Ecological Risks

Gadolinium (Gd)-containing chelates have been established as diagnostics tools. However, extensive use in magnetic resonance imaging has led to increased Gd levels in industrialized parts of the world, adding to natural occurrence and causing environmental and health concerns. A vast amount of data shows that metal may accumulate in the human body and its deposition has been detected in organs such as brain and liver. Moreover, the disease nephrogenic systemic fibrosis has been linked to increased Gd³⁺ levels. Investigation of Gd³⁺ effects at the cellular and molecular levels mostly revolves around calcium-dependent proteins, since Gd³⁺ competes with calcium due to their similar size; other reports focus on interaction of Gd³⁺ with nucleic acids and carbohydrates. However, little is known about Gd³⁺ effects on membranes; yet some results suggest that Gd³⁺ interacts strongly with biologically-relevant lipids (e.g., brain membrane constituents) and causes serious structural changes including enhanced membrane rigidity and propensity for lipid fusion and aggregation at much lower concentrations than other ions, both toxic and essential. This review surveys the impact of the anthropogenic use of Gd emphasizing health risks and discussing debilitating effects of Gd³⁺ on cell membrane organization that may lead to deleterious health consequences.

Lead exposure results in defective behavior as well as alteration of gut microbiota composition in flies and their offsprings

BACKGROUND

Lead (Pb) has become one of the most dangerous metals to human health, especially to the nervous system as its persistent accumulation and high toxicity. However, how the gut microbiota influence the Pb-related neurotoxicity remains unclear. The aim of our study was to explore the link among Pb exposure, behavior changes, and gut microbiota.

METHODS

Using Drosophila melanogaster as model, climbing assay, social avoidance, social space, and short-term memory analysis were preformed to study the behavioral changes in flies exposed to Pb and their offspring. 16S rRNA sequencing was used to explore the changes in the gut microbiota of the flies with/without Pb-exposure.

RESULTS

The crawling ability, memory, and social interactions of Pb-exposed parent flies decreased significantly. For the offspring, behaviors were more significantly affected in male offspring whose male parent was exposed to Pb. The alpha diversity and the beta diversity of gut microbiota were significantly different between the Pb-exposed flies and the controls, as well as between the male offspring and the controls. Two genera, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium were found significantly decreased in the Pb-exposed flies when compared to the controls and significantly correlated with the learning and memory. Four genera, Bilophila, Coprococcus, Desulfovibrio, and Ruminococcus were found depleted in the female offspring of the Pb-exposed flies.

CONCLUSIONS

Lead exposure resulted in defective behavior and alteration of gut microbiota composition in flies and their offspring, alteration in gut microbiota might be the link between behavioral changes induced by Pb-exposure.

Sulforaphane response on aluminum-induced oxidative stress, alterations in sperm characterization and testicular histomorphometry in Wistar rats

Background

The exposure of male individual to environmental toxicant is regarded as a channel that results in reduced sperm counts and infertility.

Objective

This study investigated the ameliorative response of Sulforaphane (SFN) on Aluminum trichloride (AlCl3) induced testicular toxicity in adult male Wistar rats.

Materials and Methods

A total of 32 adult male Wistar rats (180-200 gm between 8-10 wk) were divided into four groups (n = 8/each). Group A) received distilled water orally as placebo; Group B) received 100 mg/kgbw AlCl3 only orally; Group C) received 100 mg/kgbw AlCl3 and 100 mg/kgbw SFN orally; and Group D) received 100 mg/kgbw SFN only orally. After 28 days of experiment, animals underwent cervical dislocation, blood serum was obtained for analysis, and testes were harvested for biochemical assays, histology, hormonal profile, and sperm characterization.

Results

The sperm parameters showed a significant difference within the AlCl3 only group compared with the control and SFN only groups (p = 0.02). However, AlCl3 and SFN co-treatment showed improvement in the motility, viability, and sperm count compared with the AlCl3 only group (p = 0.02). Furthermore, there was a significant decline in the levels of hormones profile and antioxidant status in AlCl3 only group compared to the control and SFN only (p = 0.02). The testicular histoarchitecture of the AlCl3 only group showed shrinkage of seminiferous tubules, spermatogenesis disruption, and empty lumen compared to the control and SFN only groups.

Conclusion

The present study revealed the ameliorative response of SFN on AlCl3-induced testicular toxicity on serum hormone profiles, antioxidant status, lipid peroxidation, and histomorphometric analysis through oxidative stress.

Cigalike electronic nicotine delivery systems e-liquids contain variable levels of metals

Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) are prefilled, battery-operated products intended to deliver nicotine to the user via an inhaled complex aerosol formed by heating a liquid composed of propylene glycol and glycerol, also referred to as vegetable glycerin and collectively called e-liquid, that contains nicotine and various flavor ingredients. Since their introduction in 2006, the number of ENDS on the market has increased exponentially. Despite their growing ubiquity, the possible health risks associated with ENDS use remain poorly understood. One potential concern is the presence of toxic metals in the e-liquid and aerosol. Herein, we report the evaluation of the metal content in the e-liquids from a series of commercially available cigalike ENDS brands (various flavors) determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) following e-liquid extraction. Each brand of cigalike ENDS was purchased at least three times at retail outlets in the Baltimore, Maryland metropolitan region over a period of six months (September 2017 to February 2018). This allowed for comparison of batch-to-batch variability. Several potentially toxic metals, including lead, chromium, copper, and nickel were detected in the e-liquids. In addition, high variability in metal concentrations within and between brands and flavors was observed . The internal assembled parts of each cartridge were analyzed by X-ray imaging, before dissembling so that the materials used to manufacture each cartridge could be evaluated to determine the metals they contained. Following washing to remove traces of e-liquid, lead, chromium, copper and nickel were all detected in the cigalike ENDS prefilled cartridges, suggesting one potential source for the metals found in the e-liquids. Collectively, these findings can inform further evaluation of product design and manufacturing processes, including quantification of metal concentrations in e-liquids over foreseeable storage times, safeguards against high concentrations of metals in the e-liquid before and after aerosolization (by contact with a metal heating coil), and control over batch-to-batch variability.

Morphine-element interactions - The influence of selected chemical elements on neural pathways associated with addiction

Addiction is a pressing social problem worldwide and opioid dependence can be considered the strongest and most difficult addiction to treat. Mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways play an important role in modulation of cognitive processes and decision making and, therefore, changes in dopamine metabolism are considered the central basis for the development of dependence. Disturbances caused by excesses or deficiency of certain elements have a significant impact on the functioning of the central nervous system (CNS) both in physiological conditions and in pathology and can affect the cerebral reward system and therefore, may modulate processes associated with the development of addiction. In this paper we review the mechanisms of interactions between morphine and zinc, manganese, chromium, cadmium, lead, fluoride, their impact on neural pathways associated with addiction, and on antinociception and morphine tolerance and dependence.

Aluminum in Coffee

This study investigated the aluminum content in one of the most consumed daily beverages: coffee. The total Al concentration in 10 different samples of coffee beans and their water-extractable fraction were determined. We then tested the influence of different brewing methods on the concentration of the extracted Al in the final beverage. Metal analyses were performed using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GF-AAS) after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The results showed highly variable Al contents in coffee beans (1.5-15.5 mg kg^-1), of which ∼2-10% were water-extractable. The brewing technique had a major influence on the Al content in the beverage: significantly higher Al concentrations (72.57 ± 23.96 μg L^-1) occurred in coffee brewed in an aluminum moka pot. Interestingly, using ground coffee with this method even reduced the Al content in the final beverage compared to the brewing water used. Coffee brewed from Al capsules did not contain significantly higher Al concentrations compared to other methods.

Evaluating the toxicity of polyurethane during marine clay stabilisation

In civil engineering, many geotechnical and forensic projects employ polyurethane (PU) for ground improvement, and the results have shown to be effective in terms of time and cost savings. However, similar to many other chemical stabilisers, the use of PU for soil stabilisation may have environmental repercussions. Therefore, this paper utilised a toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) to investigate the potential for ground contamination resulting from the application of PU for the stabilisation of marine clay. Furthermore, the hazardousness of PU during the stabilisation of marine clay was investigated by testing its reactivity, ignitability, corrosivity and physical properties. The results reveal that the quantity of heavy metals present in PU is far below the regulatory limits. The results further confirm that PU is odourless and non-corrosive and that it is non-cyanide and non-sulphide-bearing. However, PU is capable of igniting. Overall, the potential application of PU for ground improvement is promising due to its environmental friendliness.

Clopidogrel combats neuroinflammation and enhances learning behavior and memory in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease. Multiple molecular mechanisms have been employed in its pathogenesis such as Amyloid β (Aβ) formation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, reduced acetylcholine (ACh) level, and neuroinflammation. This study aimed to assess the possible neuroprotective effect of clopidogrel in AD model induced by aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) in rats.

METHODS

Sixty adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four different groups: Control, AlCl₃, AlCl₃ + donepezil, and AlCl₃ + Clopidogrel. AlCl₃ and the drugs were given orally once/day for 42 days. The spatial learning and memory and recognition memory were evaluated using Morris Water Maze (MWM) and Novel Object Recognition (NOR) tests, respectively. After euthanasia, hippocampal acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels were biochemically assessed. Moreover, amyloid precursor protein (APP) mRNA gene expression was analyzed in the hippocampi of all rats. Histopathology for amyloid plaques was done.

RESULTS

Clopidogrel co-treatment significantly ameliorated the cognitive deficits induced by AlCl₃ in rats. Besides, clopidogrel significantly reduced AChE activity, TNF-α and IL-1β concentrations, and APP mRNA gene expression in the hippocampi of rats compared to AlCl₃ rats. The decrease of hippocampal TNF-α and IL-1β concentrations by clopidogrel was significant compared to donepezil co-treated rats. Clopidogrel co-treatment lessened amyloid plaque deposition in the hippocampal tissues of rats compared to AlCl₃ rats.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that clopidogrel could alleviate learning and memory deficit induced by AlCl₃ in rats and significantly reduced AChE activity. The neuroprotective outcome of clopidogrel might be assigned to its anti-inflammatory effect.

Neonatal exposure to aluminum chloride disrupts branching morphogenesis and hormonal signaling of the ventral male prostate and female prostate of gerbils

BACKGROUNG

Exposure to environmental pollutants in critical developmental windows may predispose the prostate to permanent changes in its homeostasis. Thus, it is essential to know the effects that environmental toxics, such as aluminum, can cause during the development of this gland. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of neonatal aluminum exposure on the ventral male prostate and the female prostate of 15 days old gerbils.

METHODS

Male and female gerbils were exposed orally to 10 mg/kg/day of aluminum chloride from the 1st to the 14th postnatal day life. At 15 days of life, gerbils were euthanized and their prostates were collected for biometric, morphological, morphometric, immunohistochemical and three-dimensional reconstruction analyzes.

RESULTS

Al exposure caused a reduction in body weight in males and a significant increase in serum testosterone levels in females. Prostate branching morphogenesis was intensified in males, who had greater length, number and area of prostatic epithelial buds. Additionally, Al altered the prostate hormonal regulation of males and females, causing up regulation of the androgen receptor and estrogen receptor alpha in the female prostate, and increased immunostaining of the androgen receptor in the ventral male prostate. These changes were associated with an increased rate of epithelial and stromal cell proliferation in both sexes.

CONCLUSION

Together, these results indicate that Al altered the neonatal development of the prostate and that this metal acted as an endocrine disruptor in this gland.

A New Schiff Base Based Fluorescent Sensor for Al(III) Based on 2-Hydroxyacetophenone and o-Phenylenediamine

A simple Schiff base (L) based on 2-hydroxyacetophenone and o-phenylenediamine was prepared which acts as an effective fluorescent sensor for Al³⁺ with ca. 9.0 fold enhancement in fluorescence intensity and detection limit 10^-4.3 M. L can quite clearly distinguish Al³⁺ over other metal ions Zn²⁺, Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ca²⁺, K⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺ and Fe³⁺. Cyclic voltammogram and square wave voltammogram of L shows a significant change on interaction with Al³⁺. Spectroscopic data and DFT calculations confirm 1:1 interaction between L and Al³⁺ which is reversible with respect to Na₂EDTA.

Developmental lead (Pb)-induced deficits in redox and bioenergetic status of cerebellar synapses are ameliorated by ascorbate supplementation

Neurotoxicity induced by exposure to heavy metal lead (Pb) is a concern of utmost importance particularly for countries with industrial-based economies. The developing brain is especially sensitive to exposure to even minute quantities of Pb which can alter neurodevelopmental trajectory with irreversible effects on motor, emotive-social and cognitive attributes even into later adulthood. Chemical synapses form the major pathway of inter-neuronal communications and are prime candidates for higher order brain (motor, memory and behavior) functions and determine the resistance/susceptibility for neurological disorders, including neuropsychopathologies. The synaptic pathways and mechanisms underlying Pb-mediated alterations in neuronal signaling and plasticity are not completely understood. Employing a biochemically isolated synaptosomal fraction which is enriched in synaptic terminals and synaptic mitochondria, this study aimed to analyze the alterations in bioenergetic and redox/antioxidant status of cerebellar synapses induced by developmental exposure to Pb (0.2 %). Moreover, we test the efficacy of vitamin C (ascorbate; 500 mg/kg body weight), a neuroprotective and neuromodulatory antioxidant, in mitigation of Pb-induced neuronal deficits. Our results implicate redox and bioenergetic disruptions as an underlying feature of the synaptic dysfunction observed in developmental Pb neurotoxicity, potentially contributing to consequent deficits in motor, behavioral and psychological attributes of the organisms. In addition, we establish ascorbate as a key ingredient for therapeutic approach against Pb induced neurotoxicity, particularly for early-life exposures.

Associations between metal exposure and global DNA methylation in potentially affected people in E-Waste recycling sites in Taizhou City, China

Electronic waste (e-waste) has been an emerging environmental health issue, and it has already provoked all aspects of attention. Taizhou is one of the three largest e-waste recycling locations in China. Atpresent, to prevent the environmental problems stem from e-waste dismantling, the local government has shut down all the industries in 2015. In this study, we collected blood samples of residents living near e-waste dismantling factories, and in matched reference areas in Taizhou, in December 2017, after the factories have been shut down for two years. Twenty-five metals were quantified in all blood samples. Among them, the concentrations of As, Ni, Ag, La, and Ce were statistically significant higher in individuals in e-waste recycling locations than those in reference location. Global DNA methylation was measured in blood as a marker of human health. Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis between the changed metals and global DNA methylation in blood were performed. The result showed that only blood Ce was negatively correlated with global DNA methylation level significantly in pre-workers exposed e-waste workers (r = -0.51, p = 0.01). Our findings indicated that high concentrations of exposure to Ce in e-waste dismantling site could have sustained effects on the DNA methylation in blood although the e-waste industry had been closed for 2 years.

Implication of Physiological and Biochemical Variables of Prognostic Importance in Lead Exposed Subjects

The use of leaded gasoline adversely affects cardiovascular, nervous, and immune systems. Study projects to rule out different variables of prognostic importance in lead-exposed subjects. A total of 317 traffic wardens with 5 years of outdoor experience and Hb levels < 10 µg/dl, and 100 traffic wardens with indoor duties were substituted in two groups. Levels of vitamins, cytokines, lead, iron, minerals, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation were estimated with help of their standard ELISA and spectrophotometric methods respectively. The present study show increased levels of lead in subjects (29.8 ± 3.8 vs. 1.5 ± 0.2 µg/dl) that may be involved in increasing oxidative stress, i.e., levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and isoprostanes were increased in subjects (4.6 ± 0.5, 4.3 ± 0.6 and 37.2 ± 5.1). Moreover, levels of antioxidants, i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), and catalase (CAT), were decreased. It also exhibits reduced levels of different enzymes in anemic traffic wardens. Current study concludes that wardens exposed to environmental lead are more susceptible to develop cardiovascular and neurological disorders. It shows that toxicity of lead maybe responsible for redox imbalance and production of proinflammatory cytokines. Thus, early detection of these biomarkers may help to reduce lead toxicity and it also may help to control the dilemma of uncontrolled environmental pollution by implicating strict actions against substandard gasoline.