A survey of alkylphenols, bisphenols, and triclosan in personal care products from China and the United States

Cytogenetic and developmental toxicity of bisphenol A and bisphenol S in Arbacia lixula sea urchin embryos

Bisphenol S (BP-S) is one of the most important substitutes of bisphenol A (BP-A), and its environmental occurrence is predicted to intensify in the future. Both BP-A and BP-S were tested for adverse effects on early life stages of Arbacia lixula sea urchins at 0.1 up to 100 µM test concentrations, by evaluating cytogenetic and developmental toxicity endpoints. Embryonic malformations and/or mortality were scored to determine embryotoxicity (72 h post-fertilization). It has been reported in academic dataset that bisphenols concentration reached μg/L in aquatic environment of heavily polluted areas. We have chosen concentrations ranging from 0.1-100 μM in order to highlight, in particular, BP-S effects. Attention should be paid to this range of concentrations in the context of the evaluation of the toxicity and the ecological risk of BP-S as emerging pollutant. Cytogenetic toxicity was measured, using mitotic activity and chromosome aberrations score in embryos (6 h post-fertilization). Both BP-A and BP-S exposures induced embryotoxic effects from 2.5 to 100 µM test concentrations as compared to controls. Malformed embryo percentages following BP-A exposure were significantly higher than in BP-S-exposed embryos from 0.25 to 100 µM (with a ~5-fold difference). BP-A, not BP-S exhibited cytogenetic toxicity at 25 and 100 µM. Our results indicate an embryotoxic potential of bisphenols during critical periods of development with a potent rank order to BP-A vs. BP-S. Thus, we show that BP-A alternative induce similar toxic effects to BP-A with lower severity.

Biomarker-Determined Nonylphenol Exposure and Associated Risks in Children of Thailand, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia

Nonylphenol (NP) is an endocrine disruptor and environmental contaminant. Yet, data on individual body burdens and potential health risks in humans, especially among children, are scarce. We analyzed two specific urinary NP metabolites, hydroxy-NP (OH-NP) and oxo-NP. In contrast to parent NP, OH-NP has a much higher urinary excretion fraction (F_ue), and both are insusceptible to external contamination. We investigated spot urine samples from school children of Thailand (n = 104), Indonesia (n = 89), and Saudi Arabia (n = 108) and could quantify OH-NP in 100% of Indonesian and Saudi children (median concentrations: 8.12 and 8.57 μg/L) and in 76% of Thai children (1.07 μg/L). Median oxo-NP concentrations were 0.95, 1.10, and <0.25 μg/L, respectively, in line with its lower F_ue. Median daily NP intakes (DIs), back-calculated from urinary OH-NP concentrations, were significantly higher in Indonesia and Saudi Arabia [0.47 and 0.36 μg/(kg bw·d), respectively] than in Thailand [0.06 μg/(kg bw·d)]. Maximum DIs were close to the preliminary tolerable DI of 5 μg/(kg bw·d) from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Dominant sources of exposure or relevant exposure pathways could not be readily identified by questionnaire analyses and also potentially varied by region. The novel biomarkers provide long-needed support to the quantitative exposure and risk assessment of NP.

Biomonitoring bisphenols, parabens, and benzophenones in breast milk from a human milk bank in Southern Spain

BACKGROUND

Human breast milk is considered the optimal source of nutrition for infants. Milk from breast milk banks offers an alternative to infant formulas for vulnerable hospitalized neonates most likely to benefit from exclusive human milk feeding. However, breast milk can also be a source of exposure to environmental contaminants, including endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs).

AIM

To evaluate concentrations of phenolic EDCs, including bisphenols, parabens (PBs), and benzophenones (BPs), in samples from a human milk bank in Granada, Southern Spain and to explore sociodemographic, reproductive, and lifestyle factors related to their concentrations in the milk.

METHODS

Concentrations of three bisphenols [bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol S (BPS)], four PBs [methyl- (MeP), ethyl- (EtP), propyl- (n-PrP), and butyl-paraben (n-BuP)], and six BPs [BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, BP-6, BP-8, and 4-hydroxy-BP] were determined in milk samples from 83 donors. Information on potential explanatory variables was gathered using the milk bank donor form and an ad hoc questionnaire. Multiple linear and logistic regression models were fitted.

RESULTS

Detectable concentrations were found of at least one of the analyzed compounds in all donor breast milk samples and at least five compounds in one-fifth of them. The most frequently detected compounds were MeP (90.5%), BP-3 (75.0%), EtP (51.2%), n-PrP (46.4%), and BPA (41.7%). Median concentrations ranged between <0.10 ng/mL (n-PrP, n-BuP, BP-1) and 0.59 ng/mL (BP-3). No sample contained detectable concentrations of BPF, BPS, or most BPs (BP-2, BP-6, BP-8, and 4- hydroxy-BP). Breast milk phenol concentrations were associated with parity, the utilization of deodorants, mouthwash, skin care products, and cosmetics, and the intake of nutritional supplements.

CONCLUSIONS

Results reveal the widespread presence of BPA, PBs, and BP-3 in donor breast milk samples, highlighting the need for preventive measures to enhance the benefits of breast milk from milk banks and from breastfeeding women in general.

Exposure profiles and predictors of a cocktail of environmental chemicals in Chinese men of reproductive age

Personal care products, such as additives, have raised widespread concerns about the potential threat to male reproductive health. The spermatogenesis in humans lasts for approximately 90 days, the average levels of these chemicals remain unclear during spermatogenesis. In our study, we pooled urine samples from each man during the days of 1-15, 16-31, 32-63, and ≥64, and examined exposure to 48 typical additive chemicals. By principal component analysis (PCA), k-means clustering, and Spearman's rank correlations, we then identified 6 PC scores and 4 clusters based on profiles of these chemicals. Some industrial, commercial or structural similar chemicals (e.g., phthalates) were significantly correlated compared to unrelated chemicals (e.g., benzophenone). PCA scores were associated with individual lifestyles (e.g., household income, tea consumption, and drinking tap water). Distinct exposure components and exposure patterns of personal care products may help the reproductive health assessment of men. We suggested more concerns for widespread exposure to these chemicals for men.

Relationship between exposure of alkylphenols in serum of pregnant women during early pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes

Alkylphenols are a type of endocrine disruptors, which are commonly found in personal care products, food, and water and are more harmful to the human body. To investigate the relationship between exposure of alkylphenols in serum of pregnant women during early pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes, a total of 2035 healthy pregnant women and their neonates were recruited in the birth cohort of Zhuang nationality in Guangxi from 2015 to 2018. The peripheral venous blood samples were collected from pregnant women in early pregnancy; the concentrations of nonylphenol (NP), 4-nonylphenol (4-N-NP), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-T-OP), and 4-n-octylphenol (4-N-OP) in serum were detected by ultra-performance liquid performance chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). Binary logistic regression showed that NP [OR = 1.40 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.94)] was positively associated with preterm birth. Restricted cubic spline analyses showed that logNP and log4-T-OP had non-linearity associations with preterm birth (logNP: P_overall = 0.006, P_non-linear = 0.003; log4-T-OP: P_overall = 0.004, P_non-linear = 0.002). Multiple linear regression analysis showed that maternal serum concentration of NP was negatively associated with birth weight of perinatal infants (β = -14.68, 95% CI: -29.18, -0.19), which may be sensitive in male neonates (β = -26.18, 95% CI: -47.33, -5.02). The findings demonstrate that nonylphenol is a risk factor of preterm birth, and nonylphenol is negatively associated with the birth weight in male infants.

Within- and between-person variability of urinary phthalate metabolites and bisphenol analogues over seven days: Considerations of biomonitoring study design

Urine was used as a part of a human biomonitoring study based on the excretion kinetics of less-persistent contaminants, such as phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA). Despite the advantages of being non-invasive and easy to collect, urine can show a large variability of concentrations of phthalate metabolites and BPA within a person depending on sampling time. Therefore, it is essential to assess the variability of urinary concentrations for comprehensive sampling design in the context of exposure and risk assessments. In this study, 18 phthalate metabolites and eight BPs were measured in all spot urine (n = 401) collected from 12 participants for seven consecutive days to evaluate within- and between-person variabilities. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for all spot urines were poor for monomethyl phthalate (ICC: 0.002) and BPA (0.121) but were moderate for monoethyl phthalate (0.514) and monobenzyl phthalate (0.462). Based on the results of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) metabolites, the half-life and differences in metabolic capability seem to affect the ICCs. Urinary mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), a primary metabolite of DEHP, was suggested as a short-term exposure marker of DEHP in our study. Creatinine- and specific gravity-adjusted concentrations of phthalate metabolites and BPs resulted in increased ICCs, implying requirements for randomly collected spot urine. Most analytes in the first morning voids (FMVs) were correlated significantly with those in the daily composites, suggesting the feasibility of FMVs to estimate the daily exposure dose. This study facilitates a more comprehensive sampling design and data interpretation strategy for human biomonitoring studies.

Levels of parabens and bisphenols in personal care products and urinary concentrations in Indian young adult women: Implications for human exposure and health risk assessment

Limited information is available about the levels of exposure of paraben and bisphenols emerging from personal care products (PCPs) use in Indian women and the risk associated with it. In this study, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to determine the concentrations of six parabens (methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, butyl, benzyl-, and heptyl-parabens) and 8 bisphenols (Bisphenol A, B, F, P, S, Z, AP, and AF) in PCPs samples (n = 114) obtained from Indian market and in the urine samples of young adult females (n = 52). The concentrations measured in PCPs and urine samples were used to determine the estimated daily intake. The mean concentrations of 6 parabens and 8 bisphenols in PCPs ranged from 38.3 to 2.38 × 10⁵ ng/g and 2.71-148 ng/g, respectively. In urine samples analysed, the mean concentrations of 6 parabens and 8 bisphenols ranged from 0.007 to 293 ng/mL and 0.10-10.8 ng/mL, respectively. There was no significant correlation of EDCs with age, BMI and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), but significant correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between urinary paraben and bisphenol concentrations. A statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) exists between the BMI and WHR groups by bisphenol concentrations. Estimated daily intake and exposure risks for parabens and bisphenols revealed no possible concerns for Indian young adult females. Hitherto, this is the first study to show that Indian young adult females were exposed to parabens and bisphenols. This study provides evidence on PCPs usage contribute to the urinary concentrations of EDCs.

Exposure to Antibacterial Chemicals Is Associated With Altered Composition of Oral Microbiome

Antimicrobial chemicals are used as preservatives in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi in the products. Unintentional exposure in humans to such chemicals is well documented, but whether they also interfere with human oral microbiome composition is largely unexplored. In this study, we explored whether the oral bacterial composition is affected by exposure to antibacterial and environmental chemicals. Gingival fluid, urine, and interview data were collected from 477 adults (18–47 years) from the RHINESSA study in Bergen, Norway. Urine biomarkers of triclosan, triclocarban, parabens, benzophenone-3, bisphenols, and 2,4- and 2,5-dichlorophenols (DCPs) were quantified (by mass spectrometry). Microbiome analysis was based on 16S amplicon sequencing. Diversity and differential abundance analyses were performed to identify how microbial communities may change when comparing groups of different chemical exposure. We identified that high urine levels (>75th percentile) of propyl parabens were associated with a lower abundance of bacteria genera TM7 [G-3], Helicobacter, Megasphaera, Mitsuokella, Tannerella, Propionibacteriaceae [G-2], and Dermabacter, as compared with low propylparaben levels (<25^th percentile). High exposure to ethylparaben was associated with a higher abundance of Paracoccus. High urine levels of bisphenol A were associated with a lower abundance of Streptococcus and exposure to another environmental chemical, 2,4-DCP, was associated with a lower abundance of Treponema, Fretibacterium, and Bacteroidales [G-2]. High exposure to antibacterial and environmental chemicals was associated with an altered composition of gingiva bacteria; mostly commensal bacteria in the oral cavity. Our results highlight a need for a better understanding of how antimicrobial chemical exposure influences the human microbiome.

Triclosan-induced neuroinflammation develops caspase-independent and TNF-α signaling pathway associated necroptosis in Neuro-2a cells

Triclosan (TCS) is widely used in cosmetics and healthcare industry as a broad-spectrum antibacterial agent. The lipophilic property and persistent nature of TCS has led to severe health issues. In the present study, we have evaluated the neuroinflammatory effect of TCS on mouse Neuro-2a cells. Initial investigation confirmed a dose-dependent loss in viability and morphology of cells in presence of TCS. The transcription and translation studies confirmed a downregulation in the expression of autophagy markers in Neuro-2a cells. The confocal microscopy study revealed that the abrogated autophagy in TCS-treated cells occurred due to loss in the autophagy flux and prevention in the lipidation of autophagosome bilayer. The fluorescence microscopy also confirmed a loss in the formation of autophagolysosomes in neuronal cells with increasing TCS concentrations. TCS treatment resulted in loss of mitochondrial integrity in cells as evidenced by a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential in JC-1 staining. Further, the transcriptional and translational studies confirmed the activation of TNF-α signaling pathway in TCS-treated cells thus enhancing the expression of RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL proteins and their phosphorylated forms. TCS was also found to increase the tau protein pathogenesis in Neuro-2a cells, which alludes to the development of tau-associated neurodegeneration. Altogether, this study confirms the neuroinflammatory actions of TCS in Neuro-2a cells involving a TNF-α-induced MLKL-mediated signaling.

Toxic Effects of Bisphenol A and Bisphenol S on Chlorella Pyrenoidosa under Single and Combined Action

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an important industrial chemical; bisphenol S (BPS) is a substitute for BPA. Both are frequently detected in rivers, sewage, and surface water, and have a great impact on the water environment. The effects of BPA and BPS on cell growth, chlorophyll a content, and oxidative stress of Chlorella pyrenoidosa (C. pyrenoidosa) were studied. When BPA and BPS acted alone or in combination, compared with the blank control group, the growth of C. pyrenoidosa in the experimental group showed a pattern of “low promotion and high inhibition”, and the inhibition rate reached the maximum on the 6th day. Under the combined action, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level of C. pyrenoidosa first increased, and then decreased. In addition, the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) increased with the increase in combined concentration. In the 0.5 P treatment group, SOD and POD activity reached peak values of 29.59 U/mg∙prot and 1.35 U/mg∙prot, respectively. The combined toxicity of BPA and BPS to C. pyrenoidosa was evaluated as a synergistic effect by using toxicity unit and additive index methods. This study evaluated the effects of BPA and BPS on algae in the aquatic environment, providing some data support for their potential ecological risks.

A critical review of presence, removal and potential impacts of endocrine disruptors bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic organic compound that is mainly used in the production of polymer materials polycarbonate and epoxy resin. Widespread use and irregular processing methods have led to BPA being detected globally, raising concerns about its environmental and health effects. This review outlines an overview of the presence and removal of BPA in the environment and consumer products. We also summarized the endocrine-disrupting toxicity of BPA, and the relatively less summarized neurotoxicity, cytotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. Human exposure data show that humans have been exposed to low concentrations of BPA for a long time, future research should focus on the long-term exposure and the migration of BPA from consumer products to humans and the possible health risks associated with human exposure to BPA. Exploring economical and effective methods to reduce and remove BPA from the environment is imperative. The development of safe, functional and reproducible BPA analogs and the study of its degradation products can be the focus of subsequent research.

Disposition of Bisphenol S metabolites in Sprague-Dawley rats

Bisphenol S (BPS), a primary bisphenol A (BPA) substitute, has shown a comparable estrogenic activity to BPA. To comprehensively evaluate the toxic effect of human BPS exposure, it is necessary to understand the occurrence of free BPS and its conjugated metabolites in human internal tissues, but which remains unclear. In this study, Sprague-Dawley rats were orally and continuously dosed at 500 μg/kg/day to mimic the actual human BPS exposure scenario, and then free BPS and its conjugated metabolites were analyzed in rat internal tissues, blood, and excreta. Results showed that concentrations of free BPS and its metabolites in most rat tissues, excreta, and blood reached the steady state after 9 days of continuous BPS dosage. In rat urine, 81-84% of BPS was present in the conjugated form, with BPS glucuronide (BPS-G) and BPS sulfate (BPS-S) accounting for mean 83% and 16% of total conjugated BPS, respectively. In rat blood, mean 55% of total BPS was present in the conjugated form, with BPS-G (2.4-2.8 ng/mL) being more abundant than BPS-S (0.19-0.25 ng/mL). Among rat tissues, the mean proportion of free BPS was relatively higher in spleen (76%) and stomach (75%), while lower in intestine (14%) and kidney (36%). BPS-G was more abundant than BPS-S in most rat tissues, such as intestine (mean 93% versus 6.5%) and muscle (78% versus 19%). While, the mean proportion of BPS-S (48%) was higher than BPS-G (33%) in rat liver. These data suggest that analyzing human blood and urine may not accurately reflect the contamination of BPS metabolites in human internal tissues. This study contributes to the better understanding of the metabolic fate of BPS in humans.

Endocrine Disruptors and Endometrial Cancer: Molecular Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Implications, a Systematic Review

It has been widely demonstrated that endocrine disruptors play a central role in various physiopathological processes of human health. In the literature, various carcinogenic processes have been associated with endocrine disruptors. A review of the molecular mechanisms underlying the interaction between endocrine disruptors and the endometrial cancer has been poorly developed. A systematic review was performed using PubMed^®/MEDLINE. A total of 25 in vivo and in vitro works were selected. Numerous endocrine disruptors were analyzed. The most relevant results showed how Bisphenol A (BPA) interacts with the carcinogenesis process on several levels. It has been demonstrated how BPA can interact with hormonal receptors and with different transcription proliferative and antiproliferative factors. Furthermore, the effect of Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on Aryl hydrocarbon receptors was investigated, and the role of flame retardants in promoting proliferation and metastasis was confirmed. The results obtained demonstrate how the mechanisms of action of endocrine disruptors are manifold in the pathophysiology of endometrial cancer, acting on different levels of the cancerogenesis process.

Does Bisphenol A Confer Risk of Neurodevelopmental Disorders? What We Have Learned from Developmental Neurotoxicity Studies in Animal Models

Substantial evidence indicates that bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous environmental chemical used in the synthesis of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, can impair brain development. Clinical and epidemiological studies exploring potential connections between BPA and neurodevelopmental disorders in humans have repeatedly identified correlations between early BPA exposure and developmental disorders, such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Investigations using invertebrate and vertebrate animal models have revealed that developmental exposure to BPA can impair multiple aspects of neuronal development, including neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation, synapse formation, and synaptic plasticity-neuronal phenotypes that are thought to underpin the fundamental changes in behavior-associated neurodevelopmental disorders. Consistent with neuronal phenotypes caused by BPA, behavioral analyses of BPA-treated animals have shown significant impacts on behavioral endophenotypes related to neurodevelopmental disorders, including altered locomotor activity, learning and memory deficits, and anxiety-like behavior. To contextualize the correlations between BPA and neurodevelopmental disorders in humans, this review summarizes the current literature on the developmental neurotoxicity of BPA in laboratory animals with an emphasis on neuronal phenotypes, molecular mechanisms, and behavioral outcomes. The collective works described here predominantly support the notion that gestational exposure to BPA should be regarded as a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders.

Bisphenol-A analogs induce lower urinary tract dysfunction in male mice

Bisphenol-A (BPA), an estrogenic endocrine disrupting chemical, significantly impacts numerous diseases and abnormalities in mammals. Estrogens are known to play an important role in the biology of the prostate; however, little is known about the role of bisphenols in the etiology of prostate pathologies, including benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and associated lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD). Bisphenol-F (BPF) and bisphenol-S (BPS) are analogs often used as substitutes for BPA; they are both reported to have in vitro and in vivo estrogenic effects similar to or more potent than BPA. The objective of this study was to assess the role of these bisphenols in the development of LUTD in adult male mice. In adult mice exposed to BPA, BPS or BPF, we examined urinary tract histopathology and physiological events associated with urinary dysfunction. Mice treated with bisphenols displayed increased bladder (p < 0.005) and prostate (p < 0.0001) mass, and there was an increased number of prostatic ducts in the prostatic urethra (p < 0.05) and decreased size of the urethra lumen (p < 0.05) compared to negative controls. After two months of bisphenol exposure, mice displayed notable differences in cystometric tracings compared to controls, consistent with LUTD. Treatment of male mice with all bisphenols also induced voiding dysfunction manifested by detrusor instability and histologic changes in the prostatic urethra of male rodents, consistent with LUTD. Our results implicate BPA and its replacements in the development and progression LUTD in mice and provide insights into the development and progression of BPH/LUTS in men.

Estimation of parabens and bisphenols in maternal products and urinary concentrations in Indian pregnant women: daily intake and health risk assessment

The presence of parabens and bisphenols in maternal products and usage during pregnancy have raised serious concern about their possible harm to pregnant women. The concentrations of six parabens and eight bisphenols were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in the samples of commercially available herbal-based ayurvedic maternal products and urine of healthy pregnant women from Assam, India. Methyl paraben (MP) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) were found to be more dominant in the maternal products, whereas MP, bisphenol A (BPA), and BPAF were dominant in urine samples of healthy pregnant women. The sum of the mean concentrations of all forms of parabens and bisphenols in maternal products were 48,308.50 ng/g and 542.42 ng/g, respectively, and urine 101.33 ng/mL and 23.42 ng/mL, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of total parabens and bisphenols in maternal products were 7378.02 and 19.78 ng/kg body weight/day, respectively. EDI of total parabens and bisphenols from urinary concentrations were 690.12 and 111.33 μg/kg body weight/day, respectively. The concentrations of butyl (BP) and heptyl (HP) parabens have a significant positive correlation with birth weight. The hazard quotient (HQ) value of MP, EP, and BPA was less than 1, and margin of exposure (MOE) identified potential risk associated with propyl paraben. Results from Monte-Carlo risk assessment analysis did not exceed the acceptable daily intake (ADI). Our results showed that higher concentrations of parabens and bisphenols are present in maternal products and the urine of healthy pregnant women. Hence maternal products containing bisphenols and parabens should be used cautiously during pregnancy to avoid maternal and fetal complications.

Actions of Bisphenol A on Different Feto-Maternal Compartments Contributing to Preterm Birth

Preterm birth remains to be one of the most prevalent obstetric complications worldwide. Since there are multiple etiological factors associated with this disease process, an integrative literature search in PubMed and Scopus databases on possible mechanism of action and effect of bisphenols on exposure on human or animal placental samples in preterm birth was conducted. From 2332 articles on initial literature search, 63 studies were included for full data extraction. Altogether, several pathways were shown to be possibly affected by bisphenols, leading to dysregulations in structural and endocrine foundation in the placenta, potential induction of senescence and failure of decidualization in the decidua, and possible propagation of inflammation in the fetal membranes. Combined, these actions may eventually counteract bisphenol-induced relaxation of the myometrium and promote contractility alongside fetal membrane weakening. In totality, these individual impairments in gestation-critical processes may lead to failure of maintenance of pregnancy, and thus effecting preterm birth.

Concentrations of bisphenols, benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters, triclosan, and triclocarban in the paired urine and blood samples from young adults: Partitioning between urine and blood

Bisphenols (BPs), benzophenone-type UV filters (BP-type UV filters), triclosan (TCS), and triclocarban (TCC) are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and commonly used in consumer and personal care products. In the present study, seven BPs, eight BP-type UV filters, TCS, and TCC were quantified in 196 paired urine and blood samples collected from young adults in South China. Benzophenone-7 and benzophenone-9 were not detected in all samples, while other target compounds were widely detected in 39%-96% of the urine and 14%-96% of the blood samples, and the median concentrations ranged from <0.02 (specific gravity adjusted: < 0.02) to 2.33 (2.05) ng/mL and <0.01-2.66 ng/mL in the urine and blood samples, respectively. Females had higher levels of most target analytes, and gender-related differences (p < 0.05) were found in the blood levels of benzophenone-2 (females vs. males: 0.84 vs. <0.01 ng/mL), ΣBP (sum of BP-type UV filters; 1.61 vs. 0.98 ng/mL), TCS (3.89 vs. 1.69 ng/mL), and ΣTC (sum of TCS and TCC; 5.77 vs. 3.02 ng/mL). We calculated the portioning of the target compounds between blood and urine (B/U ratios). The B/U ratios of bisphenol F, benzophenone-2, benzophenone-6, 4-hydroxy benzophenone, TCS, and TCC were higher than 1, showing that these analytes have higher enrichment capacities in human blood. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to simultaneously analyze the concentrations of BPs, BP-type UV filters, TCS, and TCC in the paired urine and blood samples of young adults in South China.

Low-dose bisphenol S exposure induces hypospermatogenesis and mitochondrial dysfunction in rats: A possible implication of StAR protein

A wide variety of environmental chemicals/xenobiotics including bisphenol A (BPA) has been shown to cause male reproductive dysfunctions and infertility. Recently, bisphenol S (BPS) replaces BPA, in several products, including foodstuffs, under the BPA-free label. However, several studies have raised inquietude about the potential adverse effects of BPS. The present study was conducted to evaluate sperm parameters, biochemical parameters, mitochondrial function, and histopathological patterns after post-lactation BPS exposure at a low dose. Male rats (21 days old) were exposed to water containing BPS at 50 μg/L in drinking water for 10 weeks. Results showed no significant alteration in the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and relative reproductive organs weight. However, a significant reduction in epididymal sperm parameters (number, viability, and mobility) with morphological abnormalities were observed in the BPS group compared to control. An increase of malondialdehyde (MDA) level accompanied by antioxidant defense alteration particularly, in glutathione peroxidase activity, as well as a defective mitochondrial function were observed in testicular tissues of BPS treated rats. More importantly, in histopathological diagnosis, BPS treatment induces hypospermatogenesis and alteration in Sertoli cells. In silico docking studies illustrated BPS binds with steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein thereby affecting the transport of cholesterol into mitochondria resulting in decreased steroidogenesis. These results reflect a reprotoxic effect of BPS vould potentially lead to fertility reduction, in sexually maturity age. We highlighted that post-lactation exposure to BPS, equivalent in humans to the period covering childhood and adolescent stages, disrupt male reproduction function.

Occurrence and partitioning of bisphenol analogues, triclocarban, and triclosan in seawater and sediment from East China Sea

Bisphenol analogues (BPs), triclocarban (TCC), and triclosan (TCS) are well-known environmental endocrine disrupters. Many studies have characterized their occurrence in the freshwater environment. However, their environmental behaviors in the coastal marine environment remain poorly understood. Here, matched seawater and sediment samples were collected from East China Sea, and analyzed for 13 BPs (including halogenated derivatives of bisphenol A), TCC, and TCS. Bisphenol A (BPA; mean 23 ng/L) was the predominant BP in seawaters, followed by tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA; 2.3 ng/L) and bisphenol S (BPS; 2.2 ng/L). Seawater concentrations of TCS (<LOD-8.7 ng/L) were much higher (p < 0.01) than that of TCC (<LOD-0.33 ng/L). In sediments BPA was still the major BP (mean 13 ng/g dw, dry weight), followed by bisphenol F (1.6 ng/g dw) and BPS (0.69 ng/g dw). All sediment samples contained measurable TCC (0.12-6.6 ng/g dw), while TCS was occasionally detected. For the first time, this study reports the environmental occurrence of bisphenol M and 4,4'-sulfonylbis (2-aminophenol) (a first discovered BPS analogue) in seawaters and sediments. Spatially, inshore seawater and sediment samples contained higher (p < 0.01) BPA and BPS concentrations, compared with offshore samples. The mean log-transformed sediment-seawater partitioning coefficients (log K_oc) ranged from 2.3 (TBBPA) to 4.0 (TCC). The log K_oc values of BPA, BPS, and BPAF were lower than those previously reported in the freshwater environment. Overall, this study provides first data on the spatial distribution patterns and partitioning behaviors of BPs, TCC, and TCS in marine environment.

Men´s reproductive alterations caused by bisphenol A and its analogues: a review

Male reproductive functions are an important area affecting men´s overall health and well-being. However, during the last years, there has been observed increasing incidence of male reproductive issues. The radical growth has been recorded parallelly with a massive expanse of industrialization and agricultural chemigation. Many groups of experts have begun to identify several potential factors and substances that may have adverse effects on men´s reproductive health. Since then, xenobiotics have become a major concern of many scientific studies. There is evidence that most of them have multigenerational and transgenerational effects on reproductive health, which is a serious problem for our population. Bisphenol A could be considered as one of the most studied endocrine disruptors. Until now, several negative effects of bisphenol A were associated with reduced weight testes, histological alterations, impairment spermatogenesis, and steroidogenesis as well as with testes or prostate cancer. Due to convincing evidence, bisphenol A has been started to replace by its analogues such as bisphenol B, S, F, in order to eliminate and suppress the risk of exposure to bisphenol A. However, it seems that a lack of toxicological analyses allows using of these hazardous substances in daily life. Their harmful effect was confirmed by the animal in vitro and in vivo models, while the epidemiological studies monitoring the impact of bisphenol analogues on men's reproductive health are markedly limited. This review provides information about the effects of bisphenol on reproductive health in men. At the same time, it is focused on physiological aspects of sperm viability, steroid hormone secretion, sperm motility, or testes histology in relation to bisphenols exposure.

A Comparative Study of Effects of 28-Day Exposure of Bisphenol A and Bisphenol S on Body Weight Changes, Organ Histology, and Relative Organ Weight

Context

Bisphenol A (BPA), a known endocrine disrupting chemical, is of widespread use in manufacturing of plastic products. Documenting ill health effects of BPA has led the plastic industrialists to replace BPA by its alleged safer alternative, bisphenol S (BPS). BPS belongs to the same chemical family and shares endocrine disrupting properties with BPA.

Aims

We compared the effects of 28-day exposure of BPA and BPS on body weight changes, organ histology, and relative organ weight in rats. In addition, we detected BPA and BPS in the rat's blood serum.

Settings and Design

Adult male albino rats were administered BPA (50 mg/kg/day) or BPS (50 mg/kg/day) or equivolume vehicle in different groups by oral gavage for 28 days.

Subjects and Methods

The weight of each rat was noted at the commencement of the study and weekly afterward. On 29^th day, the animals were sampled for whole blood and then sacrificed. The dissected out wet viscera were weighed and subjected to the standard protocol for histological examination. Serum samples were prepared and analyzed for the detection of BPA and BPS by high-pressure liquid chromatography.

Statistical Analysis Used

Paired and unpaired Student's t-test, one-way ANOVA test, and Bonferroni test for multiple comparisons were used, as required for statistical analysis, and P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Both BPA and BPS produced similar detrimental changes in body weight, histology of stomach, small intestine, lung, and kidney, and relative organ weight of lung and kidney. BPA and BPS detected in the serum of rats were nearly 45 times of the control.

Conclusions

Present data suggest caution about the application of BPS as a substitute of BPA.

Profiles of parabens, benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters, triclosan, and triclocarban in paired urine and indoor dust samples from Chinese university students: Implications for human exposure

Parabens, benzophenone (BP)-type UV filters, triclosan (TCS), and triclocarban (TCC) are commonly used in personal care products. Human exposure to these compounds has received increasing concern because of their adverse health effects. However, the levels of these chemicals in paired urine and indoor samples have never been simultaneously measured. In this work, eight parabens, eight BP-type UV filters, TCS, and TCC were measured in paired urine and indoor dust samples collected from university students and their dormitories in South China. The target analytes were commonly measured in urine (71%-100%) and indoor dust (30%-98%), with median concentrations ranging from 0.16 ng/mL to 19.3 ng/mL in urine and from <0.01 ng/g to 3700 ng/g in indoor dust samples. Females had high levels of most of these target compounds, and gender-related differences were found in the levels of most target analytes. Positive correlations were found in the levels of methylparaben, ethyl paraben, benzophenone-3, and TCS between urine and indoor dust samples. This finding suggested that indoor dust is an important source for human exposure to these compounds. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of these analytes in paired samples was also evaluated. The median EDI_-urine values of target analytes varied in the range of 4.02-59,280 ng/kg bw/day. Females had higher median EDI_-urine values for most of target analytes than males. In addition, the median EDI_{-indoor dust} values of most target analytes in dust from female dormitories were higher than those in dust from male dormitories. Indoor dust ingestion only had minor contribution (<0.5%) to the total exposure. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study is the first to simultaneously analyze the concentrations of parabens, BP-type UV filters, TCS, and TCC in the paired urine and indoor samples from university students in South China.

The internal exposure of bisphenol analogues in South China adults and the associated health risks

Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely applied in industrial products and household products, leading to ubiquitous occurrences in environmental and biological samples. However, knowledge on human internal exposure to bisphenol analogues remains limited. Our study determined nine bisphenol analogues in urine samples collected from 1168 South China adults. BPA and bisphenol F (BPF) exhibited the highest detection frequencies in urine, i.e., 99.4% and 74.6%, respectively. BPA dominated over other analogues, with a median concentration of 1.74 μg/L, while BPF had a median concentration of 0.08 μg/L. Significant positive correlation was observed between urinary BPA and BPF (r = 0.201, p < 0.01), indicating similar exposure sources or pathways of these two chemicals. Urinary BPA concentrations were significantly correlated with age, marital status, drinking status and history of hyperlipidemia (p < 0.05). The median estimated daily intake (EDI) of Σ₃BPs (the sum concentrations of BPA, BPF and BPAF) was determined to be 53.6 ng/kg-bw/day for adults. The EDIs were much lower than the temporary tolerable reference dose of BPA recommended by the European Food Safety Authority, indicating the bisphenol analogues presented no obvious health risks to South China adults.

The occurrence of selected endocrine-disrupting chemicals in water and sediments from an urban lagoon in Southern Italy

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are agents able to exert perturbation toward the endocrine system via a broad array of signalling pathways. Some EDCs are released into the environment as a result of antropogenic activities. Analytical surveillance plays a critical role in investigating the prevalence of such chemicals in environmental samples. A study was carried out in a lagoon in Southern Italy, a water basin relates to the sea through a mouth channel, making this water body a "dynamic environment". The screening of fourteen EDCs in surface waters and sediments, includes a fast and cost-effective sample preparation, based on a solid-liquid (sediments) and liquid-liquid (surface waters) extraction and a chromatographic analysis by liquid chromatography tandem UV and fluorescence detection. Only four chemicals out the fourteen investigated EDCs were detected in both matrices with a frequency higher than 60%. The average concentrations of the single EDC were higher in sediments (730-155.000 ng kg^-1  dw) than in surface waters (132-28.000 ng L^-1 ). Limited to the assayed EDCs, the ecosystem has a low risk regarding to the conservation of biodiversity of the animal species living thereby, since the total estrogenic activity does not exceed 1 ng L^-1 . PRACTITIONER POINTS: Occurrence of selected EDCs was investigated in an Italian lagoon in Southern Italy. BPAF, BADGE, and BPA were the most frequently and highly detected compounds in both waters and sediments. Concentration levels were greater in the sediment than in water samples. Low risk for the ecosystem biodiversity concerning investigated EDCs.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Child Health

While definitions vary, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have two fundamental features: their disruption of hormone function and their contribution to disease and disability. The unique vulnerability of children to low-level EDC exposures has eroded the notion that only the dose makes the thing a poison, requiring a paradigm shift in scientific and policy practice. In this review, we discuss the unique vulnerability of children as early as fetal life and provide an overview of epidemiological studies on programming effects of EDCs on neuronal, metabolic, and immune pathways as well as on endocrine, reproductive, and renal systems. Building on this accumulating evidence, we dispel and address existing myths about the health effects of EDCs with examples from child health research. Finally, we provide a list of effective actions to reduce exposure, and subsequent harm that are applicable to individuals, communities, and policy-makers. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Volume 62 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Occurrence of parabens, triclosan and triclocarban in paired human urine and indoor dust from two typical cities in China and its implications for human exposure

Parabens, triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) are emerging endocrine disrupting chemicals, which are commonly used in personal care products and household applications in daily life. Due to their adverse health effects, human exposure to these chemicals has been a public concern. Despite evidence showing different exposure pathways of these chemicals, few studies have examined contribution of certain exposure to total human exposure. In this study, we measured six parabens, TCS and TCC in 129 indoor dust samples and these chemicals plus four paraben metabolites in 203 urine samples from two different cities in China (Suizhou, a typical small city in central China and Beijing, the capital of China). The median concentrations of ∑₆Parabens (1050 ng/g) and ∑TCS + TCC (565 ng/g) in dusts from Beijing were 1.9-3.3 times higher than those from Suizhou (∑₆Parabens: 314, ∑TCS + TCC: 294 ng/g). The ∑₆Parabens in urines from Suizhou and Beijing were in the range of 0.208-645 and 0.455-2300 μg/g Creatinine (Cr), respectively. The ∑TCS + TCC concentrations in urine were 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than those found for ∑₆Parabens. Comparatively, women had relatively higher body burden of parabens than men, which was more noticeable when considering the use of skin care products. In this regard, relatively higher levels of parabens were also found in women in couples. Positive correlations were found between concentrations of methyl-paraben (MeP) and ethyl-paraben (PrP) in paired dust and urine samples (p < 0.05). Human exposure to such chemicals was evaluated. Based on the measured concentrations in paired human urine and indoor dust samples, our results provided direct evidence that the contribution of indoor dust ingestion to the total exposure was minor. These findings are essential for clarifying the sources and potential exposure routes of these chemicals in humans.

Urinary bisphenol A and its alternatives among pregnant women: Predictors and risk assessment

BACKGROUND

Exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) has been associated with various adverse health outcomes. Recently, an increasing concern on its alternatives such as bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) has been aroused due to the restriction use of BPA. Few studies have identified predictors of exposure to BPA alternatives and assessed their health risks.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to identify predictors of BPA and its alternatives and to assess their health risks among pregnant women.

METHODS

We detected first morning urinary concentrations of BPA and its alternatives (BPS and BPF) among 1097 pregnant women from an established Chinese cohort. A questionnaire was conducted to obtain demographic characteristics, dietary habits, and lifestyles. We examined the predictors of creatinine-adjusted urinary BPA and its alternatives concentrations using multivariable linear regression. Risk assessment of exposure to BPA and its alternatives was calculated based on the estimated of daily intake (EDI).

RESULTS

Geometric means of creatinine-adjusted urinary BPA, BPF, and BPS were 0.92, 0.12, and 0.08 μg/g creatinine, respectively. Pregnant women from Wuhan had lower concentrations of BPA, BPF, and ∑BPs (sum of BPA, BPF, and BPS) than those from Xiaogan. Intake of fried food was related to higher concentrations of BPA, and intake of pickled food was associated with higher concentrations of BPF and ∑BPs. The maximum EDI values for exposure to BPA, BPF, BPS, and ∑BPs ranged from 5.6428 to 13.3356 nmol/kg body weight/day, which were below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for BPA defined by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (18 nmol/kg body weight/day). The maximum hazard index (HI) value was 0.7409.

CONCLUSION

Several predictors identified in this study may inform public recommendations to reduce exposure to BPA and its alternatives.

A Review of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Insights Into Microplastics as Obesogens

The ubiquitous exposure of humans to microplastics (MPs) through inhalation of particles in air and ingestion in dust, water, and diet is well established. Humans are estimated to ingest tens of thousands to millions of MP particles annually, or on the order of several milligrams daily. Available information suggests that inhalation of indoor air and ingestion of drinking water bottled in plastic are the major sources of MP exposure. Little is known on the occurrence of MPs in human diet. Evidence is accumulating that feeding bottles and medical devices can contribute to MP exposure in newborns and infants. Biomonitoring studies of human stool, fetus, and placenta provide direct evidence of MP exposure in infants and children. MPs <20 µm were reported to cross biological membranes. Although plastics were once perceived as inert materials, MP exposure in laboratory animals is linked to various forms of inflammation, immunological response, endocrine disruption, alteration of lipid and energy metabolism, and other disorders. Whereas exposure to MPs itself is a concern, MPs can also be sources of exposure to plastic additives and other toxicants. Exposure of human cell lines to MP additives such as phthalates, bisphenols, and organotins causes adverse effects through the activation of nuclear receptors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) α, β, and γ, and retinoid X receptor (RXR), leading to oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, immunotoxicity, thyroid hormone disruption, and altered adipogenesis and energy production. The size, shape, chemical composition, surface charge, and hydrophobicity of MPs influence their toxicity. Maternal transfer of MPs to the developing fetus has been demonstrated in exposed laboratory animals and through the analysis of human placenta. In laboratory animal studies, maternal exposure to MPs altered energy and lipid metabolism in offspring and subsequent generations. Moreover, concomitant with the global increase in plastics production, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in human populations has increased over the past five decades, and there is evidence to support the hypothesis that MPs and their additives are potential obesogens. Even though MP exposures are ubiquitous and toxic effects from such exposures are a concern, systematic studies on this topic remain urgently needed.

Recent Advances in Sample Preparation for Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Analysis

The use of cosmetics and personal care products is increasing worldwide. Their high matrix complexity, together with the wide range of products currently marketed under different forms imply a challenge for their analysis, most of them requiring a sample pre-treatment step before analysis. Classical sample preparation methodologies involve large amounts of organic solvents as well as multiple steps resulting in large time consumption. Therefore, in recent years, the trends have been moved towards the development of simple, sustainable, and environmentally friendly methodologies in two ways: (i) the miniaturization of conventional procedures allowing a reduction in the consumption of solvents and reagents; and (ii) the development and application of sorbent- and liquid-based microextraction technologies to obtain a high analyte enrichment, avoiding or significantly reducing the use of organic solvents. This review provides an overview of analytical methodology during the last ten years, placing special emphasis on sample preparation to analyse cosmetics and personal care products. The use of liquid–liquid and solid–liquid extraction (LLE, SLE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), solid-phase extraction (SPE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), matrix solid-phase extraction (MSPD), and liquid- and sorbent-based microextraction techniques will be reviewed. The most recent advances and future trends including the development of new materials and green solvents will be also addressed.

Prenatal exposure to bisphenols affects pregnancy outcomes and offspring development in rats

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of gestational exposure to low doses of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol F (BPF) on pregnancy outcomes and offspring development. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were orally dosed with vehicle, 5 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day of BPA, BPS and BPF, or 1 μg/kg BW/day of BPF on gestational days 6-21. Pregnancy and gestational outcomes, including number of abortions and stillbirths, were monitored. Male and female offspring were subjected to morphometry at birth, followed by pre- and post-weaning body weights, post-weaning food and water intakes, and adult organ weights. Ovarian follicular counts were also obtained from adult female offspring. We observed spontaneous abortions in over 80% of dams exposed to 5 μg/kg of BPF. BPA exposure increased Graafian follicles in female offspring, while BPS and BPF exposure decreased the number of corpora lutea, suggesting reduced ovulation rates. Moreover, BPA exposure increased male kidney and prostate gland weights, BPF decreased epididymal adipose tissue weights, and BPS had modest effects on male abdominal adipose tissue weights. Prenatal BPS exposure reduced anogenital distance (AGD) in male offspring, suggesting possible feminization, whereas both BPS and BPA induced oxidative stress in the testes. These results indicate that prenatal exposure to BPF affects pregnancy outcomes, BPS alters male AGD, and all three bisphenols alter certain organ weights in male offspring and ovarian function in female offspring. Altogether, it appears that prenatal exposure to BPA or its analogues can induce reproductive toxicity even at low doses.

Comparison of the materno-fetal transfer of fifteen structurally related bisphenol analogues using an ex vivo human placental perfusion model

Regulatory measures and public concerns regarding bisphenol A (BPA) have led to its replacement by a variety of alternatives in consumer products. Due to their structural similarity to BPA, these alternatives are under surveillance, however, for potential endocrine disruption. Understanding the materno-fetal transfer of these BPA-related alternatives across the placenta is therefore crucial to assess prenatal exposure risks. The objective of the study was to assess and compare the placental transfer of a set of 15 selected bisphenols (BPs) (BP 4-4, BPA, BPAF, BPAP, 3-3 BPA, BPB, BPBP, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPFL, BPM, BPP, BPS and BPZ) using the ex vivo human placental perfusion model. The UHPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of these BPs in perfusion media, within a concentration range of 0.003-5 μM, was able to measure placenta transfer rates as low as 0.6%-4%. Despite their structural similarities, these BPs differed greatly in placental transport efficiency. The placental transfer rates of BP4-4, BPAP, BPE, BPF, 3-3BPA, BPB, BPA were similar to that of antipyrine, indicating that their main transport mechanism was passive diffusion. By contrast, the placental transfer rates of BPFL and BPS were very limited, and intermediate for BPBP, BPZ, BPC, BPM, BPP and BPAF, suggesting weak diffusional permeability and/or that their passage might involve efflux transport. These placental transfer data will be particularly useful for predicting the fetal exposure of this important class of emerging contaminants.

Breast cancer proliferation and deterioration-associated metabolic heterogeneity changes induced by exposure of bisphenol S, a widespread replacement of bisphenol A

Exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) is considered to be associated with the increased incidence of breast cancer. As a widespread replacement of BPA, the effect of bisphenol S (BPS) on breast tumor programming has not been studied. We reported that BPS exposure significantly promoted proliferation and deterioration of breast tumor by nonmonotonic dose response. The mechanisms were investigated by molecular biology and mass spectrometry-based lipidomics, proteomics and imaging. BPS exposure induced the spatially intratumor heterogeneity of morphology-driven lipids and proteins. The more significant proliferation resulted from BPS-10 (10 μg/kg body weight /day) exposure was evidenced by the variations of spatial distribution of lipids related to ceramide-sphingomyelin signaling pathway, proteins related to chromosomal stability and cell proliferation in central necrotic regions of breast tumor. In contrast, the BPS-100 exposure obviously accelerated deterioration of breast tumor by the variations of spatial distribution of proteins that were associated with the stability of nucleic acid structure in peripheral neoplastic regions. Accordingly, dysregulation of metabolism and protein function as well as DNA methylation and hypoxic tumor microenvironment could be applied to predict the possibility of tumorigenesis, proliferation and metastasis that might be caused by other bisphenol analogs.

Exposure to environmental phenols and parabens, and relation to body mass index, eczema and respiratory outcomes in the Norwegian RHINESSA study

BACKGROUND

Many phenols and parabens are applied in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food, to prevent growth of bacteria and fungi. Whether these chemicals affect inflammatory diseases like allergies and overweight is largely unexplored. We aimed to assess the associations of use of personal care products with urine biomarkers levels of phenols and paraben exposure, and whether urine levels (reflecting body burden of this chemical exposures) are associated with eczema, rhinitis, asthma, specific IgE and body mass index.

METHODS

Demographics, clinical variables, and self-report of personal care products use along with urine samples were collected concurrently from 496 adults (48% females, median age: 28 years) and 90 adolescents (10-17 years of age) from the RHINESSA study in Bergen, Norway. Urine biomarkers of triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC), parabens and benzophenone-3, bisphenols and dichlorophenols (DCP) were quantified by mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Detection of the urine biomarkers varied according to chemical type and demographics. TCC was detected in 5% of adults and in 45% of adolescents, while propyl (PPB) and methyl (MPB) parabens were detected in 95% of adults and in 94% (PPB) and 99% (MPB) of adolescents. Women had higher median urine concentrations of phenolic chemicals and reported a higher frequency of use of personal care products than men. Urine concentration of MPB increased in a dose-dependent manner with increased frequency of use of several cosmetic products. Overall, urinary biomarker levels of parabens were lower in those with current eczema. The biomarker concentrations of bisphenol S was higher in participants with positive specific IgE and females with current asthma, but did not differ by eczema or rhinitis status. MPB, ethylparaben (EPB), 2,4-DCP and TCS were inversely related to BMI in adults; interaction by gender were not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Reported frequency of use of personal care products correlated very well with urine biomarker levels of paraben and phenols. Several chemicals were inversley related to BMI, and lower levels of parabens was observed for participants with current eczema. There is a need for further studies of health effects of chemicals from personal care products, in particular in longitudinally designed studies.

Benzothiazole-Containing Analogues of Triclocarban with Potent Antibacterial Activity

Triclocarban (TCC) is a polychlorinated, aromatic, antimicrobial agent commercially used since the 1950s in personal care products for the prevention of spoilage and infections. Humans are frequently exposed to TCC due to its widespread use, leading to its substantial release into the aquatic environment. With the recent ban of TCC from some personal care products, implemented in 2016, many replacement antimicrobial compounds have been studied by researchers. Herein, we report the synthesis and biological activity of a series of diarylureas, analogues of TCC that bear the benzothiazole nucleus as one of the two aryl moieties. Among the studied compounds, 2bF and 2eC showed the highest antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, being also more active than TCC, with MIC values of 8 µg/mL versus 16 µg/mL of TCC. Moreover, compound 2bB was much more active than TCC against Enterococcus faecalis, a Gram-positive bacterium that is, unfortunately, strongly responsible for nosocomial infections. Finally, interesting results were found for compound 2bG that, even though less active than the others, exerts an interesting bactericidal action.

Analytical methods for the determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and personal care products: A review

Personal care products (PCPs) and cosmetics are indispensable product in our daily routine. Their widespread use makes them a potential route of exposure for certain contaminants to which human would not be normally exposed. One of these contaminants includes endocrine disrupting chemicals, molecules capable of mimicking the body's natural hormones and interfering with the endocrine system. Some of them are ingredients included in the product's formulation, such as UV-filters (sunscreens), phthalates (plasticizers and preservatives), synthetic musks (fragrances), parabens and other antimicrobial agents (antimicrobial preservatives). Others are non-intended added substances that may result from the manufacturing process or migration from the plastic packaging, as with bisphenols and perfluorinated compounds. Some of these endocrine disruptors have been restricted or even banned in cosmetics and PCPs given the high risk they pose to health. Thus, the development of fast, sensitive and precise methods for the identification and quantification of these compounds in cosmetics is a substantial need in order to ensure consumer safety and provide insight into the real risk of human exposure. The present work aims at reviewing the more recently developed analytical methods published in the literature for the determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and PCPs using chromatographic techniques, with a focus on sample treatment and the quality of analytical parameters.

A Review of the Impact of Selected Anthropogenic Chemicals from the Group of Endocrine Disruptors on Human Health

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to review data on the impact of anthropogenic chemicals (endocrine disruptors) on various diseases, which, consequently, may facilitate their prevention and be used as a tool for managing public healthcare. Every day, humans are exposed to chemicals, including xenoestrogens, which are similar to female hormones.

METHODS

This manuscript was prepared based on a meta-analysis of research on the impacts of selected EDCs on human health.

RESULTS

Special attention should be paid to bisphenol A (BPA), benzo-α-pyrene, and phthalates due to their proven endocrine activity and presence in our daily lives. Xenoestrogens are absorbed by human organisms through the digestive system since they can migrate to food from food packages and drinks as well as from plastic products used daily. The presence of these chemicals in human organisms is considered a potential cause for some diseases commonly referred to as 'diseases of civilization'.

CONCLUSIONS

The biomonitoring of xenoestrogens, which are chemicals with unfavorable impacts on human health, is a crucial tool for assessing the risk from the pollution of the environment. The novelty is a holistic approach to assessing the occurrence of risk factors for civilization diseases.

Web-based behavioral intervention to reduce exposure to phthalate metabolites, bisphenol A, triclosan, and parabens in mothers with young children: A randomized controlled trial

In this study, a web-based behavioral intervention was designed, which aimed to reduce exposure to phthalate metabolites, bisphenol A, triclosan, and parabens in mothers with young children. A randomized controlled design with two groups was used to verify the effects of the intervention pre- and post-test. In total, 51 mothers participated in the study, categorizing 26 and 25 in the intervention and control groups, respectively. The web-based behavioral intervention focused on changes in diet, personal care products, and health behavior and reinforced behavior through encouragement. This program included an educational video, a game for locating endocrine disruptors at home, a method for locating facilities potentially emitting endocrine disruptors, resources, and a questions and answers mode. Data were collected from May 18 to June 30, 2020. Participants allocated to the intervention group were provided access to the behavioral intervention website via a computer or smartphone. Participants allocated to the control group were sent written information about endocrine disruptors via mail. For both the intervention and control groups, questionnaire results and maternal urine samples were assessed at baseline, during the intervention, and after one month. After the intervention, the urinary concentrations of mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), mono (2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), bisphenol A (BPA), methylparaben (MP), ethylparaben (EP), and propylparaben (PP) were found to be significantly decreased in the intervention group. Compared with the control group, the intervention group showed significantly decreased urinary geometric mean values of MEHP, MEOHP, BPA, MP, and PP after one month compared with those during the intervention (3.8%, 16.3%, 28.4%, 9.2%, and 24.4%, respectively). Hence, the web-based behavioral intervention was effective at reducing the exposure to endocrine disruptors in mothers with young children.

Bisphenol F promotes the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages by enhanced glycolysis through PI3K-AKT signaling pathway

Bisphenol F (BPF) is a member of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). As a substitute of bisphenol A (BPA), BPF is widely used in various consumer products, leading to an increased risk of people's exposure. However, there are few studies on the immunotoxicity and mechanism of BPF. This study aimed to investigate the effect of BPF on the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages and explore its mechanism. In our study, RAW264.7 macrophages were treated with different concentrations of BPF (0, 5, 10 and 20 μM) for 24 h. The results showed that the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β) and the production of lactate were increased in a dose-dependent manner. BPFalso led to the activation of the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. After pretreatment with glycolysis inhibitor (2-DG) and exposure to BPF (20 μM), the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by BPF was inhibited. PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) and estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist (ICI 182,780) could also inhibit the above effects induced by BPF (20 μM). In conclusion, our results suggested that BPF can enhance glycolysis through ER mediated PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, and the enhanced glycolysis further promoted the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our research provides basic data for future studies on bisphenol exposure and immunotoxicity.

Effects of bisphenol S and bisphenol F on human spermatozoa: An in vitro study

Bisphenol A (BPA), the main chemical monomer of epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics, has generated concerns about its endocrine disruptor properties, along with the reported possible links with several human health disorders. Accordingly, some restrictions on its use have been recommended. Bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) are the main replacements to BPA, with which they share homologies in chemical structure. However, to date, little is known about their possible adverse effects for human reproduction. As the in vitro exposure of human spermatozoa to BPA induces oxidative/pro-apoptotic effects, the aim of the present study was to verify whether BPS and BPF could represent safer compounds for human sperm functions. The exposure of motile sperm suspensions to scalar concentrations of BPS or BPF for 4 h did not significantly reduce sperm motility (as assessed by computer-aided semen analysis) and viability. At flow cytometry, no changes in mitochondrial membrane potential, or mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species were detected by using the JC-1 and MitoSOX red probes, respectively. Interestingly, it nor even the combination of both BPS and BPF at the highest concentrations impaired sperm mitochondrial functions. In conclusion, BPS and BPF seem to be safer alternatives to BPA for sperm biology, as they do not affect mitochondrial functions, sperm motility and viability. These findings could help regulatory agencies to identify more secure chemicals to replace BPA in industrial production of plastics.

Oxidative stress responses of a freshwater fish, Labeo rohita, to a xenobiotic, bisphenol S

Bisphenol S (BPS) is an organic chemical that has been used as a substitute for bisphenol A (BPA) in making polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resins, thermal receipt papers, and currency bills, as BPA has been reported to have dreadful effects on the living system. From this view point, the present study investigates whether BPS has the same or rather more toxic effects like BPA or not. Limited studies were carried out on the effect of BPS on fish. The hepatic antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), along with the nonenzymatic antioxidant, glutathione, in a freshwater fish, Labeo rohita, were selected as biomarkers. The results revealed that the sublethal exposure of BPS significantly influenced the activities of these biomarkers. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) products such as malondialdehyde and conjugate diene levels were also altered by the exposure. The alteration in the levels of antioxidants and LPO products after BPS exposure clearly showed that the fish experienced oxidative stress. Furthermore, the current study showed that BPS is a pollutant with oxidative potential by disrupting the antioxidant enzymes.

The Different Facets of Triclocarban: A Review

In the late 1930s and early 1940s, it was discovered that the substitution on aromatic rings of hydrogen atoms with chlorine yielded a novel chemistry of antimicrobials. However, within a few years, many of these compounds and formulations showed adverse effects, including human toxicity, ecotoxicity, and unwanted environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, quickly leading to regulatory bans and phase-outs. Among these, the triclocarban, a polychlorinated aromatic antimicrobial agent, was employed as a major ingredient of toys, clothing, food packaging materials, food industry floors, medical supplies, and especially of personal care products, such as soaps, toothpaste, and shampoo. Triclocarban has been widely used for over 50 years, but only recently some concerns were raised about its endocrine disruptive properties. In September 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned its use in over-the-counter hand and body washes because of its toxicity. The withdrawal of triclocarban has prompted the efforts to search for new antimicrobial compounds and several analogues of triclocarban have also been studied. In this review, an examination of different facets of triclocarban and its analogues will be analyzed.

Multi-Target Strategy to Uncover Unexpected Compounds in Rinse-Off and Leave-On Cosmetics

The wide range and complexity of cosmetic formulations currently available on the market poses a challenge from an analytical point of view. In addition, during cosmetics manufacture, impurities coming from raw materials or formed by reaction of different organic compounds present in the formulation may be present. Their identification is mandatory to assure product quality and consumer health. In this work, micro-matrix solid-phase dispersion (μMSPD) is proposed as a multi-target sample preparation strategy to analyze a wide number of unexpected families of compounds including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, plasticizers, nitrosamines, alkylphenols (APs), and alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEOs). Analytical determination was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the determination of 51 target compounds in a single run, whereas liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was employed for the analysis of six APs and APEOs. Both methodologies were successfully validated in terms of linearity, accuracy, and precision in leave-on and rinse-off cosmetics. Limits of detection (LODs) were calculated in the low ng g⁻¹, showing their suitability to determine trace levels of impurities and banned compounds with different chemical natures, providing useful tools to cosmetic control laboratories and companies.

Dietary Exposures and Intake Doses to Bisphenol A and Triclosan in 188 Duplicate-Single Solid Food Items Consumed by US Adults

Few data exist on bisphenol A (BPA) or triclosan (TCS) residue levels in foods consumed by adults in everyday settings. In a further analysis of study data, the objectives were to determine BPA and TCS residue concentrations in duplicate-single solid food items consumed by adults and to estimate dietary exposure and intake doses per food item. A convenience sample of 50 adults was recruited in North Carolina (2009-2011). Participants completed 24 h food diaries and collected 24 h duplicate-diet solid food samples consumed on days 1 and 2 during sampling weeks 1, 2, and 6. A total of 188 of the collected 776 duplicate-diet solid food samples contained a single, solid food item. BPA and TCS residue levels were quantified in the 188 food items using GC-MS. BPA and TCS were detected in 37% and 58% of these food items, respectively. BPA concentrations were highest in a cheese and tomato sandwich (104 ng/g), whereas the highest TCS concentrations were in a burrito (22.1 ng/g). These chemicals co-occurred in 20% of the samples (maximum = 54.7 ng/g). Maximum dietary intake doses were 429 ng/kg/day for BPA in a vegetable soup with tortilla sample and 72.0 ng/kg/day for TCS in a burrito sample.

Occurrence of Free-Form and Conjugated Bisphenol Analogues in Marine Organisms

Upon exposure, most bisphenol analogues (BPs) are rapidly metabolized to BP conjugates in organisms. Monitoring studies on BPs in aquatic organisms have been mainly focused on free-form BPs. However, the relative amount of conjugated BPs in organisms is still not well known, especially in marine organisms. In this study, we collected marine organisms (13 species; n = 74), as well as seawater (n = 15), from East China Sea, and analyzed them for bisphenol A (BPA) and its eight analogues. In seawater, BPA was the predominant BP (mean ± standard deviation (SD), 18 ± 9.7 ng/L), followed by bisphenol S (BPS; 3.7 ± 2.8 ng/L), bisphenol F (BPF; 0.31 ± 0.17 ng/L), and bisphenol AF (BPAF; 0.24 ± 0.15 ng/L). The whole body of each marine organism was used for BP analysis in this study. BPA (mean 3.8 ng/g, range 1.2-7.7 ng/g) and BPS (1.5 ng/g, 0.19-6.1 ng/g) were still the predominant BPs in marine organisms without hydrolysis. After enzymatic hydrolysis treatment, mean concentrations of BPs increased 1.8 (BPS)-3.7 (BPA) times in marine organisms. Correspondingly, on average, 74, 52, 49, 48, and 45% of BPA, bisphenol Z, BPF, BPS, and BPAF were present in conjugated forms, respectively, in marine organisms. Moreover, bioaccumulation and biomagnification of BPs were evaluated using pooled marine organism samples. We first found that the mean log BAF values of BPs increased 0.091 (BPAF) to 0.31 (BPA) times in marine organisms after hydrolysis. Overall, this study first determines the amount of BPs present in conjugated forms in marine organisms, which are helpful for better understanding the occurrence of BPs in organisms.

Determination of Bisphenol Analogues in Infant Formula Products from India and Evaluating the Health Risk in Infants Asssociated with Their Exposure

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-recognized endocrine disruptor, and considering its adverse effects its use in infant bottles has been banned in many countries. Growing concern on the use of BPA has led to its replacement with its analogues in numerous applications. Present is the first report determining the occurrence of seven bisphenols (BPs: BPA, BPAF, BPC, BPE, BPFL, BPS, and BPZ) in Indian infant formula. A reliable and efficient UPLC-MS/MS method for their simultaneous determination was developed and validated in powdered infant formula (n = 68). The limit of quantification of the method was 0.19 ng/g for BPA, BPAF, BPE, BPS and BPZ and 0.78 ng/g for BPC and BPFL. The highest concentration was detected for BPA (mean = 5.46 ng/g) followed by BPZ and BPS. BPAF, BPFL, BPC and BPE were detected in none of the samples. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of total BPs in infants (0-12 months old infants) was determined to be 54.33-213.36 ng/kg b.w./day. BPA mainly contributed to the total intake (EDI = 92.76 ng/kg b.w./day). The dietary exposure to total BPs evaluated in the present study was approximately 1 order of magnitude lower than the reference value of BPA set by EFSA (4 μg/kg b.w./day) and, thus, may not pose considerable risks to infants.

Exposure to Triclosan and Bisphenol Analogues B, F, P, S and Z in Repeated Duplicate-Diet Solid Food Samples of Adults

Triclosan (TCS) and bisphenol analogues are used in a variety of consumer goods. Few data exist on the temporal exposures of adults to these phenolic compounds in their everyday diets. The objectives were to determine the levels of TCS and five bisphenol analogues (BPB, BPF, BPP, BPS, and BPZ) in duplicate-diet solid food (DDSF) samples of adults and to estimate maximum dietary exposures and intake doses per phenol. Fifty adults collected 776 DDSF samples over a six-week monitoring period in North Carolina in 2009-2011. The levels of the target phenols were concurrently quantified in the DDSF samples using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. TCS (59%), BPS (32%), and BPZ (28%) were most often detected in the samples. BPB, BPF, and BPP were all detected in <16% of the samples. In addition, 82% of the total samples contained at least one target phenol. The highest measured concentration of 394 ng/g occurred for TCS in the food samples. The adults' maximum 24-h dietary intake doses per phenol ranged from 17.5 ng/kg/day (BPB) to 1600 ng/kg/day (TCS). An oral reference dose (300,000 ng/kg/day) is currently available for only TCS, and the adult's maximum dietary intake dose was well below a level of concern.

Oxidative Stress, Endocrine Disturbance, and Immune Interference in Humans Showed Relationships to Serum Bisphenol Concentrations in a Dense Industrial Area

Bisphenol A (BPA) analogues, used in a range of products due to health concerns regarding BPA, have emerged as ubiquitous environmental contaminants worldwide. This study aims to evaluate the levels of nine bisphenols (BPs) and eight biomarkers (malondialdehyde, MDA; 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, 8-OHdG; estradiol, E2; follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH; luteinizing hormone, LH; complement compound 3, C3; immunoglobulin M, IgM and c-reaction protein, CRP) in human serum (n = 353) to explore their potential relationships. The detection rates (DRs) of eight BPs in serum samples taken from people working in a dense industrial area of Shenzhen (Guangdong Province, China) were over 72% except for bisphenol B (BPB) (DR = 27.5%). The mean concentrations of BPA, bisphenol P (BPP), BPB, bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol FL (BPFL), 4,4'-dihydroxy-benzophenone (DHBP), bisphenol AF (BPAF), 4,4'-thiodiphenol (TDP) and bisphenol S (BPS) were 42.062, 2.083, 0.765, 0.578, 0.423, 0.402, 0.191, 0.120, and 0.071 ng/mL, respectively. BPA and BPFL were significantly correlated with the level of oxidative stress indices MDA and 8-OHdG; BPAF, BPB, and DHBP were strongly correlated with the level of endocrine disturbance indices E2, FSH, and LH; and BPF, DHBP, and BPAF were apparently related to the level of immune interference indices C3 and IgM. This study also suggests multiple impacts (oxidative stress, endocrine disturbance, and immune interference) mediated by BPs contaminants in vivo. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the correlations among these nine serum BPs and oxidative stress and endocrine and immune system indices in human serum samples collected from dense industrial areas.