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Ramírez-de-Arellano A, Gutiérrez-Franco J, Sierra-Diaz E, Pereira-Suárez AL. The role of estradiol in the immune response against COVID-19. Hormones (Athens) 2021; 20:657-667. [PMID: 34142358 PMCID: PMC8210971 DOI: 10.1007/s42000-021-00300-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the pathogen agent causing coronavirus disease (COVID)-19, which was declared a global pandemic in 2020. The spike protein of this virus and the angiotensin-converter enzyme (ACE)-2 in host cells in humans play a vital role in infection and in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Estradiol is known to modulate the actions of immune cells, and, therefore, the antiviral mechanisms of these cells could also be modified by this hormone stimulus. Even though estradiol is not considered a protective factor, evidence shows that women with high levels of this hormone have a lower risk of developing severe symptoms and an even a lower incidence of death. Understanding the mechanism of action of estradiol with regard to viral infections and COVID-19 is essential for the improvement of therapeutic strategies. This review aims to describe the effects that estradiol exerts on immune cells during viral infections and COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Ramírez-de-Arellano
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Biomédicas, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, 44 340, México
| | - Jorge Gutiérrez-Franco
- Unidad Académica de Ciencias Químico Biológicas Y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit, Tepic, Nayarit, 63 000, México
| | - Erick Sierra-Diaz
- Departamento de Salud Pública, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, División de Epidemiología, Unidad Medica de Alta Especialidad, Hospital de Especialidades, Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente, Guadalajara, Jalisco, 44340, México
| | - Ana Laura Pereira-Suárez
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Biomédicas, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, 44 340, México.
- Departamento de Microbiología Y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada # 950, Colonia Independencia, CP, 44340, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México.
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Feghali K, Atallah J, Norman C. Manifestations of thyroid disease post COVID-19 illness: Report of Hashimoto thyroiditis, Graves' disease, and subacute thyroiditis. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND TRANSLATIONAL ENDOCRINOLOGY CASE REPORTS 2021; 22:100094. [PMID: 34462717 PMCID: PMC8387132 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecr.2021.100094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We present three cases of thyroid dysfunction such as Hashimoto thyroiditis, Graves' disease and subacute thyroiditis which developed few weeks after resolution of acute phase of COVID -19 infection in patients with no prior thyroid disease. METHODS We discuss clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation and subsequent management and follow-up in three patients. RESULTS All three patients tested positive for COVID-19 infection prior to diagnosis. Patient 1. A 38-year-old female developed hypothyroidism 6 weeks after COVID-19 infection, confirmed by TSH 136 mIU/L (range 0.34-5.6), free T4 level 0.2 ng/dL (range 0.93-1.7). Patient 2. A 33-year-old female developed Graves' disease 8 weeks after COVID-19 infection, with a TSH <0.01 mIU/L (range 0.4-4.5), Free T4 2.1 ng/dl (range 0.8-1.8), total T3 216 ng/dl (range 76-181), elevated TSI 309 (normal <140). A 24-h thyroid uptake was calculated at 47.1% (normal values between 8% and 35). Patient responded favorably to methimazole 10 mg in few weeks. Patient 3. A 41-year old healthy female developed thyroiditis at 6 weeks after COVID-19 infection, with a TSH 0.01 mIU/L and free T4 1.9 ng/dL accompanied by low 24-h thyroid uptake, calculated at 0.09%. Three weeks later, she developed hypothyroidism, with a TSH 67.04 mIU/L and free T4 0.4 ng/dl. CONCLUSION The temporal relationship between COVID-19 infection in the patients described here raises the question of possible effects of COVID-19 on the immune system and the thyroid gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Feghali
- St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jacqueline Atallah
- St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Catalina Norman
- St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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Scappaticcio L, Pitoia F, Esposito K, Piccardo A, Trimboli P. Impact of COVID-19 on the thyroid gland: an update. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2021; 22:803-815. [PMID: 33241508 PMCID: PMC7688298 DOI: 10.1007/s11154-020-09615-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the pandemic of the new millennium. COVID-19 can cause both pulmonary and systemic inflammation, potentially determining multi-organ dysfunction. Data on the relationship between COVID-19 and thyroid have been emerging, and rapidly increasing since March 2020. The thyroid gland and the virus infection with its associated inflammatory-immune responses are known to be engaged in complex interplay. SARS-CoV-2 uses ACE2 combined with the transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) as the key molecular complex to infect the host cells. Interestingly, ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression levels are high in the thyroid gland and more than in the lungs. Our literature search provided greater evidence that the thyroid gland and the entire hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis could be relevant targets of damage by SARS-CoV-2. Specifically, COVID-19-related thyroid disorders include thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, as well as nonthyroidal illness syndrome. Moreover, we noticed that treatment plans for thyroid cancer are considerably changing in the direction of more teleconsultations and less diagnostic and therapeutical procedures. The current review includes findings that could be changed soon by new results on the topic, considering the rapidity of worldwide research on COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Scappaticcio
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, University Hospital "Luigi Vanvitelli", University of Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Fabián Pitoia
- Division of Endocrinology, Hospital de Clínicas, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Katherine Esposito
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
- Diabetes Unit, University Hospital "Luigi Vanvitelli", University of Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | | | - Pierpaolo Trimboli
- Clinic of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Lugano and Mendrisio Regional Hospital, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Bellinzona, Switzerland.
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Lugano, Switzerland.
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Abstract
Subacute thyroiditis (SAT) is a disorder of the thyroid gland and difficult to diagnose. It is probably triggered by a viral infection. Recently, several articles have reported SAT after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, reports describing SAT after SARS-CoV-2 in Japan are lacking. We herein report the first case of SAT after SARS-CoV-2 infection in Japan. After SARS-CoV-2 infection, some patients can develop not only pneumonia but also SAT. Thus, a careful follow-up is recommended for patients after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Furthermore, the effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on thyroid dysfunction should not be ignored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Sato
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hayama Heart Center, Japan
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Shonan Kamakura General Hospital, Japan
| | - Sho Nishiguchi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hayama Heart Center, Japan
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Shonan Kamakura General Hospital, Japan
| | - Eri Tanaka
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hayama Heart Center, Japan
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Pirola I, Gandossi E, Rotondi M, Marini F, Cristiano A, Chiovato L, Castellano M, Ferlin A, Cappelli C. Incidence of De Quervain's thyroiditis during the COVID-19 pandemic in an area heavily affected by Sars-CoV-2 infection. Endocrine 2021; 74:215-218. [PMID: 34363586 PMCID: PMC8349140 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-021-02841-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the possible association between Covid-19 infection and subacute thyroiditis. METHODS We reviewed the medical and imaging records of patients referred to our Department's outpatient setting dedicated to 'thyroid emergency' (records with a 'bollino verde'-green sticker, classifed as urgent) from April 2020 to October 2020. This outpatient clinic is devoted to patients requiring evaluation for severe hypothyroidism, thyrotoxicosis and neck discomfort or pain. All patients with a newly-diagnosed subacute thyroiditis were selected. The data of all patients receiving a diagnosis of subacute thyroiditis was collected retrospectively, taking into account the same period of time (April-October) and starting from 2016. RESULTS During the COVID-19 outbreak in our region (April 2020 to October 2020) 396 patients attended the outpatient emergency clinic. Among them, 10 (2.5%) patients received a diagnosis of subacute thyroiditis. In a single patient, a 44-year-old man, a COVID-19 pulmonary infection had been diagnosed 7 weeks before the diagnosis of subacute thyroiditis. All of the remaining patients were and remain COVID-19 free as confirmed by telephone interview. The percentage of patients who received a diagnosis of subacute thyroiditis in the same period starting from 2016 was very similar (2.9%, 2.9%, 2.6% and 3.0% in 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Our data do not show an increase in the incidence of subacute thyroiditis in the Brescia area, a region with the highest prevalence of COVID-19 in Italy during the period of the pandemic outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilenia Pirola
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Elena Gandossi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Mario Rotondi
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, ICS Maugeri I.R.C.C.S., Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Fiorella Marini
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandra Cristiano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Luca Chiovato
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, ICS Maugeri I.R.C.C.S., Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Maurizio Castellano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alberto Ferlin
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | - Carlo Cappelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, SSD Medicina ad Indirizzo Endocrino-Metabolico, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy.
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Soltani A, Nourani F, Roudsari SB, Jouybari L, Fathi M, Haghighat S, Hadavi M, Aletaha A. Identifying the Lowest Effective Initial Dose of Prednisolone for the Treatment of Subacute Granulomatous Thyroiditis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Curr Rev Clin Exp Pharmacol 2021; 17:135-143. [PMID: 34636318 DOI: 10.2174/2772432816666211012092112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Subacute granulomatous thyroiditis (SAGT) is an inflammatory disease due to viral infections. Glucocorticoids, especially prednisolone (PSL), are one of the first approaches in the treatment of patients with SAGT. To date, no study has determined the lowest effective dose of prednisolone with the lowest recurrence rate in the treatment of SAGT. This study aimed to use meta-analysis methods to identify the appropriate dosage of prednisolone with the lowest recurrence rate in the treatment of patients with SAGT. METHODS This study was conducted according to the PRISMA checklist in February 2021. Two independent researchers performed a search for relevant literature published before March 2021 in English databases including Scopus, MEDLINE (via PubMed), Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, EMBASE, and also Persian electronic databases including SID, Iran medex, Magiran, and Irandoc. The search algorithm was initially developed by using a combination of MeSH terms, keywords, and also Boolean operators ("AND"; "OR"; "NOT"): Subacute thyroiditis, De Quervain Thyroiditis, Glucocorticoids, Prednisolone, Recurrence, and Meta-Analysis. All statistical analyses were performed using STATA 15.0 (StataCorp LLC, College Station, TX, USA) and SPSS 17.0. A random-effects model based on Metaprop were applied for the Meta-analysis. To assess heterogeneity between studies, the chi-squared test and I2 index were used, and for evaluating publication bias, funnel plots and Egger tests were performed. RESULTS The overall recurrence rate was 14.72% [95% CI: 9.63- 20.58] and there was a significant heterogeneity among the studies [I2 = 69.56%; P=0.000]. To evaluate the lowest effective dose of prednisolone, we divided the studies into two groups based on the mean initial dose of prednisolone: less than or equal to 20 mg/day (group one) and greater than 20 mg/day (group two). The recurrence rate in group 1 was 11% [95% CI: 5.7- 16.2] and in group 2 was 23.6% [95% CI: 11.5- 35.6]. Significant correlations were observed between the initial mean dose of PSL and recurrence rate (r= 0.71; P= 0.013). Begg's funnel plot there was no evidence of publication bias in these studies (p=0.160). CONCLUSION According to the results of this meta-analysis, 15 to 20 mg/day of prednisolone is the most effective dosage with the lowest recurrence rate in the treatment of subacute Granulomatous thyroiditis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akbar Soltani
- Evidence based medicine research center, endocrinology and metabolism clinical science institute, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran. Iran
| | | | | | - Leila Jouybari
- Nursing Research Center, Goletsan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan. Iran
| | - Mobina Fathi
- Student Research committee, School of medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran. Iran
| | - Somayeh Haghighat
- Physiology research center, Kashan University of medical sciences, Isfahan. Iran
| | - Marzieh Hadavi
- Endocrinology & Metabolism, Clinical research development unit of Shahid Mostafa Khomeini hospital, Ilam University of medical sciences, Ilam. Iran
| | - Azadeh Aletaha
- Health Information science, in Medical Information Department, School of Management and Medical Information, Tehran university of medical science, Tehran. Iran
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Brancatella A, Viola N, Rutigliano G, Sgrò D, Santini F, Latrofa F. Subacute Thyroiditis During the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic. J Endocr Soc 2021; 5:bvab130. [PMID: 34458656 PMCID: PMC8344892 DOI: 10.1210/jendso/bvab130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Context Acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been related to subacute thyroiditis (SAT). Objective We compared SAT cases during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic to those observed in the previous years. Methods A cross-sectional, retrospective study was conducted at the Endocrinology Unit of University Hospital of Pisa, Italy. We included all patients observed from January 2016 to December 2020 because of an untreated SAT, who had developed the disease within 15 days prior to the visit. SAT cases from 2016 to 2019 (N = 152) are referred to as pre-SARS-CoV-2, while 2020 SAT patients are classified as pos-SARS-CoV-2 (N = 18) or neg-SARS-CoV-2 (N = 28), according to positive or negative SARS-CoV-2 testing performed up to 45 days from SAT onset. Results While during 2016-2019, most SAT cases were observed in the third quarter, in 2020, 2 peaks were seen, superimposable to the SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks in the second and the fourth quarters. In the second and fourth quarters of 2020, we observed higher levels of free thyroxine (FT4), C-reactive protein (CRP), and thyroglobulin (Tg) compared with the same quarters of the years 2016-2019. Pos-SARS-CoV-2 patients had higher FT4 (28.4 vs 24.1 nmol/L), CRP (8.5 vs 3.6 mg/L), and Tg (155 vs 60 µg/L) (P < 0.05 for all) and more frequently had hypothyroidism (13/15 vs 30/152 at 3 months) (P < 0.001) than pre-SARS-CoV-2 patients. Neg-SARS-CoV-2 patients showed a clinical picture intermediate between the other 2 groups. Conclusion The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has caused a shift in the annual timing and severity of SAT cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Brancatella
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Hospital of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Nicola Viola
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Hospital of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Daniele Sgrò
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Hospital of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Ferruccio Santini
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Hospital of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Francesco Latrofa
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Hospital of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy
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Brix TH, Hegedüs L. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and thyroid disease. An update. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2021; 28:525-532. [PMID: 34224435 PMCID: PMC8452244 DOI: 10.1097/med.0000000000000654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is associated with excess morbidity and mortality in patients with hypertension and diabetes but little is known about thyroid diseases. Thus, our goal was to review the literature with respect to: (i) Are patients with underlying hypo- or hyperthyroidism at increased risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2 infection? (ii) do underlying hypo- and hyperthyroidism impact the prognosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection? (iii) does SARS-CoV-2 infection cause de novo thyroid dysfunction? RECENT FINDINGS Patients with hypo- or hyperthyroidism do not have an increased risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2, and a diagnosis of hypo- or hyperthyroidism is not associated with a worsened prognosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. SARS-CoV-2 infection has been associated with subsequent thyrotoxicosis, euthyroid sick syndrome, subacute thyroiditis, and autoimmune thyroid disease. SUMMARY These findings suggest that receiving treatment for thyroid dysfunction does not per se impact the patients' risk of acquiring SARS-CoV-2 infection, or the management of those who already contracted it. Additional studies with larger numbers of patients and long-term follow-up are required in order to clarify whether patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection are more or less prone to develop thyroid dysfunction and/or thyroid autoimmunity than patients recovering from other virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas H Brix
- Department of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark
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Soltanpoor P, Norouzi G. Subacute thyroiditis following COVID-19 vaccination. Clin Case Rep 2021; 9:e04812. [PMID: 34631062 PMCID: PMC8489499 DOI: 10.1002/ccr3.4812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Physicians should be alert about the possibility of subacute thyroiditis (SAT) being induced by COVID-19 vaccination. SAT may present with anterior neck pain, extended fever or palpitation in recently vaccinated patients, which should not be easily dismissed as expected post-vaccination flu-like symptoms, thereby, facilitating in time diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pardis Soltanpoor
- Functional Neurosurgery Research Center Shohada-e Tajrish Neurosurgical Comprehensive Center of Excellence School of Medicine Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Ghazal Norouzi
- Nuclear Medicine Department Shohada-e Tajrish Medical Center School of Medicine Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
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Trimboli P, Cappelli C, Croce L, Scappaticcio L, Chiovato L, Rotondi M. COVID-19-Associated Subacute Thyroiditis: Evidence-Based Data From a Systematic Review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:707726. [PMID: 34659109 PMCID: PMC8511511 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.707726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Subacute thyroiditis (SAT) is a thyroid disease of viral or post-viral origin. Whether SAT represents a complication of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still unclear. Our aim was to systematically review the literature to 1) explore the size of the literature about SAT in COVID-19 and 2) evaluate the clinical characteristics of SAT. PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Scopus were searched until April 20, 2021. Original papers, case reports, and case series reporting SAT in COVID-19 patients were included. Authors and their country, journal, year of publication, COVID-19 and SAT clinical presentation, thyroid function, therapy, and follow-up data were extracted. Nineteen papers (17 case reports and 2 case series) were included, describing 27 patients, 74.1% females, aged 18 to 69 years. COVID-19 was diagnosed by nasopharyngeal swab in 66.7% cases and required hospitalization in 11.1%. In 83.3% cases, SAT occurred after COVID-19. Neck pain was present in 92.6% cases and fever in 74.1%. Median TSH, fT3, and fT4 were 0.01 mU/l, 10.79 pmol/l, and 27.2 pmol/l, respectively. C-reactive-protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate were elevated in 96% of cases. Typical ultrasonographic characteristics of SAT were observed in 83.3% of cases. Steroids were the most frequent SAT therapy. Complete remission of SAT was recorded in most cases. In conclusion, the size and quality of published data of SAT in COVID-19 patients are poor, with only case reports and case series being available. SAT clinical presentation in COVID-19 patients seems to be similar to what is generally expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierpaolo Trimboli
- Clinic for Endocrinology and Diabetology, Lugano Regional Hospital, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Lugano, Switzerland
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Carlo Cappelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Laura Croce
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, (IRCCS), Pavia, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Scappaticcio
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, University Hospital “Luigi Vanvitelli”, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, Naples, Italy
| | - Luca Chiovato
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, (IRCCS), Pavia, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Mario Rotondi
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, (IRCCS), Pavia, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
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Kazakou P, Paschou SA, Psaltopoulou T, Gavriatopoulou M, Korompoki E, Stefanaki K, Kanouta F, Kassi GN, Dimopoulos MA, Mitrakou A. Early and late endocrine complications of COVID-19. Endocr Connect 2021; 10:R229-R239. [PMID: 34424853 PMCID: PMC8494407 DOI: 10.1530/ec-21-0184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine system plays a vital role in controlling human homeostasis. Understanding the possible effects of COVID-19 on endocrine glands is crucial to prevent and manage endocrine disorders before and during hospitalization in COVID-19-infected patients as well as to follow them up properly upon recovery. Many endocrine glands such as pancreas, hypothalamus and pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries have been found to express angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors, the main binding site of the virus. Since the pandemic outbreak, various publications focus on the aggravation of preexisting endocrine diseases by COVID-19 infection or the adverse prognosis of the disease in endocrine patients. However, data on endocrine disorders both during the phase of the infection (early complications) and upon recovery (late complications) are scarce. The aim of this review is to identify and discuss early and late endocrine complications of COVID-19. The majority of the available data refer to glucose dysregulation and its reciprocal effect on COVID-19 infection with the main interest focusing on the presentation of new onset of diabetes mellitus. Thyroid dysfunction with low triiodothyronine, low thyroid stimulating hormone, or subacute thyroiditis has been reported. Adrenal dysregulation and impaired spermatogenesis in affected men have been also reported. Complications of other endocrine glands are still not clear. Considering the recent onset of COVID-19 infection, the available follow-up data are limited, and therefore, long-term studies are required to evaluate certain effects of COVID-19 on the endocrine glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paraskevi Kazakou
- Diabetes Centre, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Stavroula A Paschou
- Endocrine Unit, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Theodora Psaltopoulou
- Unit of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Gavriatopoulou
- Unit of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Korompoki
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Katerina Stefanaki
- Endocrine Unit, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Fotini Kanouta
- Department of Endocrinology, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgia N Kassi
- Department of Endocrinology, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Meletios-Athanasios Dimopoulos
- Unit of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Asimina Mitrakou
- Diabetes Centre, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Kazakou P, Paschou SA, Psaltopoulou T, Gavriatopoulou M, Korompoki E, Stefanaki K, Kanouta F, Kassi GN, Dimopoulos MA, Mitrakou A. Early and late endocrine complications of COVID-19. Endocr Connect 2021. [PMID: 34424853 DOI: 10.1530/ec-21-0184.pmid:34424853;pmcid:pmc8494407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine system plays a vital role in controlling human homeostasis. Understanding the possible effects of COVID-19 on endocrine glands is crucial to prevent and manage endocrine disorders before and during hospitalization in COVID-19-infected patients as well as to follow them up properly upon recovery. Many endocrine glands such as pancreas, hypothalamus and pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries have been found to express angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors, the main binding site of the virus. Since the pandemic outbreak, various publications focus on the aggravation of preexisting endocrine diseases by COVID-19 infection or the adverse prognosis of the disease in endocrine patients. However, data on endocrine disorders both during the phase of the infection (early complications) and upon recovery (late complications) are scarce. The aim of this review is to identify and discuss early and late endocrine complications of COVID-19. The majority of the available data refer to glucose dysregulation and its reciprocal effect on COVID-19 infection with the main interest focusing on the presentation of new onset of diabetes mellitus. Thyroid dysfunction with low triiodothyronine, low thyroid stimulating hormone, or subacute thyroiditis has been reported. Adrenal dysregulation and impaired spermatogenesis in affected men have been also reported. Complications of other endocrine glands are still not clear. Considering the recent onset of COVID-19 infection, the available follow-up data are limited, and therefore, long-term studies are required to evaluate certain effects of COVID-19 on the endocrine glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paraskevi Kazakou
- Diabetes Centre, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Stavroula A Paschou
- Endocrine Unit, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Theodora Psaltopoulou
- Unit of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Gavriatopoulou
- Unit of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Korompoki
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Katerina Stefanaki
- Endocrine Unit, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Fotini Kanouta
- Department of Endocrinology, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgia N Kassi
- Department of Endocrinology, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Meletios-Athanasios Dimopoulos
- Unit of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Asimina Mitrakou
- Diabetes Centre, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Lisco G, De Tullio A, Jirillo E, Giagulli VA, De Pergola G, Guastamacchia E, Triggiani V. Thyroid and COVID-19: a review on pathophysiological, clinical and organizational aspects. J Endocrinol Invest 2021; 44:1801-1814. [PMID: 33765288 PMCID: PMC7992516 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-021-01554-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid dysfunction has been observed in patients with COVID-19, and endocrinologists are requested to understand this clinical issue. Pandemic-related restrictions and reorganization of healthcare services may affect thyroid disease management. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS To analyze and discuss the relationship between COVID-19 and thyroid diseases from several perspectives. PubMed/MEDLINE, Google Scholar, Scopus, ClinicalTrial.gov were searched for this purpose by using free text words and medical subject headings as follows: "sars cov 2", "covid 19", "subacute thyroiditis", "atypical thyroiditis", "chronic thyroiditis", "hashimoto's thyroiditis", "graves' disease", "thyroid nodule", "differentiated thyroid cancer", "medullary thyroid cancer", "methimazole", "levothyroxine", "multikinase inhibitor", "remdesivir", "tocilizumab". Data were collected, analyzed, and discussed to answer the following clinical questions: "What evidence suggests that COVID-19 may induce detrimental consequences on thyroid function?"; "Could previous or concomitant thyroid diseases deteriorate the prognosis of COVID-19 once the infection has occurred?"; "Could medical management of thyroid diseases influence the clinical course of COVID-19?"; "Does medical management of COVID-19 interfere with thyroid function?"; "Are there defined strategies to better manage endocrine diseases despite restrictive measures and in-hospital and ambulatory activities reorganizations?". RESULTS SARS-CoV-2 may induce thyroid dysfunction that is usually reversible, including subclinical and atypical thyroiditis. Patients with baseline thyroid diseases are not at higher risk of contracting or transmitting SARS-CoV-2, and baseline thyroid dysfunction does not foster a worse progression of COVID-19. However, it is unclear whether low levels of free triiodothyronine, observed in seriously ill patients with COVID-19, may worsen the disease's clinical progression and, consequently, if triiodothyronine supplementation could be a tool for reducing this burden. Glucocorticoids and heparin may affect thyroid hormone secretion and measurement, respectively, leading to possible misdiagnosis of thyroid dysfunction in severe cases of COVID-19. High-risk thyroid nodules require a fine-needle aspiration without relevant delay, whereas other non-urgent diagnostic procedures and therapeutic interventions should be postponed. DISCUSSION Currently, we know that SARS-CoV-2 could lead to short-term and reversible thyroid dysfunction, but thyroid diseases seem not to affect the progression of COVID-19. Adequate management of patients with thyroid diseases remains essential during the pandemic, but it could be compromised because of healthcare service restrictions. Endocrine care centers should continuously recognize and classify priority cases for in-person visits and therapeutic procedures. Telemedicine may be a useful tool for managing patients not requiring in-person visits.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Lisco
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Apulia, Italy.
| | - A De Tullio
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Apulia, Italy
| | - E Jirillo
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Neuroscience and Sensory Organs, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Apulia, Italy
| | - V A Giagulli
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Apulia, Italy
| | - G De Pergola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine and Clinical Oncology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Apulia, Italy
| | - E Guastamacchia
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Apulia, Italy
| | - V Triggiani
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Apulia, Italy.
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Dworakowska D, Morley S, Mulholland N, Grossman AB. COVID-19-related thyroiditis: A novel disease entity? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2021; 95:369-377. [PMID: 33650180 PMCID: PMC8014067 DOI: 10.1111/cen.14453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The literature on COVID-19-related thyroid complications has accumulated over the past year or so as the pandemic has accelerated throughout the world. In particular, several recent case reports have been published describing a possible correlation between COVID-19 disease and subacute thyroiditis (SAT). In this review, we briefly present one of our own patients and review the current published literature in this area up to January 2021, including analyses of major series of thyroid function tests in patients with significant COVID-19 infection. We conclude that while the great majority of patients with severe COVID-19 infection may show manifestations of the sick euthyroid syndrome, clinicians should be aware of the possibility of SAT, especially in the early weeks and months following even mild COVID-19 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Dworakowska
- Departament of Hypertension and DiabetesMedical University of GdanskPoland
- Guy’s Richard Dimbleby Department of Cancer ResearchKings College LondonLondonUK
- London International ClinicLondonUK
| | - Simon Morley
- Department of RadiologyUniversity College London HospitalLondonUK
| | - Nicola Mulholland
- Department of Nuclear MedicineKing's College HospitalLondonUK
- King's College LondonLondonUK
| | - Ashley B Grossman
- Centre for Endocrinology, BartsLondon School of MedicineQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUK
- OCDEMUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
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Piticchio T, Le Moli R, Tumino D, Frasca F. Relationship between betacoronaviruses and the endocrine system: a new key to understand the COVID-19 pandemic-A comprehensive review. J Endocrinol Invest 2021; 44:1553-1570. [PMID: 33583003 PMCID: PMC7882054 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-020-01486-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A new harmful respiratory disease, called COVID-19 emerged in China in December 2019 due to the infection of a novel coronavirus, called SARS-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which belongs to the betacoronavirus genus, including SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV. SARS-CoV-2 shares almost 80% of the genome with SARS-CoV-1 and 50% with MERS-CoV. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 proteins share a high degree of homology (approximately 95%) with SARS-CoV-1 proteins. Hence, the mechanisms of SARS-Cov-1 and SARS-Cov-2 infection are similar and occur via binding to ACE2 protein, which is widely distributed in the human body, with a predominant expression in endocrine tissues including testis, thyroid, adrenal and pituitary. PURPOSE On the basis of expression pattern of the ACE2 protein among different tissues, similarity between SARS-Cov-1 and SARS-Cov-2 and the pathophysiology of COVID-19 disease, we aimed at discussing, after almost one-year pandemic, about the relationships between COVID-19 infection and the endocrine system. First, we discussed the potential effect of hormones on the susceptibility to COVID-19 infection; second, we examined the evidences regarding the effect of COVID-19 on the endocrine system. When data were available, a comparative discussion between SARS and COVID-19 effects was also performed. METHODS A comprehensive literature search within Pubmed was performed. This review has been conducted according to the PRISMA statements. RESULTS Among 450, 100 articles were selected. Tissue and vascular damages have been shown on thyroid, adrenal, testis and pituitary glands, with multiple alterations of endocrine function. CONCLUSION Hormones may affect patient susceptibility to COVID-19 infection but evidences regarding therapeutic implication of these findings are still missing. SARS and COVID-19 may affect endocrine glands and their dense vascularization, impairing endocrine system function. A possible damage of endocrine system in COVID-19 patients should be investigated in both COVID-19 acute phase and recovery to identify both early and late endocrine complications that may be important for patient's prognosis and well-being after COVID-19 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Piticchio
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Garibaldi Nesima Hospital, University of Catania, Via Palermo 636, 95122, Catania, Italy
| | - R Le Moli
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Garibaldi Nesima Hospital, University of Catania, Via Palermo 636, 95122, Catania, Italy
| | - D Tumino
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Garibaldi Nesima Hospital, University of Catania, Via Palermo 636, 95122, Catania, Italy
| | - F Frasca
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Garibaldi Nesima Hospital, University of Catania, Via Palermo 636, 95122, Catania, Italy.
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Ahn J, Lee MK, Lee JH, Sohn SY. Thyroid Hormone Profile and Its Prognostic Impact on the Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Korean Patients. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2021; 36:769-777. [PMID: 34474515 PMCID: PMC8419615 DOI: 10.3803/enm.2021.1109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Data on the association between coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and thyroid have been reported, including overt thyrotoxicosis and suppression of thyroid function. We aimed to evaluate the thyroid hormone profile and its association with the prognosis of COVID-19 in Korean patients. METHODS The clinical data of 119 patients with COVID-19, admitted in the Myongji Hospital, Goyang, South Korea, were retrospectively evaluated. The thyroid hormone profiles were analyzed and compared based on disease severity (non-severe disease vs. severe to critical disease). Clinical outcomes were analyzed according to the tertiles of thyroid hormones. RESULTS Of the 119 patients, 76 (63.9%) were euthyroid, and none presented with overt thyroid dysfunction. Non-thyroidal illness syndrome was the most common manifestation (18.5%), followed by subclinical thyrotoxicosis (14.3%) among patients with thyroid dysfunction. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels were significantly lower in patients with severe to critical disease than in those with non-severe disease (P<0.05). Patients in the lowest T3 tertile (<0.77 ng/mL) had higher rates of mechanical ventilation, intensive care unit admission, and death than those in the middle and highest (>1.00 ng/mL) T3 tertiles (P<0.05). COVID-19 patients in the lowest T3 tertile were independently associated with mortality (hazard ratio, 5.27; 95% confidence interval, 1.09 to 25.32; P=0.038) compared with those in the highest T3 tertile. CONCLUSION Thyroid dysfunction is common in COVID-19 patients. Changes in serum TSH and T3 levels may be important markers of disease severity in COVID-19. Decreased T3 levels may have a prognostic significance in COVID-19 related outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyeon Ahn
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Myongji Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Goyang, Korea
| | - Min Kyung Lee
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Myongji Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Goyang, Korea
| | - Jae Hyuk Lee
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Myongji Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Goyang, Korea
| | - Seo Young Sohn
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Myongji Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Goyang, Korea
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Abstract
CONTEXT COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which has become the most lethal and rapidly moving pandemic since the Spanish influenza of 1918-1920, is associated with thyroid diseases. METHODS References were identified through searches of PubMed and MEDLINE for articles published from Jan 1, 2019 to February 19, 2021 by use of the MeSH terms "hypothyroidism", "hyperthyroidism", "thyroiditis", "thyroid cancer", "thyroid disease", in combination with the terms "coronavirus" and "COVID-19". Articles resulting from these searches and references cited in those articles were reviewed. RESULTS Though preexisting autoimmune thyroid disease appears unlikely to render patients more vulnerable to COVID-19, some reports have documented relapse of Graves' disease (GD) or newly diagnosed GD about 1 month following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Investigations are ongoing to investigate molecular pathways permitting the virus to trigger GD or cause subacute thyroiditis (SAT). While COVID-19 is associated with non-thyroidal illness, it is not clear whether it also increases the risk of developing autoimmune hypothyroidism. The possibility that thyroid dysfunction may also increase susceptibility for COVID-19 infection deserves further investigation. Recent data illustrate the importance of thyroid hormone in protecting the lungs from injury, including that associated with COVID-19. CONCLUSION The interaction between the thyroid gland and COVID-19 is complex and bidirectional. COVID-19 infection is associated with triggering of GD and SAT, and possibly hypothyroidism. Until more is understood regarding the impact of coronavirus on the thyroid gland, it seems advisable to monitor patients with COVID-19 for new thyroid disease or progression of preexisting thyroid disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonidas H Duntas
- Evgenidion Hospital, Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Athens, Athens 11528, Greece
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Bouza E, Cantón Moreno R, De Lucas Ramos P, García-Botella A, García-Lledó A, Gómez-Pavón J, González Del Castillo J, Hernández-Sampelayo T, Martín-Delgado MC, Martín Sánchez FJ, Martínez-Sellés M, Molero García JM, Moreno Guillén S, Rodríguez-Artalejo FJ, Ruiz-Galiana J, De Pablo Brühlmann S, Porta Etessam J, Santos Sebastián M. [Post-COVID syndrome: A reflection and opinion paper]. REVISTA ESPANOLA DE QUIMIOTERAPIA : PUBLICACION OFICIAL DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPANOLA DE QUIMIOTERAPIA 2021; 34:269-279. [PMID: 33878844 PMCID: PMC8329562 DOI: 10.37201/req/023.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
A high proportion of people who have suffered from COVID-19 report, after recovery from the acute phase of the disease, clinical manifestations, both subjective and objective, that continue beyond 3 weeks or even 3 months after the original clinical disease. There is still no agreed nomenclature to refer to this condition, but perhaps the most commonly used is post-COVID syndrome. The Scientific Committee on COVID of the Madrid College of Physicians (ICOMEM) has discussed this problem with a multidisciplinary approach in which internists, infectious disease specialists, psychiatrists, pneumologists, surgeons, geriatricians, pediatricians, microbiologists, family physicians and other specialists have participated, trying to gather the existing information and discussing it in the group. The clinical manifestations are very variable and range from simple fatigue to persistent fibrosing lung lesions with objective alterations of pulmonary function. Post-COVID syndrome seems to be particularly frequent and severe in adults who have required admission to Intensive Care Units and has a peculiar behavior in a very small group of children. The post-COVID syndrome, which undoubtedly exists, is at first sight not clearly distinguishable from clinical manifestations that which occur after other acute viral diseases and after prolonged stays in ICUs due to other diseases. Therefore, it offers excellent research opportunities to clarify its pathogenesis and possibly that of other related entities. It is possible that progressively there will be an increased demand for care among the millions of people who have suffered and overcome acute COVID for which the health authorities should design mechanisms for the agile management of care that will possibly require well-coordinated multidisciplinary groups. This paper, structured in questions on different aspects of the post-COVID syndrome, attempts to stage the current state of this problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bouza
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas del Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense. CIBERES. Ciber de Enfermedades Respiratorias. Madrid, Spain.
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Pizzocaro A, Colombo P, Vena W, Ariano S, Magnoni P, Reggiani F, Favacchio G, Mirani M, Lavezzi E, Voza A, Calatroni M, Mazziotti G, Lania A. Outcome of Sars-COV-2-related thyrotoxicosis in survivors of Covid-19: a prospective study. Endocrine 2021; 73:255-260. [PMID: 34047879 PMCID: PMC8161706 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-021-02758-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the post- coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) outcome of thyroid function in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-related thyrotoxicosis. METHODS This was a single-center prospective study involving 29 patients (11 females, 18 males; median age 64 years, range: 43-85) with thyrotoxicosis diagnosed after hospitalization for COVID-19 and then followed-up for a median period of 90 days (range: 30-120) after hospital discharge. At follow-up, patients were evaluated for serum thyrotropin (TSH), free-thyroxine (FT4), free-triiodiothyronine (FT3), TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb), thyroperoxidase antibodies (TPOAb) and ultrasonographic thyroid structure. RESULTS After recovery of COVID-19, serum TSH values significantly increased (P < 0.001) and FT4 values significantly decreased (P = 0.001), without significant change in serum FT3 (P = 0.572). At follow-up, 28 subjects (96.6%) became euthyroid whereas overt hypothyroidism developed in one case. At the ultrasound evaluation of thyroid gland, hypoecogenicity was found in 10 patients (34.5%) and in these cases serum TSH values tended to be higher than those without thyroid hypoecogenity (P = 0.066). All subjects resulted to be negative for TgAb, TPOAb and TRAb. CONCLUSION In a short-term follow-up, thyroid function spontaneously normalized in most subjects with SARS-CoV-2-related thyrotoxicosis. However, thyroid hypoecogenicity was found in a remarkable number of them and future longer-term studies are needed to clarify whether this ultrasonographic alteration may predispose to develop late-onset thyroid dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Pizzocaro
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Colombo
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Walter Vena
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Salvatore Ariano
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Magnoni
- Radiology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Reggiani
- Medicine Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Favacchio
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Mirani
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Lavezzi
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonio Voza
- Emergency Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Calatroni
- Medicine Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
| | - Gherardo Mazziotti
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20090, Milan, Italy.
| | - Andrea Lania
- Endocrinology, Diabetology and Medical Andrology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089, Milan, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20090, Milan, Italy
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Abstract
Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, covid-19 has spread and had a profound effect on the lives and health of people around the globe. As of 4 July 2021, more than 183 million confirmed cases of covid-19 had been recorded worldwide, and 3.97 million deaths. Recent evidence has shown that a range of persistent symptoms can remain long after the acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and this condition is now coined long covid by recognized research institutes. Studies have shown that long covid can affect the whole spectrum of people with covid-19, from those with very mild acute disease to the most severe forms. Like acute covid-19, long covid can involve multiple organs and can affect many systems including, but not limited to, the respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal, and musculoskeletal systems. The symptoms of long covid include fatigue, dyspnea, cardiac abnormalities, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, muscle pain, concentration problems, and headache. This review summarizes studies of the long term effects of covid-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients and describes the persistent symptoms they endure. Risk factors for acute covid-19 and long covid and possible therapeutic options are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry Crook
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sanara Raza
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Joseph Nowell
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Megan Young
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Paul Edison
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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Urbanovych A, Laniush F, Borovets M, Kozlovska K. Coronavirus as a Trigger Of Graves' Disease. ACTA ENDOCRINOLOGICA (BUCHAREST, ROMANIA : 2005) 2021; 17:413-415. [PMID: 35342470 PMCID: PMC8919476 DOI: 10.4183/aeb.2021.413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT SARS-CoV-2 infection was declared a pandemic in 2020 and affected millions of people worldwide. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 receptors, through which coronavirus enters the cells of different organs, have been detected in the thyroid gland. The most common cause of thyrotoxicosis is Graves' disease in which thyroid-receptors antibodies (TRAb) stimulate the TSH receptor, increasing thyroid hormone production and release. CASE PRESENTATION A 22-year-old woman had symptoms of palpitation, tremor, muscle weakness, anxiety and sleep disturbance. 3 weeks before the onset of these symptoms, the patient suffered from COVID-19, which lasted 14 days and was characterized by a course of moderate severity with fever up to 38°C, general weakness without shortness of breath. The patient had no pre-existing thyroid problems. Her TSH was <0.01 mU/L, FT4, FT3 and TRAb were increased. Antithyroid drugs, glucocorticosteroids and β-blockers were prescribed. During 3 months of treatment doses of methimazole, methylprednisolone and bisoprolol were gradually reduced due to the improvement of the patient's condition and thyroid tests normalization. CONCLUSIONS COVID-19 infection can cause Graves' disease and thyrotoxicosis. The onset of this disease after SARS-CoV-2 does not depend on the presence of pre-existing thyroid pathology and requires the appointment of glucocortisteroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.M. Urbanovych
- Correspondence to: Alina M. Urbanovych MD, PhD, “Danylo Halytsky” Lviv National Medical University, Dept. of Endocrinology, Pekarska str. 69, Lviv, 79010, Ukraine, E-mail:
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Lisco G, De Tullio A, Stragapede A, Solimando AG, Albanese F, Capobianco M, Giagulli VA, Guastamacchia E, De Pergola G, Vacca A, Racanelli V, Triggiani V. COVID-19 and the Endocrine System: A Comprehensive Review on the Theme. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10132920. [PMID: 34209964 PMCID: PMC8269331 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10132920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and aim. The review aimed to summarize advances in the topic of endocrine diseases and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Methods. Scientific and institutional websites and databases were searched and data were collected and organized, when plausible, to angle the discussion toward the following clinical issues. (1) Are patients with COVID-19 at higher risk of developing acute or late-onset endocrine diseases or dysfunction? (2) May the underlying endocrine diseases or dysfunctions be considered risk factors for poor prognosis once the infection has occurred? (3) Are there defined strategies to manage endocrine diseases despite pandemic-related constraints? Herein, the authors considered only relevant and more frequently observed endocrine diseases and disorders related to the hypothalamic-pituitary region, thyroid and parathyroid glands, calcium-phosphorus homeostasis and osteoporosis, adrenal glands, and gonads. Main. Data highlight the basis of some pathophysiological mechanisms and anatomical alterations of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-induced endocrine dysfunctions. Some conditions, such as adrenal insufficiency and cortisol excess, may be risk factors of worse clinical progression once the infection has occurred. These at-risk populations may require adequate education to avoid the SARS-CoV-2 infection and adequately manage medical therapy during the pandemic, even in emergencies. Endocrine disease management underwent a palpable restraint, especially procedures requiring obligate access to healthcare facilities for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Strategies of clinical triage to prioritize medical consultations, laboratory, instrumental evaluations, and digital telehealth solutions should be implemented to better deal with this probably long-term situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Lisco
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (G.L.); (A.D.T.); (V.A.G.); (E.G.); (V.T.)
| | - Anna De Tullio
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (G.L.); (A.D.T.); (V.A.G.); (E.G.); (V.T.)
| | - Assunta Stragapede
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine “G. Baccelli”, University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy; (A.S.); (A.G.S.); (F.A.); (M.C.); (A.V.)
| | - Antonio Giovanni Solimando
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine “G. Baccelli”, University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy; (A.S.); (A.G.S.); (F.A.); (M.C.); (A.V.)
| | - Federica Albanese
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine “G. Baccelli”, University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy; (A.S.); (A.G.S.); (F.A.); (M.C.); (A.V.)
| | - Martina Capobianco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine “G. Baccelli”, University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy; (A.S.); (A.G.S.); (F.A.); (M.C.); (A.V.)
| | - Vito Angelo Giagulli
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (G.L.); (A.D.T.); (V.A.G.); (E.G.); (V.T.)
| | - Edoardo Guastamacchia
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (G.L.); (A.D.T.); (V.A.G.); (E.G.); (V.T.)
| | - Giovanni De Pergola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine and Clinical Oncology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124 Bari, Italy;
- National Institute of Gastroenterology “Saverio de Bellis”, Research Hospital, 70013 Castellana Grotte, Italy
| | - Angelo Vacca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine “G. Baccelli”, University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy; (A.S.); (A.G.S.); (F.A.); (M.C.); (A.V.)
| | - Vito Racanelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine “G. Baccelli”, University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy; (A.S.); (A.G.S.); (F.A.); (M.C.); (A.V.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-(0)-80-547-82-54
| | - Vincenzo Triggiani
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (G.L.); (A.D.T.); (V.A.G.); (E.G.); (V.T.)
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Christensen J, O'Callaghan K, Sinclair H, Hawke K, Love A, Hajkowicz K, Stewart AG. Risk factors, Treatment and Outcomes of Subacute Thyroiditis Secondary to COVID-19: A Systematic Review. Intern Med J 2021; 52:522-529. [PMID: 34139048 PMCID: PMC8446980 DOI: 10.1111/imj.15432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background COVID‐19 is known to cause an acute respiratory illness, although clinical manifestations outside of the respiratory tract may occur. Early reports have identified SARS‐CoV‐2 as a cause of subacute thyroiditis (SAT). Methods A systematic review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. MEDLINE, Web of Science and PubMed databases were queried in February 2021 for studies from December 2019 to February 2021. MeSH search terms ‘COVID‐19’, ‘SARS‐CoV‐2’ and ‘coronavirus’ along with search terms ‘thyroiditis’, ‘thyrotoxicosis’ and ‘thyroid’ were used. Descriptive statistics for continuous variables and proportions for categorical variables were calculated. Results Fifteen publications reporting on 17 individual cases of COVID‐19‐induced SAT were identified. Age ranged from 18 to 69 years. The majority (14 of 17; 82%) of cases were female. The delay between onset of respiratory symptoms and diagnosis of SAT ranged from 5 to 49 days (mean, 26.5). Systemic inflammatory response syndrome related to viral infection was uncommonly reported at the time of SAT diagnosis. Thyroid ultrasonography frequently reported an enlarged hypoechoic thyroid with decreased vascularity and heterogenous echotexture. Elevated C‐reactive protein (CRP) was common at the time of SAT diagnosis, with results ranging from 4.5 to 176 mg/L (mean, 41 mg/L). Antithyroid antibodies were frequently negative. SAT‐specific treatment included corticosteroids for 12 of 17 (70.5%) patients. Most returned to normal thyroid status. Conclusion COVID‐19‐associated SAT may be difficult to identify in a timely manner due to potential absence of classic symptoms, as well as cross‐over of common clinical features between COVID‐19 and thyrotoxicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Christensen
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Kevin O'Callaghan
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Holly Sinclair
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Kate Hawke
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Amanda Love
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Krispin Hajkowicz
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Adam G Stewart
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Australia.,Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Campus, Brisbane, Australia.,Central Microbiology, Pathology Queensland, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
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74
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Vassiliadi DA, Ilias I, Pratikaki M, Jahaj E, Vassiliou AG, Detsika M, Ampelakiotou K, Koulenti M, Manolopoulos KN, Tsipilis S, Gavrielatou E, Diamantopoulos A, Zacharis A, Athanasiou N, Orfanos S, Kotanidou A, Tsagarakis S, Dimopoulou I. Thyroid hormone alterations in critically and non-critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Endocr Connect 2021; 10:646-655. [PMID: 34010152 PMCID: PMC8240704 DOI: 10.1530/ec-21-0029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Following the evolution of COVID-19 pandemic, reports pointed on a high prevalence of thyroiditis-related thyrotoxicosis. Interpretation of thyroid tests during illness, however, is hampered by changes occurring in the context of non-thyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS). In order to elucidate these findings, we studied thyroid function in carefully selected cohorts of COVID-19 positive and negative patients. DESIGN Cohort observational study. METHODS We measured TSH, FT4, T3 within 24 h of admission in 196 patients without thyroid disease and/or confounding medications. In this study, 102 patients were SARS-CoV-2 positive; 41 admitted in the ICU, 46 in the ward and 15 outpatients. Controls consisted of 94 SARS-CoV-2 negative patients; 39 in the ICU and 55 in the ward. We designated the thyroid hormone patterns as consistent with NTIS, thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. RESULTS A NTIS pattern was encountered in 60% of ICU and 36% of ward patients, with similar frequencies between SARS-CoV-2 positive and negative patients (46.0% vs 46.8%, P = NS). A thyrotoxicosis pattern was observed in 14.6% SARS-CoV-2 ICU patients vs 7.7% in ICU negative (P = NS) and, overall in 8.8% of SARS-CoV-2 positive vs 7.4% of negative patients. In these patients, thyroglobulin levels were similar to those with normal thyroid function or NTIS. The hypothyroidism pattern was rare. CONCLUSIONS NTIS pattern is common and relates to the severity of disease rather than SARS-CoV-2 infection. A thyrotoxicosis pattern is less frequently observed with similar frequency between patients with and without COVID-19. It is suggested that thyroid hormone monitoring in COVID-19 should not differ from other critically ill patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitra Argyro Vassiliadi
- Department of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, National Expertise Center for Rare Endocrine Diseases, Evangelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
- Correspondence should be addressed to D A Vassiliadi:
| | - Ioannis Ilias
- Department of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Elena Venizelou Hospital, Elena Venizelou Square, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Pratikaki
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Edison Jahaj
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Alice G Vassiliou
- 1st Department of Critical Care, GP Livanos & M Simou Laboratories, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Detsika
- 1st Department of Critical Care, GP Livanos & M Simou Laboratories, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Kleio Ampelakiotou
- Department of Immunology and Histocompatibility Evangelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Marina Koulenti
- Department of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, National Expertise Center for Rare Endocrine Diseases, Evangelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos N Manolopoulos
- Department of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, National Expertise Center for Rare Endocrine Diseases, Evangelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Stamatis Tsipilis
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Evdokia Gavrielatou
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Aristidis Diamantopoulos
- Department of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, National Expertise Center for Rare Endocrine Diseases, Evangelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Alexandros Zacharis
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Nicolaos Athanasiou
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Stylianos Orfanos
- 2nd Department of Critical Care Medical School National & Kapodistrian University of Athens Attikon University Hospital, Athens-Haidari, Greece
| | - Anastasia Kotanidou
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Stylianos Tsagarakis
- Department of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, National Expertise Center for Rare Endocrine Diseases, Evangelismos Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioanna Dimopoulou
- 1st Department of Critical Care & Pulmonary Services, Medical School National & Kapodistrian, Evangelismos Hospital, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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75
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Martínez AO, González-Razo VT, Navarro-Sánchez V, Souto Meiriño CA, Ahumada-Ayala M. SARS-CoV-2-Related Subacute Thyroiditis, Myocarditis, and Hepatitis After Full Resolution of COVID-19 Serum Markers. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CASE REPORTS 2021; 22:e932321. [PMID: 34138828 PMCID: PMC8218950 DOI: 10.12659/ajcr.932321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Subacute thyroiditis, myocarditis, and hepatitis are inflammatory disorders that may develop after viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2. These entities may appear after resolution of the respiratory syndrome. CASE REPORT A previously healthy 64-year-old male patient came to the hospital reporting severe chest pain. He had a history of a COVID-19 pneumonia with PCR confirmation 4 weeks before. On admission to the Coronary Care Unit (CCU), the patient had a negative PCR for SARS-CoV-2; the following tests were performed: total T3 643.4 ng/dl (reference 35-193 ng/dl), total thyroxine 12.0 μg/dl (reference 4.8-11.7 μg/dl), free T4 1.85 ng/dl (reference 0.7-1.48 ng/dl), TSH 0.01 μIU/ml (reference 0.35-4.94 μIU/ml); total bilirubin 0.76 mg/dl (reference 0.0-1.5 mg/dl), alkaline phosphatase 185 U/L (reference 40-150 U/L), alanine aminotransferase 194.6 U/L (reference 6-66 U/L), aspartate aminotransferase 93.4 U/L (reference 9-55 U/L); on admission to the CCU high-sensitivity troponin I 548.3 pg/ml (reference 0.0-34.2 pg/ml), after 24 h in the CCU 801 pg/ml, and after 11 days (as an outpatient) 4.5 pg/ml. A thyroid gammagram revealed absent uptake of the radionuclide. Normal cardiac gammagraphy and cardiac enzymes ruled out myocardial ischemia and infarction. The following diagnoses were made: myocarditis, subacute thyroiditis, and reactive hepatitis due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. CONCLUSIONS COVID-19 has been demonstrated to be a multisystemic inflammatory disorder. The serious illness that developed in our patient after relief of his pulmonary disease underlines this nature. We suggest close follow-up of patients even after apparent clinical resolution, and performing thyroid, myocardial, and liver tests if clinically indicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Osorio Martínez
- Department of Biochemistry and Medicine, La Salle University School of Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Valeria Navarro-Sánchez
- Department of Biochemistry and Medicine, La Salle University School of Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Miguel Ahumada-Ayala
- Department of Biochemistry and Medicine, La Salle University School of Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico
- Endocrine Clinic, Angeles del Pedregal Hospital, Mexico City, Mexico
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76
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Ashraf S, Imran MA, Ashraf S, Hafsa HT, Khalid S, Akram MK, Ghufran M, Cheema KK, Ahmad A, Izhar M. COVID-19: A Potential Trigger for Thyroid Dysfunction. Am J Med Sci 2021; 362:303-307. [PMID: 34023311 PMCID: PMC8137358 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjms.2021.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Subacute thyroiditis (SAT) is a self-limiting thyroid dysfunction of viral origin. Relatively little is known about its occurrence in SARS CoV-2 infected COVID-19 patients. Herein, we report a case of SAT in a 58-year-old patient that was apparently triggered by infection with SARS CoV-2. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of the patient are presented. The patient was vitally stable with a slightly tender and warm thyroid gland, which was painful on swallowing. His free thyroxine (FT4) was elevated, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) was below normal and free triiodothyronine (FT3) was in the physiological range. Previous thyroid exam conducted as a part of routine annual physical checkup was normal. The patient was put on prednisolone and recovered completely within three weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohaib Ashraf
- Department of Cardiology, Shaikh Zayed Post-Graduate Medical Complex, Lahore, Pakistan; Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.
| | - Muhammad Ahmad Imran
- Department of Microbiology, Shaikh Zayed Post-Graduate Medical Complex, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Shoaib Ashraf
- Department of Pathobiology, Riphah University, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Hadiqa-Tul Hafsa
- Department of Microbiology, Shaikh Zayed Post-Graduate Medical Complex, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Saffa Khalid
- Department of Microbiology, St. George's University, School of Medicine, St.George's, Grenada
| | - Muhammad Kiwan Akram
- Department of Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ghufran
- Médico Cirujano General, Empresa de Servicio Externo de la Asociación Chilena de Seguridad, Chile
| | - Kamran Khalid Cheema
- Department of Pulmonology and Critical Care, Services Institute of Medical Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Ali Ahmad
- Department of Virology and Immunology, CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Mateen Izhar
- Department of Microbiology, Shaikh Zayed Post-Graduate Medical Complex, Lahore, Pakistan
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SARS-CoV-2-related thyroid disorders: a synopsis for nuclear medicine thyroidologists. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2021; 48:1719-1723. [PMID: 33765218 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-021-05316-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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78
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Seyed Resuli A, Bezgal M. Subacute Thyroiditis in COVID-19 Patients. EAR, NOSE & THROAT JOURNAL 2021; 101:501-505. [PMID: 33974811 DOI: 10.1177/01455613211012114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic that occurred in the last year, it has been revealed that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) does not only cause viral respiratory tract infection but can also affect many organs in the short or long term. In our study, we aimed to reveal that COVID-19 infection affects the endocrine system and triggers subacute thyroiditis (SAT) in the acute period. MATERIAL AND METHOD In our retrospective study, the ear-nose-throat examination, internal diseases consultation (investigation of COVID-19 symptoms and polymerase chain reaction [PCR] test), routine blood tests, T3, T4, thyroid-stimulating hormone, antithyroglobulin (anti-TG), antithyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO), thyroid scintigraphy, and thyroid ultrasonography results of 5 patients who applied to the otorhinolaryngology clinic due to complaints of neck pain and odynophagia between April 2020 and February 2021 were examined. FINDINGS All 5 patients were female patients (30.4 years) with odynophagia and pain in the front lower region of the neck. These patients had no previous history of thyroiditis. COVID-19 PCR tests of the patients diagnosed with SAT were positive, and there were no typical COVID-19 signs and symptoms except odynophagia and neck pain. RESULT It comes in view that SARS-COV-2 affects thyroid functions and causes SAT and the main symptoms in patients are pain in the neck and odynophagia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Seyed Resuli
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of ENT, 209002İstanbul Yeni Yüzyıl University, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Muzaffer Bezgal
- Department of Internal Medicine, 209002Bahat Hosphital, Sultangazi, İstanbul, Turkey
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79
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Abreu R, Miguel R, Saieg M. Subacute (De Quervain) thyroiditis during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cancer Cytopathol 2021; 129:844-846. [PMID: 33970557 PMCID: PMC8239629 DOI: 10.1002/cncy.22449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is a new disease whose clinical presentation and potential complications are not yet fully understood. One of these possible reported complications is the onset of subacute (De Quervain) thyroiditis (SAT). Here a series of cases of SAT during the COVID‐19 pandemic are reported, and a possible correlation between these 2 entities is extrapolated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Abreu
- Department of Pathology, A. C. Camargo Cancer Center, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Mauro Saieg
- Department of Pathology, A. C. Camargo Cancer Center, Sao Paulo, Brazil.,Fleury Diagnostic Medical Center, Sao Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Pathology, Santa Casa Medical School, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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80
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Whiting A, Reyes JVM, Ahmad S, Lieber J. Post-COVID-19 Fatigue: A Case of Infectious Hypothyroidism. Cureus 2021; 13:e14815. [PMID: 34094769 PMCID: PMC8171109 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.14815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the beginning of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) global pandemic, an array of different clinical sequela and comorbid conditions have been discovered to be associated with COVID-19 infection. Of these sequela, subacute thyroiditis (SAT) causing hyperthyroidism has been prominent, more commonly affecting women. However, our case details a 49-year-old male patient with no history of thyroid disease showing signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism for six months after recovery from COVID-19 infection. His blood work was consistent with hypothyroidism, showing markedly elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), suppressed T3 levels, and positive anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody titers. The patient was treated with Synthroid and showed quick clinical improvement in symptoms. This case demonstrates that COVID-19 infection can cause overt hypothyroidism in male patients, adding yet another clinical sequela of COVID-19 infection to our clinical repertoire from recently published case reports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Whiting
- Internal Medicine, St. George's University School of Medicine, St. George's, GRD
| | - Jonathan Vincent M Reyes
- Internal Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Elmhurst Hospital Center, Elmhurst, USA
| | - Saad Ahmad
- Internal Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Elmhurst Hospital Center, Elmhurst, USA
| | - Joseph Lieber
- Internal Medicine/Nephrology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Elmhurst Hospital Center, Elmhurst, USA
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81
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Rotondi M, Coperchini F, Ricci G, Denegri M, Croce L, Ngnitejeu ST, Villani L, Magri F, Latrofa F, Chiovato L. Detection of SARS-COV-2 receptor ACE-2 mRNA in thyroid cells: a clue for COVID-19-related subacute thyroiditis. J Endocrinol Invest 2021; 44:1085-1090. [PMID: 33025553 PMCID: PMC7538193 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-020-01436-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE SARS-COV-2 is a pathogenic agent belonging to the coronavirus family, responsible for the current global world pandemic. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) is the receptor for cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2. ACE-2 is a type I transmembrane metallo-carboxypeptidase involved in the Renin-Angiotensin pathway. By analyzing two independent databases, ACE-2 was identified in several human tissues including the thyroid. Although some cases of COVID-19-related subacute thyroiditis were recently described, direct proof for the expression of the ACE-2 mRNA in thyroid cells is still lacking. Aim of the present study was to investigate by RT-PCR whether the mRNA encoding for ACE-2 is present in human thyroid cells. METHODS RT-PCR was performed on in vitro ex vivo study on thyroid tissue samples (15 patients undergoing thyroidectomy for benign thyroid nodules) and primary thyroid cell cultures. RESULTS The ACE-2 mRNA was detected in all surgical thyroid tissue samples (n = 15). Compared with two reporter genes (GAPDH: 0.052 ± 0.0026 Cycles-1; β-actin: 0.044 ± 0.0025 Cycles-1; ACE-2: 0.035 ± 0.0024 Cycles-1), the mean level of transcript expression for ACE-2 mRNA was abundant. The expression of ACE-2 mRNA in follicular cells was confirmed by analyzing primary cultures of thyroid cells, which expressed the ACE-2 mRNA at levels similar to tissues. CONCLUSIONS The results of the present study demonstrate that the mRNA encoding for the ACE-2 receptor is expressed in thyroid follicular cells, making them a potential target for SARS-COV-2 entry. Future clinical studies in patients with COVID-19 will be required for increase our understanding of the thyroid repercussions of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rotondi
- Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Via S. Maugeri 4, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - F Coperchini
- Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - G Ricci
- Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - M Denegri
- Unit of Molecular Cardiology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - L Croce
- Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Via S. Maugeri 4, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - S T Ngnitejeu
- Department of General and Minimally Invasive Surgery, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - L Villani
- Unit of Pathology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - F Magri
- Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Via S. Maugeri 4, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy
| | - F Latrofa
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56124, Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - L Chiovato
- Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy.
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Via S. Maugeri 4, 27100, Pavia, PV, Italy.
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Campi I, Bulgarelli I, Dubini A, Perego GB, Tortorici E, Torlasco C, Torresani E, Rocco L, Persani L, Fugazzola L. The spectrum of thyroid function tests during hospitalization for SARS COV-2 infection. Eur J Endocrinol 2021; 184:699-709. [PMID: 33683214 PMCID: PMC9494333 DOI: 10.1530/eje-20-1391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alterations in thyroid function tests (TFTs) have been recorded during SARS-CoV-2 infection as associated to either a destructive thyroiditis or a non-thyroidal illness. METHODS We studied 144 consecutive COVID-19 patients admitted to a single center in intensive or subintensive care units. Those with previous thyroid dysfunctions or taking interfering drugs were excluded. Differently from previous reports, TSH, FT3, FT4, thyroglobulin (Tg), anti-Tg autoantibodies (TgAb) were measured at baseline and every 3-7 days. C-reacting protein (CRP), cortisol and IL-6 were also assayed. RESULTS The majority of patients had a normal TSH at admission, usually with normal FT4 and FT3. Low TSH levels were found either at admission or during hospitalization in 39% of patients, associated with low FT3 in half of the cases. FT4 and Tg levels were normal, and TgAb-negative. TSH and FT3 were invariably restored at the time of discharge in survivors, whereas were permanently low in most deceased cases, but only FT3 levels were predictors of mortality. Cortisol, CRP and IL-6 levels were higher in patients with low TSH and FT3 levels. CONCLUSIONS Almost half of our COVID-19 patients without interfering drugs had normal TFTs both at admission and during follow-up. In this series, the transient finding of low TSH with normal FT4 and low FT3 levels, inversely correlated with CRP, cortisol and IL-6 and associated with normal Tg levels, is likely due to the cytokine storm induced by SARS-Cov-2 with a direct or mediated impact on TSH secretion and deiodinase activity, and likely not to a destructive thyroiditis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Campi
- Division of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases and Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Milan, Italy
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Correspondence should be addressed to I Campi;
| | - Ilaria Bulgarelli
- Laboratorio Analisi Cliniche, Centro di Ricerche e Tecnologie Biomediche, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Dubini
- Laboratorio Analisi Cliniche, Centro di Ricerche e Tecnologie Biomediche, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Battista Perego
- Department of Cardiovascular Neural and Metabolic Sciences, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), San Luca Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Tortorici
- Department of Cardiovascular Neural and Metabolic Sciences, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), San Luca Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Camilla Torlasco
- Department of Cardiovascular Neural and Metabolic Sciences, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), San Luca Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Erminio Torresani
- Laboratorio Analisi Cliniche, Centro di Ricerche e Tecnologie Biomediche, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Rocco
- Division of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases and Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Persani
- Division of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases and Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Milan, Italy
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Fugazzola
- Division of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases and Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Milan, Italy
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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83
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Croce L, Gangemi D, Ancona G, Liboà F, Bendotti G, Minelli L, Chiovato L. The cytokine storm and thyroid hormone changes in COVID-19. J Endocrinol Invest 2021; 44:891-904. [PMID: 33559848 PMCID: PMC7871522 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-021-01506-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND COVID-19 is now a worldwide pandemic. Among the many extra-pulmonary manifestations of COVID-19, recent evidence suggested a possible occurrence of thyroid dysfunction. PURPOSE The Aim of the present review is to summarize available studies regarding thyroid function alterations in patients with COVID-19 and to overview the possible physio-pathological explanations. CONCLUSIONS The repercussions of the thyroid of COVID-19 seem to be related, in part, with the occurrence of a "cytokine storm" that would, in turn, induce a "non-thyroidal illness". Some specific cytokines and chemokines appear to have a direct role on the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis. On the other hand, some authors have observed an increased incidence of a destructive thyroiditis, either subacute or painless, in patients with COVID-19. The hypothesis of a direct infection of the thyroid by SARS-Cov-2 stems from the observation that its receptor, ACE2, is strongly expressed in thyroid tissue. Lastly, it is highly probable that some pharmaceutical agents largely used for the treatment of COVID-19 can act as confounding factors in the laboratory evaluation of thyroid function parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Croce
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- PHD Course in Experimental Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Via S. Maugeri 4, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - D Gangemi
- Postgraduate School in Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - G Ancona
- Postgraduate School in Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - F Liboà
- Postgraduate School in Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - G Bendotti
- Postgraduate School in Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - L Minelli
- Postgraduate School in Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - L Chiovato
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Laboratory for Endocrine Disruptors, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Via S. Maugeri 4, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
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84
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Abstract
The world is dealing with the Covid-19 pandemic due to the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Amongst the extra-pulmonary manifestations presented by Covid-19 patients, thyroiditis form part of the spectrum of visceral involvement linked to SARS-CoV-2. In this review, we will describe the various documented clinical forms of thyroiditis (inflammatory thyroiditis, subacute or de Quervain's thyroiditis, chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis or Hashimoto's disease, painless (silent) postpartum thyroiditis) to facilitate their diagnosis in more or less symptomatic Covid-19 patients and to provide guidance for patient treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Caron
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic diseases, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Unit CHU-Larrey, Toulouse, France.
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85
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The Association of Subacute Thyroiditis with COVID-19: a Systematic Review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 3:1515-1527. [PMID: 33942028 PMCID: PMC8082479 DOI: 10.1007/s42399-021-00912-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The multisystem effects of SARS-CoV-2 encompass the thyroid gland as well. Emerging evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 can act as a trigger for subacute thyroiditis (SAT). We conducted a systematic literature search using PubMed/Medline and Google Scholar to identify cases of subacute thyroiditis associated with COVID-19 and evaluated patient-level demographics, major clinical features, laboratory findings and outcomes. In the 21 cases that we reviewed, the mean age of patients was 40.0 ± 11.3 years with a greater female preponderance (71.4%). Mean number days between the start of COVID-19 illness and the appearance of SAT symptoms were 25.2 ± 10.1. Five patients were confirmed to have ongoing COVID-19, whereas the infection had resolved in 16 patients before onset of SAT symptoms. Fever and neck pain were the most common presenting complaints (81%). Ninety-four percent of patients reported some type of hyperthyroid symptoms, while the labs in all 21 patients (100%) confirmed this with low TSH and high T3 or T4. Inflammatory markers were elevated in all cases that reported ESR and CRP. All 21 cases (100%) had ultrasound findings suggestive of SAT. Steroids and anti-inflammatory drugs were the mainstay of treatment, and all patients reported resolution of symptoms; however, 5 patients (23.8%) were reported to have a hypothyroid illness on follow-up. Large-scale studies are needed for a better understanding of the underlying pathogenic mechanisms, but current evidence suggests that clinicians need to recognize the possibility of SAT both in ongoing and resolved COVID-19 infection to optimize patient care.
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86
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Mathews SE, Castellanos-Diaz J, Srihari A, Kadiyala S, Leey-Casella J, Ghayee HK, Ogunsakin A. Subacute Thyroiditis and Heart Failure in a Patient Presenting With COVID-19. J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep 2021; 9:23247096211009412. [PMID: 33853424 PMCID: PMC8056563 DOI: 10.1177/23247096211009412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A 67-year-old male was admitted with shortness of breath and diarrhea. His COVID-19 polymerase chain reaction test was positive, and he was found to be in acute heart failure. Troponin levels were elevated, echocardiogram showed ejection fraction of 24%, and his electrocardiogram was normal. Inflammatory markers were elevated. Further testing revealed suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone and elevated free thyroxine (T4). Differential diagnosis at this point included possible myocarditis from the viral illness, exacerbation of heart failure from the viral infection or from thyrotoxicosis was considered. Patient’s heart failure improved with initiation of heart failure therapies; however, biochemically, his thyroid function tests (TFTs) did not improve, despite empiric methimazole. Thyroid antibody tests were unremarkable. Thyroid ultrasound showed mildly enlarged thyroid gland with no increased vascularity and 5-mm bilateral cysts. Thyroid dysfunction was attributed to subacute thyroiditis from COVID-19, methimazole was tapered, and prednisone was initiated. The patient’s TFTs improved. With the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative that clinicians keep a broad differential in individuals presenting with heart failure, and obtaining baseline TFTs may be reasonable. Rapid treatment of the underlying thyroiditis is important in these patients to improve the cardiovascular outcomes. In our experience, steroid therapy showed a rapid improvement in the TFTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherin Elsa Mathews
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jessica Castellanos-Diaz
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Ashok Srihari
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sushma Kadiyala
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Julio Leey-Casella
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Hans K Ghayee
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Amie Ogunsakin
- Malcom Randall Veteran Hospital, Gainesville, FL, USA.,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Nalbandian A, Sehgal K, Gupta A, Madhavan MV, McGroder C, Stevens JS, Cook JR, Nordvig AS, Shalev D, Sehrawat TS, Ahluwalia N, Bikdeli B, Dietz D, Der-Nigoghossian C, Liyanage-Don N, Rosner GF, Bernstein EJ, Mohan S, Beckley AA, Seres DS, Choueiri TK, Uriel N, Ausiello JC, Accili D, Freedberg DE, Baldwin M, Schwartz A, Brodie D, Garcia CK, Elkind MSV, Connors JM, Bilezikian JP, Landry DW, Wan EY. Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Nat Med 2021; 27:601-615. [PMID: 33753937 PMCID: PMC8893149 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01283-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2679] [Impact Index Per Article: 893.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the pathogen responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which has resulted in global healthcare crises and strained health resources. As the population of patients recovering from COVID-19 grows, it is paramount to establish an understanding of the healthcare issues surrounding them. COVID-19 is now recognized as a multi-organ disease with a broad spectrum of manifestations. Similarly to post-acute viral syndromes described in survivors of other virulent coronavirus epidemics, there are increasing reports of persistent and prolonged effects after acute COVID-19. Patient advocacy groups, many members of which identify themselves as long haulers, have helped contribute to the recognition of post-acute COVID-19, a syndrome characterized by persistent symptoms and/or delayed or long-term complications beyond 4 weeks from the onset of symptoms. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the current literature on post-acute COVID-19, its pathophysiology and its organ-specific sequelae. Finally, we discuss relevant considerations for the multidisciplinary care of COVID-19 survivors and propose a framework for the identification of those at high risk for post-acute COVID-19 and their coordinated management through dedicated COVID-19 clinics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ani Nalbandian
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kartik Sehgal
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
| | - Aakriti Gupta
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
- Clinical Trials Center, Cardiovascular Research Foundation, New York, New York, USA
- Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Yale New Haven Hospital, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Mahesh V Madhavan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
- Clinical Trials Center, Cardiovascular Research Foundation, New York, New York, USA
| | - Claire McGroder
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jacob S Stevens
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Joshua R Cook
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Anna S Nordvig
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Shalev
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Tejasav S Sehrawat
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Neha Ahluwalia
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Behnood Bikdeli
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Clinical Trials Center, Cardiovascular Research Foundation, New York, New York, USA
- Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Yale New Haven Hospital, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Cardiovascular Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Donald Dietz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Caroline Der-Nigoghossian
- Clinical Pharmacy, New York-Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Nadia Liyanage-Don
- Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Gregg F Rosner
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Elana J Bernstein
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Sumit Mohan
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Akinpelumi A Beckley
- Department of Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - David S Seres
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Division of Preventive Medicine and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Toni K Choueiri
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nir Uriel
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - John C Ausiello
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Domenico Accili
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Daniel E Freedberg
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Matthew Baldwin
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Allan Schwartz
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Brodie
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Christine Kim Garcia
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Mitchell S V Elkind
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jean M Connors
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - John P Bilezikian
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Donald W Landry
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Elaine Y Wan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.
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88
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de la Higuera López-Frías M, Perdomo CM, Galofré JC. Subacute thyroiditis following COVID-19 infection. Rev Clin Esp 2021; 221:370-372. [PMID: 34059237 PMCID: PMC7997620 DOI: 10.1016/j.rceng.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - C M Perdomo
- Departamento de Endocrinología y Nutrición, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Instituto de Investigación en la Salud de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - J C Galofré
- Departamento de Endocrinología y Nutrición, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Instituto de Investigación en la Salud de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
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89
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Abstract
The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) produced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is sweeping the world in a very short time. Although much has been learned about the clinical course, prognostic inflammatory markers, and disease complications of COVID-19, the potential interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and the thyroid is poorly understood. In contrast to SARS-CoV-1, limited available evidence indicates there is no pathological evidence of thyroid injury caused by SARS-CoV-2. However, subacute thyroiditis caused by SARS-CoV-2 has been reported for the first time. Thyroid dysfunction is common in patients with COVID-19 infection. By contrast, certain thyroid diseases may have a negative impact on the prevention and control of COVID-19. In addition, some anti-COVID-19 agents may cause thyroid injury or affect its metabolism. COVID-19 and thyroid disease may mutually aggravate the disease burden. Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection should not ignore the effect on thyroid function, especially when there are obvious related symptoms. In addition, patients with thyroid diseases should follow specific management principles during the epidemic period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjie Chen
- Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yuang Tian
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhihui Li
- Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jingqiang Zhu
- Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Tao Wei
- Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jianyong Lei
- Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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90
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Immune transcriptomes of highly exposed SARS-CoV-2 asymptomatic seropositive versus seronegative individuals from the Ischgl community. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4243. [PMID: 33608566 PMCID: PMC7895922 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83110-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infection ranges from asymptomatic to severe with lingering symptomatology in some. This prompted investigation of whether or not asymptomatic disease results in measurable immune activation post-infection. Immune activation following asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection was characterized through a comparative investigation of the immune cell transcriptomes from 43 asymptomatic seropositive and 52 highly exposed seronegative individuals from the same community 4–6 weeks following a superspreading event. Few of the 95 individuals had underlying health issues. One seropositive individual reported Cystic Fibrosis and one individual reported Incontinentia pigmenti. No evidence of immune activation was found in asymptomatic seropositive individuals with the exception of the Cystic Fibrosis patient. There were no statistically significant differences in immune transcriptomes between asymptomatic seropositive and highly exposed seronegative individuals. Four positive controls, mildly symptomatic seropositive individuals whose blood was examined 3 weeks following infection, showed immune activation. Negative controls were four seronegative individuals from neighboring communities without COVID-19. All individuals remained in their usual state of health through a five-month follow-up after sample collection. In summary, whole blood transcriptomes identified individual immune profiles within a community population and showed that asymptomatic infection within a super-spreading event was not associated with enduring immunological activation.
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91
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Khatri A, Charlap E, Kim A. Subacute Thyroiditis from COVID-19 Infection: A Case Report and Review of Literature. Eur Thyroid J 2021; 9:324-328. [PMID: 33708634 PMCID: PMC7705942 DOI: 10.1159/000511872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The novel severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus has led to the ongoing Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease pandemic. There are increasing reports of extrapulmonary clinical features of COVID-19, either as initial presentations or sequelae of disease. We report a patient diagnosed with subacute thyroiditis precipitated by COVID-19 infection, as well as review the literature of similar cases. CASE PRESENTATION A 41-year-old female with no significant personal or family history of endocrinologic disorders presented with clinical features of thyroiditis that began after COVID-19 infection. Clinical, laboratory, and radiologic findings were indicative of subacute thyroiditis. Workup for potential triggers other than SARS-CoV-2 was negative. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION We compared the clinical and diagnostic findings of our patient with other well-documented cases of subacute thyroiditis presumed to be triggered by SARS-CoV-2 viral infection. We also reviewed the literature related to the potential mechanisms leading to thyroiditis. Clinicians must be aware of the possibility of thyroid dysfunction after COVID-19 infection. Early recognition and timely anti-inflammatory therapy help in successful management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Khatri
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York, USA
- *Akshay Khatri, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell Health, 400 Community Drive, ID Suite, Manhasset, NY 11030 (USA),
| | - Esti Charlap
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell Health, Great Neck, New York, USA
| | - Angela Kim
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York, USA
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Kothandaraman N, Rengaraj A, Xue B, Yew WS, Velan SS, Karnani N, Leow MKS. COVID-19 endocrinopathy with hindsight from SARS. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2021; 320:E139-E150. [PMID: 33236920 PMCID: PMC7816429 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00480.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The current COVID-19 pandemic is probably the worst the world has ever faced since the start of the new millennium. Although the respiratory system is the most prominent target of SARS-CoV-2 (the contagion of COVID-19), extrapulmonary involvement are emerging as important contributors of its morbidity and lethality. This article summarizes the impact of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 on the endocrine system to facilitate our understanding of the nature of coronavirus-associated endocrinopathy. Although new data are rapidly accumulating on this novel infection, many of the endocrine manifestations of COVID-19 remain incompletely elucidated. We, hereby, summarize various endocrine dysfunctions including coronavirus-induced new onset diabetes mellitus, hypocortisolism, thyroid hormone, and reproductive system aberrations so that clinicians armed with such insights can potentially benefit patients with COVID-19 at the bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narasimhan Kothandaraman
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Anantharaj Rengaraj
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Bo Xue
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wen Shan Yew
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - S Sendhil Velan
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, A*STAR, Singapore
- Department of Physiology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Neerja Karnani
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Melvin Khee Shing Leow
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
- Department of Endocrinology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore
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93
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Trimboli P, Camponovo C, Franscella S, Bernasconi E, Buetti N. Subacute Thyroiditis during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Searching for a Clinical Association with SARS-CoV-2. Int J Endocrinol 2021; 2021:5588592. [PMID: 33833797 PMCID: PMC8018864 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5588592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To search for a clinical potential link between subacute thyroiditis (SAT) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in a series of patients diagnosed with SAT during the COVID-19 pandemic, by retrospective evaluation of (1) clinical symptoms and (2) contact tracing. METHODS SAT patients diagnosed from March to December 2020 were enrolled. The presence of typical clinical presentation of SARS-CoV-2, diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2, and contact with other individuals proven to be positive for SARS-CoV-2 were searched. RESULTS Ten SAT cases were included. Fever was recorded in four patients. Cough, dyspnea, and headache were rarely reported. No patient had diagnosis of pneumonia. Two patients had moderate to severe fatigue after SAT. One patient experienced loss of smell and taste and had persistent fatigue over the following five months. No patient had positive SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic tests. At contact-tracing evaluation, only one patient had a contact with people who were diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2. CONCLUSIONS Patients diagnosed with SAT during COVID-19 pandemic rarely experienced SARS-CoV-2-related symptomatology. The contact tracing did not show close contact with SARS-CoV-2 individuals in 9/10 cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierpaolo Trimboli
- Clinic for Endocrinology and Diabetology, Lugano Regional Hospital, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Lugano, Switzerland
- Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Chiara Camponovo
- Clinic for Endocrinology and Diabetology, Lugano Regional Hospital, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Sebastiano Franscella
- Clinic for Endocrinology and Diabetology, Lugano Regional Hospital, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Enos Bernasconi
- Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Lugano, Switzerland
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Lugano Regional Hospital, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Niccolò Buetti
- Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, Locarno Regional Hospital, Locarno, Switzerland
- University of Paris, INSERM IAME, U1137, Team DeSCID, Paris, France
- Infection Control Program and World Health Organization Collaborating Centre on Patient Safety, University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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94
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Laurino A, Gencarelli M, Buci L, Raimondi L. Commentary: Euthyroid Sick Syndrome in Patients With COVID-19. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:633097. [PMID: 33688850 PMCID: PMC7928301 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.633097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Annunziatina Laurino
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Sciences, and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- *Correspondence: Annunziatina Laurino,
| | - Manuela Gencarelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Sciences, and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Lisa Buci
- Endocrinology Unit, Careggi Hospital, Florence, Italy
| | - Laura Raimondi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Sciences, and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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95
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da Silva Chagas L, Sandre PC, de Velasco PC, Marcondes H, Ribeiro E Ribeiro NCA, Barreto AL, Alves Mauro LB, Ferreira JH, Serfaty CA. Neuroinflammation and Brain Development: Possible Risk Factors in COVID-19-Infected Children. Neuroimmunomodulation 2021; 28:22-28. [PMID: 33530091 PMCID: PMC7900470 DOI: 10.1159/000512815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19, a disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) betacoronavirus, affects children in a different way than it does in adults, with milder symptoms. However, several cases of neurological symptoms with neuroinflammatory syndromes, such as the multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C), following mild cases, have been reported. As with other viral infections, such as rubella, influenza, and cytomegalovirus, SARS-CoV-2 induces a surge of proinflammatory cytokines that affect microglial function, which can be harmful to brain development. Along with the viral induction of neuroinflammation, other noninfectious conditions may interact to produce additional inflammation, such as the nutritional imbalance of fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids and alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Additionally, transient thyrotoxicosis induced by SARS-CoV-2 with secondary autoimmune hypothyroidism has been reported, which could go undetected during pregnancy. Together, those factors may pose additional risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection impacting mechanisms of neural development such as synaptic pruning and neural circuitry formation. The present review discusses those conditions in the perspective of the understanding of risk factors that should be considered and the possible emergence of neurodevelopmental disorders in COVID-19-infected children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana da Silva Chagas
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Neurobiology Department, Biology Institute, Federal Fluminense University, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Poliana Capucho Sandre
- Laboratory on Thymus Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Patricia Coelho de Velasco
- Department of Applied Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Henrique Marcondes
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Neurobiology Department, Biology Institute, Federal Fluminense University, Niteroi, Brazil
| | | | - Aline Loureiro Barreto
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Neurobiology Department, Biology Institute, Federal Fluminense University, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Luiza Beatriz Alves Mauro
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Neurobiology Department, Biology Institute, Federal Fluminense University, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Julia Huber Ferreira
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Neurobiology Department, Biology Institute, Federal Fluminense University, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Claudio A Serfaty
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Neurobiology Department, Biology Institute, Federal Fluminense University, Niteroi, Brazil,
- National Institute of Science and Technology on Neuroimmunomodulation, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
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96
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Inaba H, Aizawa T. Coronavirus Disease 2019 and the Thyroid - Progress and Perspectives. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:708333. [PMID: 34276567 PMCID: PMC8279745 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.708333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19) is currently a tremendous global health problem. COVID-19 causes considerable damage to a wide range of vital organs most prominently the respiratory system. Recently, clinical evidence for thyroidal insults during and after COVID-19 has been accumulated. As of today, almost all non-neoplastic thyroid diseases, i.e., Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, subacute, painless and postpartum thyroiditis, have been reported as a complication of COVID-19, and causality by the virus has been strongly implicated in all of them. Similar thyroid problems have been reported in the past with the SARS-CoV outbreak in 2002. In this review, we briefly look back at the reported evidence of alteration in thyroid functionality and thyroid diseases associated with SARS-CoV and then proceed to examine the issue with COVID-19 in detail, which is then followed by an in-depth discussion regarding a pathogenetic link between Coronavirus infection and thyroid disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidefumi Inaba
- The First Department of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
- Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolism, Japanese Red Cross Wakayama Medical Center, Wakayama, Japan
- *Correspondence: Hidefumi Inaba,
| | - Toru Aizawa
- Diabetes Center, Aizawa Hospital, Matsumoto, Japan
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97
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Das L, Dutta P, Walia R, Mukherjee S, Suri V, Puri GD, Mahajan V, Malhotra P, Chaudhary S, Gupta R, Jayant SS, Agrawal K, Kumar V, Sachdeva N, Rastogi A, Bhadada SK, Ram S, Bhansali A. Spectrum of Endocrine Dysfunction and Association With Disease Severity in Patients With COVID-19: Insights From a Cross-Sectional, Observational Study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:645787. [PMID: 34276556 PMCID: PMC8283965 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.645787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Evidence on new-onset endocrine dysfunction and identifying whether the degree of this dysfunction is associated with the severity of disease in patients with COVID-19 is scarce. PATIENTS AND METHODS Consecutive patients enrolled at PGIMER Chandigarh were stratified on the basis of disease severity as group I (moderate-to-severe disease including oxygen saturation <94% on room air or those with comorbidities) (n= 35) and group II (mild disease, with oxygen saturation >94% and without comorbidities) (n=49). Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal, thyroid, gonadal axes, and lactotroph function were evaluated. Inflammatory and cell-injury markers were also analysed. RESULTS Patients in group I had higher prevalence of hypocortisolism (38.5 vs 6.8%, p=0.012), lower ACTH (16.3 vs 32.1pg/ml, p=0.234) and DHEAS (86.29 vs 117.8µg/dl, p= 0.086) as compared to group II. Low T3 syndrome was a universal finding, irrespective of disease severity. Sick euthyroid syndrome (apart from low T3 syndrome) (80.9 vs 73.1%, p= 0.046) and atypical thyroiditis (low T3, high T4, low or normal TSH) (14.3 vs 2.4%, p= 0.046) were more frequent in group I than group II. Male hypogonadism was also more prevalent in group I (75.6% vs 20.6%, p=0.006) than group II, with higher prevalence of both secondary (56.8 vs 15.3%, p=0.006) and primary (18.8 vs 5.3%, p=0.006) hypogonadism. Hyperprolactinemia was observed in 42.4% of patients without significant difference between both groups. CONCLUSION COVID-19 can involve multiple endocrine organs and axes, with a greater prevalence and degree of endocrine dysfunction in those with more severe disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza Das
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Pinaki Dutta
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Rama Walia
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Soham Mukherjee
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Vikas Suri
- Department of Internal Medicine, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India
| | | | - Varun Mahajan
- Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India
| | | | - Shakun Chaudhary
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Rahul Gupta
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Satyam Singh Jayant
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Kanhaiya Agrawal
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Department of Internal Medicine, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India
| | - Naresh Sachdeva
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Ashu Rastogi
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Sanjay Kumar Bhadada
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Sant Ram
- Department of Biochemistry, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India
| | - Anil Bhansali
- Department of Endocrinology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
- *Correspondence: Anil Bhansali,
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98
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Chakraborty U, Ghosh S, Chandra A, Ray AK. Subacute thyroiditis as a presenting manifestation of COVID-19: a report of an exceedingly rare clinical entity. BMJ Case Rep 2020; 13:e239953. [PMID: 33370933 PMCID: PMC10577769 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2020-239953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 has wreaked havoc globally and has claimed innumerable lives all over the world. The symptoms of this disease may range from mild influenza-like symptoms to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome with high morbidity and mortality. With improved diagnostic techniques and better disease understanding, an increased number of cases are being reported with extrapulmonary manifestations of this disease ranging from renal and gastrointestinal to cardiac, hepatic, neurological and haematological dysfunction. Subacute thyroiditis is a self-limiting and painful thyroid gland inflammation most often secondary to viral infections. We report a case of subacute thyroiditis in a 58-year-old gentleman presenting with a painful swelling in the neck who was subsequently detected to be positive for SARS-CoV-2. We seek to highlight the broad clinical spectrum of the COVID-19 by reporting probably the first case of subacute thyroiditis possibly induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection from India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uddalak Chakraborty
- Internal Medicine, RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Shrestha Ghosh
- Internal Medicine, RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Atanu Chandra
- Internal Medicine, RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Aritra Kumar Ray
- Internal Medicine, RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
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99
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Salamanna F, Maglio M, Landini MP, Fini M. Body Localization of ACE-2: On the Trail of the Keyhole of SARS-CoV-2. Front Med (Lausanne) 2020; 7:594495. [PMID: 33344479 PMCID: PMC7744810 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2020.594495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The explosion of the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has brought the role of the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) back into the scientific limelight. Since SARS-CoV-2 must bind the ACE2 for entering the host cells in humans, its expression and body localization are critical to track the potential target organ of this infection and to outline disease progression and clinical outcomes. Here, we mapped the physiological body distribution, expression, and activities of ACE2 and discussed its potential correlations and mutal interactions with the disparate symptoms present in SARS-CoV-2 patients at the level of different organs. We highlighted that despite during SARS-CoV-2 infection ACE2-expressing organs may become direct targets, leading to severe pathological manifestations, and subsequent multiple organ failures, the exact mechanism and the potential interactions through which ACE2 acts in these organs is still heavily debated. Further scientific efforts, also considering a personalized approach aimed to consider specific patient differences in the mutual interactions ACE2-SARS-CoV-2 and the long-term health effects associated with COVID-19 are currently mandatory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Salamanna
- Surgical Sciences and Technologies, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Melania Maglio
- Surgical Sciences and Technologies, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Paola Landini
- Scientific Direction, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Milena Fini
- Surgical Sciences and Technologies, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
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100
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Keestra S, Högqvist Tabor V, Alvergne A. Reinterpreting patterns of variation in human thyroid function: An evolutionary ecology perspective. Evol Med Public Health 2020; 9:93-112. [PMID: 34557302 PMCID: PMC8454515 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eoaa043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Two hundred million people worldwide experience some form of thyroid disorder, with women being especially at risk. However, why human thyroid function varies between populations, individuals, and across the lifespan has attracted little research to date. This limits our ability to evaluate the conditions under which patterns of variation in thyroid function are best understood as 'normal' or 'pathological'. In this review, we aim to spark interest in research aimed at understanding the causes of variation in thyroid phenotypes. We start by assessing the biomedical literature on thyroid imbalance to discuss the validity of existing reference intervals for diagnosis and treatment across individuals and populations. We then propose an evolutionary ecological framework for understanding the phylogenetic, genetic, ecological, developmental, and physiological causes of normal variation in thyroid function. We build on this approach to suggest testable predictions for how environmental challenges interact with individual circumstances to influence the onset of thyroid disorders. We propose that dietary changes, ecological disruptions of co-evolutionary processes during pregnancy and with pathogens, emerging infections, and exacerbated stress responses can contribute to explaining the onset of thyroid diseases. For patients to receive the best personalized care, research into the causes of thyroid variation at multiple levels is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarai Keestra
- School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography,
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Amsterdam UMC, University of
Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
| | | | - Alexandra Alvergne
- School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography,
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- ISEM, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD,
EPHE, Montpellier, France
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