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Wang KCW, Botting KJ, Padhee M, Zhang S, McMillen IC, Suter CM, Brooks DA, Morrison JL. Early origins of heart disease: Low birth weight and the role of the insulin-like growth factor system in cardiac hypertrophy. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2012; 39:958-64. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2012.05743.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley CW Wang
- Early Origins of Adult Health Research Group; Sansom Institute for Health Research; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences; University of Adelaide; Adelaide; South Australia; Australia
| | | | - Monalisa Padhee
- Early Origins of Adult Health Research Group; Sansom Institute for Health Research; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences; University of Adelaide; Adelaide; South Australia; Australia
| | - Song Zhang
- Early Origins of Adult Health Research Group; Sansom Institute for Health Research; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences; University of Adelaide; Adelaide; South Australia; Australia
| | - I Caroline McMillen
- Early Origins of Adult Health Research Group; Sansom Institute for Health Research; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences; University of Adelaide; Adelaide; South Australia; Australia
| | - Catherine M Suter
- Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute; Darlinghurst; New South Wales; Australia
| | - Doug A Brooks
- Cell Biology of Diseases Research Group; Sansom Institute for Health Research; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences; University of Adelaide; Adelaide; South Australia; Australia
| | - Janna L Morrison
- Early Origins of Adult Health Research Group; Sansom Institute for Health Research; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences; University of Adelaide; Adelaide; South Australia; Australia
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Brown LD, Rozance PJ, Thorn SR, Friedman JE, Hay WW. Acute supplementation of amino acids increases net protein accretion in IUGR fetal sheep. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2012; 303:E352-64. [PMID: 22649066 PMCID: PMC3423121 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00059.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Placental insufficiency decreases fetal amino acid uptake from the placenta, plasma insulin concentrations, and protein accretion, thus compromising normal fetal growth trajectory. We tested whether acute supplementation of amino acids or insulin into the fetus with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) would increase net fetal protein accretion rates. Late-gestation IUGR and control (CON) fetal sheep received acute, 3-h infusions of amino acids (with euinsulinemia), insulin (with euglycemia and euaminoacidemia), or saline. Fetal leucine metabolism was measured under steady-state conditions followed by a fetal muscle biopsy to quantify insulin signaling. In CON, increasing amino acid delivery rates to the fetus by 100% increased leucine oxidation rates by 100%. In IUGR, amino acid infusion completely suppressed fetal protein breakdown rates but increased leucine oxidation rate by only 25%, resulting in increased protein accretion rates by 150%. Acute insulin infusion, however, had very little effect on amino acid delivery rates, fetal leucine disposal rates, or fetal protein accretion rates in CON or IUGR fetuses despite robust signaling of the fetal skeletal muscle insulin-signaling cascade. These results indicate that, when amino acids are given directly into the fetal circulation independently of changes in insulin concentrations, IUGR fetal sheep have suppressed protein breakdown rates, thus increasing net fetal protein accretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura D Brown
- Perinatal Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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53
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Placental amino acids transport in intrauterine growth restriction. J Pregnancy 2012; 2012:972562. [PMID: 22997583 PMCID: PMC3401547 DOI: 10.1155/2012/972562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The placenta represents a key organ for fetal growth as it acts as an interface between mother and fetus, regulating the fetal-maternal exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products. During pregnancy, amino acids represent one of the major nutrients for fetal life, and both maternal and fetal concentrations are significantly different in pregnancies with intrauterine growth restriction when compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. The transport of amino acids across the placenta is a complex process that includes the influx of neutral, anionic, and cationic amino acids across the microvilluos plasma membrane of the syncytiotrophoblast, the passage through the cytoplasm of the trophoblasts, and the transfer outside the trophoblasts across the basal membrane into the fetal circulation. In this paper, we review the transport mechanisms of amino acids across the placenta in normal pregnancies and in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction.
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Maliszewski AM, Gadhia MM, O'Meara MC, Thorn SR, Rozance PJ, Brown LD. Prolonged infusion of amino acids increases leucine oxidation in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2012; 302:E1483-92. [PMID: 22454287 PMCID: PMC3378157 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00026.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Maternal high-protein supplements designed to increase birth weight have not been successful. We recently showed that maternal amino acid infusion into pregnant sheep resulted in competitive inhibition of amino acid transport across the placenta and did not increase fetal protein accretion rates. To bypass placental transport, singleton fetal sheep were intravenously infused with an amino acid mixture (AA, n = 8) or saline [control (Con), n = 10] for ∼12 days during late gestation. Fetal leucine oxidation rate increased in the AA group (3.1 ± 0.5 vs. 1.4 ± 0.6 μmol·min(-1)·kg(-1), P < 0.05). Fetal protein accretion (2.6 ± 0.5 and 2.2 ± 0.6 μmol·min(-1)·kg(-1) in AA and Con, respectively), synthesis (6.2 ± 0.8 and 7.0 ± 0.9 μmol·min(-1)·kg(-1) in AA and Con, respectively), and degradation (3.6 ± 0.6 and 4.5 ± 1.0 μmol·min(-1)·kg(-1) in AA and Con, respectively) rates were similar between groups. Net fetal glucose uptake decreased in the AA group (2.8 ± 0.4 vs. 3.9 ± 0.1 mg·kg(-1)·min(-1), P < 0.05). The glucose-O(2) quotient also decreased over time in the AA group (P < 0.05). Fetal insulin and IGF-I concentrations did not change. Fetal glucagon increased in the AA group (119 ± 24 vs. 59 ± 9 pg/ml, P < 0.05), and norepinephrine (NE) also tended to increase in the AA group (785 ± 181 vs. 419 ± 76 pg/ml, P = 0.06). Net fetal glucose uptake rates were inversely proportional to fetal glucagon (r(2) = 0.38, P < 0.05), cortisol (r(2) = 0.31, P < 0.05), and NE (r(2) = 0.59, P < 0.05) concentrations. Expressions of components in the mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway in fetal skeletal muscle were similar between groups. In summary, prolonged infusion of amino acids directly into normally growing fetal sheep increased leucine oxidation. Amino acid-stimulated increases in fetal glucagon, cortisol, and NE may contribute to a shift in substrate oxidation by the fetus from glucose to amino acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Maliszewski
- Perinatal Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, USA
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Teodoro GFR, Vianna D, Torres-Leal FL, Pantaleão LC, Matos-Neto EM, Donato J, Tirapegui J. Leucine is essential for attenuating fetal growth restriction caused by a protein-restricted diet in rats. J Nutr 2012; 142:924-30. [PMID: 22457392 DOI: 10.3945/jn.111.146266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Certain amino acids, such as leucine (Leu) are not only substrates for protein synthesis but also are important regulators of protein metabolism. Moreover, it is known that alterations in intrauterine growth favor the development of chronic diseases in adulthood. Therefore, we investigated the role of Leu in combination with other BCAA on effects that are induced by maternal protein restriction on fetal growth. Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups according to the diet provided during pregnancy: control (C; 20% casein); V+I [5% casein + 2% L-valine (Val) + 2% L-isoleucine (Ile)]; KYT [5% casein + 1.8% L-lysine (Lys) + 1.2% L-tyrosine (Tyr) + 1% L-threonine (Thr)]; and BCAA (5% casein + 1.8% L-Leu + 1.2% L-Val + 1% L-Ile). Maternal protein restriction reduced the growth and organ weight of the offspring of dams receiving the V+I and KYT diets compared with the C group. Supplementation with BCAA reversed this growth deficit, minimizing the difference or restoring the mass of organs and carcass fat, the liver and muscle protein, and the RNA concentrations compared with newborns in the C group (P < 0.05). These effects could be explained by the activation of the mTOR signaling pathway, because phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 in the liver of offspring of the BCAA group was greater than that in the C, V+I, and KYT groups. The present results identify a critical role for Leu in association with other BCAA in the activation of the mTOR signaling pathway for the control of altered intrauterine growth induced by a maternal low-protein diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Fullin Resende Teodoro
- Department of Food Science and Experimental Nutrition, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Tea I, Le Gall G, Küster A, Guignard N, Alexandre-Gouabau MC, Darmaun D, Robins RJ. 1H-NMR-based metabolic profiling of maternal and umbilical cord blood indicates altered materno-foetal nutrient exchange in preterm infants. PLoS One 2012; 7:e29947. [PMID: 22291897 PMCID: PMC3264558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adequate foetal growth is primarily determined by nutrient availability, which is dependent on placental nutrient transport and foetal metabolism. We have used 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to probe the metabolic adaptations associated with premature birth. Methodology The metabolic profile in 1H NMR spectra of plasma taken immediately after birth from umbilical vein, umbilical artery and maternal blood were recorded for mothers delivering very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) or normo-ponderal full-term (FT) neonates. Principal Findings Clear distinctions between maternal and cord plasma of all samples were observed by principal component analysis (PCA). Levels of amino acids, glucose, and albumin-lysyl in cord plasma exceeded those in maternal plasma, whereas lipoproteins (notably low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and lipid levels were lower in cord plasma from both VLBW and FT neonates. The metabolic signature of mothers delivering VLBW infants included decreased levels of acetate and increased levels of lipids, pyruvate, glutamine, valine and threonine. Decreased levels of lipoproteins glucose, pyruvate and albumin-lysyl and increased levels of glutamine were characteristic of cord blood (both arterial and venous) from VLBW infants, along with a decrease in levels of several amino acids in arterial cord blood. Conclusion These results show that, because of its characteristics and simple non-invasive mode of collection, cord plasma is particularly suited for metabolomic analysis even in VLBW infants and provides new insights into the materno-foetal nutrient exchange in preterm infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Illa Tea
- Elucidation of Biosynthesis by Isotopic Spectrometry Group, Unit for Interdisciplinary Chemistry, Synthesis-Analysis-Modelling (CEISAM), University of Nantes-CNRS UMR 6230, Nantes, France.
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57
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Yan X, Huang Y, Wang H, Du M, Hess BW, Ford SP, Nathanielsz PW, Zhu MJ. Maternal obesity induces sustained inflammation in both fetal and offspring large intestine of sheep. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011; 17:1513-22. [PMID: 21674707 PMCID: PMC3116110 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Both maternal obesity and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are increasing. It was hypothesized that maternal obesity induces an inflammatory response in the fetal large intestine, predisposing offspring to IBDs. METHODS Nonpregnant ewes were assigned to a control (Con, 100% of National Research Council [NRC] recommendations) or obesogenic (OB, 150% of NRC) diet from 60 days before conception. The large intestine was sampled from fetuses at 135 days (term 150 days) after conception and from offspring lambs at 22.5 ± 0.5 months of age. RESULTS Maternal obesity enhanced mRNA expression tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α, interleukin (IL)1α, IL1β, IL6, IL8, and monocyte/macrophage chemotactic protein-1 (MCP1), as well as macrophage markers, CD11b, CD14, and CD68 in fetal gut. mRNA expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4 was increased in OB versus Con fetuses; correspondingly, inflammatory NF-κB and JNK signaling pathways were also upregulated. Both mRNA expression and protein content of transforming growth factor (TGF) β was increased. The IL-17A mRNA expression and protein content was higher in OB compared to Con samples, which was associated with fibrosis in the large intestine of OB fetuses. Similar inflammatory responses and enhanced fibrosis were detected in OB compared to Con offspring. CONCLUSIONS Maternal obesity induced inflammation and enhanced expression of proinflammatory cytokines in fetal and offspring large intestine, which correlated with increased TGFβ and IL17 expression. These data show that maternal obesity may predispose offspring gut to IBDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Yan
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Yan Huang
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Hui Wang
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Min Du
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Bret W. Hess
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Stephen P. Ford
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
| | - Peter W. Nathanielsz
- Center for Pregnancy and Newborn Research, University of Texas Health Sciences Center, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Mei-Jun Zhu
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
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Erdemoğlu M, Kuyumcuoglu U, Guzel A, Celik Y, Kale E. Amniotic fluid amino acid levels in non-immune hydrops fetalis: a case-control study. Braz J Med Biol Res 2011; 44:725-8. [DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2011007500076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Alexandre-Gouabau MC, Courant F, Le Gall G, Moyon T, Darmaun D, Parnet P, Coupé B, Antignac JP. Offspring Metabolomic Response to Maternal Protein Restriction in a Rat Model of Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR). J Proteome Res 2011; 10:3292-302. [DOI: 10.1021/pr2003193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Cécile Alexandre-Gouabau
- INRA and University of Nantes, UMR-1280 Physiologie des Adaptations Nutritionnelles CHU Hôtel Dieu, 44093 Nantes cedex 1, France
| | - Frédérique Courant
- ONIRIS, USC 2013, Laboratoire d’Etude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA), Nantes, France
| | - Gwénaëlle Le Gall
- Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UA, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Moyon
- INRA and University of Nantes, UMR-1280 Physiologie des Adaptations Nutritionnelles CHU Hôtel Dieu, 44093 Nantes cedex 1, France
| | - Dominique Darmaun
- INRA and University of Nantes, UMR-1280 Physiologie des Adaptations Nutritionnelles CHU Hôtel Dieu, 44093 Nantes cedex 1, France
| | - Patricia Parnet
- INRA and University of Nantes, UMR-1280 Physiologie des Adaptations Nutritionnelles CHU Hôtel Dieu, 44093 Nantes cedex 1, France
| | - Bérengère Coupé
- INRA and University of Nantes, UMR-1280 Physiologie des Adaptations Nutritionnelles CHU Hôtel Dieu, 44093 Nantes cedex 1, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Antignac
- ONIRIS, USC 2013, Laboratoire d’Etude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA), Nantes, France
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60
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Serriere S, Barantin L, Seguin F, Tranquart F, Nadal-Desbarats L. Impact of prenatal stress on 1H NMR-based metabolic profiling of rat amniotic fluid. MAGNETIC RESONANCE MATERIALS IN PHYSICS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2011; 24:267-75. [DOI: 10.1007/s10334-011-0260-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2011] [Revised: 04/15/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Brown LD, Green AS, Limesand SW, Rozance PJ. Maternal amino acid supplementation for intrauterine growth restriction. Front Biosci (Schol Ed) 2011; 3:428-44. [PMID: 21196387 DOI: 10.2741/s162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Maternal dietary protein supplementation to improve fetal growth has been considered as an option to prevent or treat intrauterine growth restriction. However, in contrast to balanced dietary supplementation, adverse perinatal outcomes in pregnant women who received high amounts of dietary protein supplementation have been observed. The responsible mechanisms for these adverse outcomes are unknown. This review will discuss relevant human and animal data to provide the background necessary for the development of explanatory hypotheses and ultimately for the development therapeutic interventions during pregnancy to improve fetal growth. Relevant aspects of fetal amino acid metabolism during normal pregnancy and those pregnancies affected by IUGR will be discussed. In addition, data from animal experiments which have attempted to determine mechanisms to explain the adverse responses identified in the human trials will be presented. Finally, we will suggest new avenues for investigation into how amino acid supplementation might be used safely to treat and/or prevent IUGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura D Brown
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Denver; Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Ashworth CJ, Dwyer CM, McIlvaney K, Werkman M, Rooke JA. Breed differences in fetal and placental development and feto-maternal amino acid status following nutrient restriction during early and mid pregnancy in Scottish Blackface and Suffolk sheep. Reprod Fertil Dev 2011; 23:1024-33. [DOI: 10.1071/rd10290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
This study assessed the effect of feeding 0.75 energy requirements between Days 1 and 90 of pregnancy on placental development and feto-placental amino acid status on Day 125 of pregnancy in Scottish Blackface and Suffolk ewes carrying a single fetus. Such moderate nutrient restriction did not affect placental size, placentome number or the distribution of placentome types. Although fetal weight was unaffected by maternal nutrition, fetuses carried by nutrient restricted mothers had relatively lighter brains and gastrocnemius muscles. Suffolk fetuses were heavier and longer with a greater abdominal circumference, relatively lighter brains, hearts and kidneys, but heavier spleens, livers and gastrocnemius muscles than Blackface fetuses. Total placentome weight was greater in Suffolk than Blackface ewes. Ewe breed had a greater effect on amino acid concentrations than nutrition. Ratios of maternal to fetal amino acid concentrations were greater in Suffolk ewes than Blackface ewes, particularly for some essential amino acids. The heavier liver and muscles in Suffolk fetuses may suggest increased amino acid transport across the Suffolk placenta in the absence of breed differences in gross placental efficiency. These data provide evidence of differences in nutrient handling and partitioning between the maternal body and the fetus in the two breeds studied.
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Rehfeldt C, Lang IS, Görs S, Hennig U, Kalbe C, Stabenow B, Brüssow KP, Pfuhl R, Bellmann O, Nürnberg G, Otten W, Metges CC. Limited and excess dietary protein during gestation affects growth and compositional traits in gilts and impairs offspring fetal growth. J Anim Sci 2010; 89:329-41. [PMID: 20889684 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2010-2970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate whether dietary protein intake during gestation less than or greater than recommendations affects gilts growth and body composition, gestation outcome, and colostrum composition. German Landrace gilts were fed gestation diets (13.7 MJ of ME/kg) containing a low (n = 18; LP, 6.5% CP), an adequate (n = 20; AP, 12.1%), or a high (n = 16; HP, 30%) protein content corresponding to a protein:carbohydrate ratio of 1:10.4, 1:5, and 1:1.3, respectively, from mating until farrowing. Gilts were inseminated by semen of pure German Landrace boars and induced to farrow at 114 d postcoitum (dpc; Exp. 1). Energy and protein intake during gestation were 33.3, 34.4, and 35.8 MJ of ME/d (P < 0.001) and 160, 328, and 768 g/d, respectively, in LP, AP, and HP gilts (P < 0.001). From insemination to 109 dpc, BW gain was least in LP (42.1 kg), intermediate in HP (63.1 kg), and greatest in AP gilts (68.3 kg), whereas increase of backfat thickness was least in gilts fed the HP diet compared with LP and AP diets (3.8, 5.1, 5.0 mm; P = 0.01). Litter size, % stillborn piglets, and mummies were unaffected (P > 0.28) by the gestation diet. Total litter weight tended to be less in the offspring of LP and HP gilts (14.67, 13.77 vs. 15.96 kg; P = 0.07), and the percentage of male piglets was greater in litters of HP gilts (59.4%; P < 0.01). In piglets originating from LP and HP gilts, individual birth weight was less (1.20, 1.21 vs. 1.40 kg; P = 0.001) and birth weight/crown-rump length ratio was reduced (45.3, 46.4 vs. 50.7 g/cm; P = 0.003). Colostrum fat (7.8, 7.4 vs. 8.1%) and lactose concentrations (2.2, 2.1 vs. 2.6%) tended to be reduced in LP and HP gilts (P = 0.10). In Exp. 2, 28 gilts (LP, 10; AP, 9; HP, 9) were treated as in Exp. 1 but slaughtered at 64 dpc. At 64 dpc, LP gilts were 7% lighter than AP gilts (P = 0.03), whereas HP gilts were similar to AP gilts. Body composition was markedly altered in response to LP and HP feeding with less lean (P < 0.01) and greater fat content (P = 0.02 to 0.04) in LP and less fat content (P = 0.02 to 0.04) in HP gilts. Fetal litter weight and number, and embryonic survival at 64 dpc were not affected by the diets. These results indicated that gestation diets containing protein at 50 and 250% of recommendations and differing in protein:carbohydrate ratio led to marked changes in protein and fat metabolism in gilts resulting in fetal growth retardation of 15%, which mainly occurred during the second half of gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rehfeldt
- Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany
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Costa SMR, Silva GAPD. The maternal intrauterine environment as a generator of children at risk of metabolic syndrome: a review. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE SAÚDE MATERNO INFANTIL 2010. [DOI: 10.1590/s1519-38292010000300002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, scientists are paying special attention to the increasing prevalence of obesity and associated co-morbidities, especially metabolic syndrome. This is due to observation of the spread of this syndrome from one generation to another and the growing number of obese pregnant women, which seems to exacerbate this situation. It is not yet well established whether the pathophysiological process underlying metabolic syndrome, namely insulin resistance, is due to changes in the receptor or in the cascade of intracellular processes. This narrative review aims to report on physiological and pathological changes occurring in pregnancy and the presence of Insulin receptor, Insulin Growth Factor-I receptor and the hybrid receptor, focusing on the presence of hyperinsulinemia in the growth and development of fetuses susceptible to metabolic syndrome.
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Lewis RM, Greenwood SL, Cleal JK, Crozier SR, Verrall L, Inskip HM, Cameron IT, Cooper C, Sibley CP, Hanson MA, Godfrey KM. Maternal muscle mass may influence system A activity in human placenta. Placenta 2010; 31:418-22. [PMID: 20206993 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2009] [Revised: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
During pregnancy, nutrient partitioning between the mother and fetus must balance promoting fetal survival and maintaining nutritional status of the mother for her health and future fertility. The nutritional status of the pregnant woman, reflected in her body composition, may affect placental function with consequences for fetal development. We investigated the relationship between maternal body composition and placental system A amino acid transporter activity in 103 term placentas from Southampton Women's Survey pregnancies. Placental system A activity was measured as Na(+)-dependent uptake of 10 mumol/L (14)C-methylaminoisobutyric acid (a system A specific amino acid analogue) in placental villous fragments. Maternal body composition was measured at enrollment pre-pregnancy; in 45 infants neonatal body composition was measured using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Term placental system A activity was lower in women with smaller pre-pregnancy upper arm muscle area (r = 0.27, P = 0.007), but was not related to maternal fat mass. System A activity was lower in mothers who reported undertaking strenuous exercise (24.6 vs 29.7 pmol/mg/15 min in sedentary women, P = 0.03), but was not associated with other maternal lifestyle factors. Lower placental system A activity in women who reported strenuous exercise and had a lower arm muscle area may reflect an adaptation in placental function which protects maternal resources in those with lower nutrient reserves. This alteration may affect fetal development, altering fetal body composition, with long-term consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Lewis
- Institute of Developmental Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK.
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Yan X, Zhu MJ, Xu W, Tong JF, Ford SP, Nathanielsz PW, Du M. Up-regulation of Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappaB signaling is associated with enhanced adipogenesis and insulin resistance in fetal skeletal muscle of obese sheep at late gestation. Endocrinology 2010; 151:380-7. [PMID: 19887565 PMCID: PMC2803146 DOI: 10.1210/en.2009-0849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/25/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Maternal obesity is increasing at an alarming rate. We previously showed that maternal obesity induces an inflammatory response and enhances adipogenesis in fetal skeletal muscle at midgestation. The objective of this study was to evaluate effects of maternal obesity on adipogenesis, inflammatory signaling, and insulin pathways at late gestation when ovine fetal skeletal muscle matures. Nonpregnant ewes were assigned to a control diet (Con, fed 100% of National Research Council nutrient recommendations, n = 6) or obesogenic diet (OB, fed 150% of National Research Council recommendations, n = 6) from 60 d before to 135 d after conception (term 148 d) when the fetal semitendenosus skeletal muscle was sampled. Expression of the adipogenic marker, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma, was increased in OB compared with Con fetal semitendenosus muscle, indicating up-regulation of adipogenesis. More intramuscular adipocytes were observed in OB muscle. Phosphorylation of inhibitor-kappaB kinase-alpha/beta and nuclear factor-kappaB RelA/p65 were both increased in OB fetal muscle, indicating activation of nuclear factor-kappaB pathway. Phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and c-Jun (at Ser 63 and Ser 73) was also elevated. Toll-like receptor 4 expression was higher in OB than Con fetal muscle. Moreover, despite higher insulin concentrations in OB vs. Con fetal plasma (2.89 +/- 0.53 vs. 1.06 +/- 0.52 ng/ml; P < 0.05), phosphorylation of protein kinase B at Ser 473 was reduced, indicating insulin resistance. In conclusion, our data show maternal obesity-induced inflammatory signaling in late gestation fetal muscle, which correlates with increased im adipogenesis and insulin resistance, which may predispose offspring to later-life obesity and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Yan
- Department of Animal Science, Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA
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67
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Van den Akker CH, Van Goudoever JB. Recent advances in our understanding of protein and amino acid metabolism in the human fetus. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2010; 13:75-80. [PMID: 19904202 DOI: 10.1097/mco.0b013e328333aa4f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Premature infants often suffer from suboptimal outcome, at least partially due to suboptimal nutrition. Gaining insight into human fetal amino acid metabolism might ultimately lead to an improved nutritional strategy for prematurely born infants. Our aim was, therefore, to discuss recent findings with regard to human fetal amino acid metabolism. RECENT FINDINGS Human fetal protein and amino acid metabolism can be studied in vivo using stable isotope techniques. To date, however, only a few studies employing these techniques have been performed. For one, it was shown in vivo that essential amino acids are transported at different rates across the human placenta. In addition, tyrosine appears not to be a conditionally essential amino acid in the fetus at term, as phenylalanine is hydroxylated into tyrosine at considerable rates. Furthermore, albumin is synthesized at very high rates at two-thirds of gestation; higher than prematurely born infants do at a neonatal intensive care unit. This could indicate that postnatal nutrition of very immature infants can be improved. SUMMARY Although technically challenging, more studies regarding human fetal amino acid metabolism should be performed. Premature infants could then benefit from this knowledge from new nutritional strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Hp Van den Akker
- Erasmus MC - Sophia Children's Hospital, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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68
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Arroyo JA, Brown LD, Galan HL. Placental mammalian target of rapamycin and related signaling pathways in an ovine model of intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 201:616.e1-7. [PMID: 19800600 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2009.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2009] [Revised: 06/13/2009] [Accepted: 07/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Both phosphorylated (p) mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and protein S6 kinase 1 (p70S6K) are known to regulate protein synthesis and are affected during intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). We studied the mTOR pathway during hyperthermia (HT)-induced IUGR in sheep. STUDY DESIGN Beginning at 40 days gestational age, 4 ewes were exposed to HT for 55 days and 4 were exposed for 80 days to induce IUGR. Western blot analyses were performed for mTOR, p70S6K, 4E-binding protein 1, extracellularly regulated kinase (ERK), and AKT. RESULTS HT animals showed: smaller fetuses and placentas near term; reduced placental weight at midgestation; increased p-mTOR, p-ERK, and p-AKT; decreased p70S6K in the near-term cotyledons; decreased p- p70S6K; and increased p-ERK in the caruncles (maternal) near term. CONCLUSION Near-term IUGR ovine cotyledons showed up-regulation of p-mTOR, whereas p70S6K was decreased. This suggests that the changes in placental mTOR signaling proteins could be driven by the fetal stress observed near term in this model of IUGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan A Arroyo
- Division of Perinatal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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69
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Coan PM, Vaughan OR, Sekita Y, Finn SL, Burton GJ, Constancia M, Fowden AL. Adaptations in placental phenotype support fetal growth during undernutrition of pregnant mice. J Physiol 2009; 588:527-38. [PMID: 19948659 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.181214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Undernutrition during pregnancy reduces birth weight and programmes adult phenotype with consequences for life expectancy, but its effects on the phenotype of the placenta, responsible for supplying nutrients for fetal growth, remain largely unknown. Using molecular, morphological and functional analyses, placental phenotype was examined in mice during restriction of dietary intake to 80% of control from day 3 of pregnancy. At day 16, undernutrition reduced placental, but not fetal, weight in association with decreased junctional zone volume and placental expression of glucose transporter Slc2a1. At day 19, both placental and fetal weights were reduced in undernourished mice (91% and 87% of control, respectively, P < 0.01), as were the volume and surface area of the labyrinthine zone responsible for placental nutrient transfer (85% and 86%, respectively, P < 0.03). However, unidirectional materno-fetal clearance of tracer glucose was maintained and methyl-aminoisobutyric acid increased 166% (P < 0.005) per gram of undernourished placenta, relative to controls. This was associated with an 18% and 27% increased placental expression of glucose and system A amino acid transporters Slc2a1 and Slc38a2, respectively, at day 19 (P < 0.04). At both ages, undernutrition decreased expression of the placental specific transcript of the Igf2 gene by 35% (P < 0.01), although methylation of its promoter was unaffected. The placenta, therefore, adapts to help maintain fetal growth when its own growth is compromised by maternal undernutrition. Consequently, placental phenotype is responsive to environmental conditions and may help predict the risk of adult disease programmed in utero.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Coan
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK.
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70
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Wu G, Bazer FW, Burghardt RC, Johnson GA, Kim SW, Li XL, Satterfield MC, Spencer TE. Impacts of amino acid nutrition on pregnancy outcome in pigs: mechanisms and implications for swine production. J Anim Sci 2009; 88:E195-204. [PMID: 19854987 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2009-2446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Pigs suffer up to 50% embryonic and fetal loss during gestation and exhibit the most severe naturally occurring intrauterine growth retardation among livestock species. Placental insufficiency is a major factor contributing to suboptimal reproductive performance and reduced birth weights of pigs. Enhancement of placental growth and function through nutritional management offers an effective solution to improving embryonic and fetal survival and growth. We discovered an unusual abundance of the arginine family of AA in porcine allantoic fluid (a reservoir of nutrients) during early gestation, when placental growth is most rapid. Arginine is metabolized to ornithine, proline, and nitric oxide, and these compounds possess a plethora of physiological functions. Nitric oxide is a vasodilator and angiogenic factor, whereas both ornithine and proline are substrates for placental synthesis of polyamines, which are key regulators of protein synthesis and angiogenesis. Additionally, arginine, leucine, glutamine, and proline activate the mammalian target of rapamycin cell-signaling pathway to enhance protein synthesis and cell proliferation in placentae. To translate basic research on AA biochemistry and nutrition into application, dietary supplementation with 0.83% l-arginine to gilts on d 14 to 28 or d 30 to 114 of gestation increased the number and litter birth weight of live-born piglets. In addition, supplementing the gestation diet with 0.4% l-arginine plus 0.6% l-glutamine enhanced the efficiency of nutrient utilization, reduced variation in piglet birth weight, and increased litter birth weight. By regulating syntheses of nitric oxide, polyamines, and proteins, functional AA stimulate placental growth and the transfer of nutrients from mother to embryo or fetus to promote conceptus survival, growth, and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Wu
- Departments of Animal Science and of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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71
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Fowden AL, Sferruzzi-Perri AN, Coan PM, Constancia M, Burton GJ. Placental efficiency and adaptation: endocrine regulation. J Physiol 2009; 587:3459-72. [PMID: 19451204 PMCID: PMC2742275 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.173013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2009] [Accepted: 05/06/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Size at birth is critical in determining life expectancy and is dependent primarily on the placental supply of nutrients. However, the fetus is not just a passive recipient of nutrients from the placenta. It exerts a significant acquisitive drive for nutrients, which acts through morphological and functional adaptations in the placenta, particularly when the genetically determined drive for fetal growth is compromised by adverse intrauterine conditions. These adaptations alter the efficiency with which the placenta supports fetal growth, which results in optimal growth for prevailing conditions in utero. This review examines placental efficiency as a means of altering fetal growth, the morphological and functional adaptations that influence placental efficiency and the endocrine regulation of these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fowden
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Physiology Building, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK.
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72
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Jozwik M, Pietrzycki B, Jozwik M, Anthony RV. Expression of enzymes regulating placental ammonia homeostasis in human fetal growth restricted pregnancies. Placenta 2009; 30:607-12. [PMID: 19500843 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2009.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 05/06/2009] [Accepted: 05/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Functional placental insufficiency results in impaired feto-placental exchange, and subsequently in fetal growth restriction (FGR). We hypothesized that reductions in placental amino acid transporter activities in FGR pregnancies may be accompanied by abnormal expression of placental ammonia-handling enzymes. Term placentas were obtained from growth restricted (N=11) and normal (N=17) human pregnancies, and examined for glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutaminase (GA) mRNA and protein expression. Northern and Western blots were normalized on human actin mRNA and protein expression. For GA, the presence of mRNA coding the kidney isoform, and the absence of mRNA coding the liver isoform of the enzyme were demonstrated in the human placenta. In FGR pregnancies, placental expression of GDH mRNA was reduced (P<0.05) compared to normal pregnancies (1.576+/-0.144 vs. 2.092+/-0.177, respectively; mean+/-SE), whereas GS and GA mRNA expression was not different between the two types of pregnancy. GDH protein expression were also reduced (P<0.05) in FGR placentas compared to normal placentas (1.055+/-0.079 vs. 1.322+/-0.053, respectively; mean+/-SE). The GS and GA protein expression was not different in FGR pregnancies. Our data indicate that in cases of FGR, glutamate-to-oxoglutarate transformation in the placenta is limited, yet glutamine synthesis from and decomposition to glutamate seems to be preserved. This may reflect down-regulation of GDH in response to decreased fetal liver output and reduced umbilical artery glutamate concentrations in human FGR pregnancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Jozwik
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Biberach Teaching Hospital of Ulm University, 88400 Biberach, Germany
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73
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Sitras V, Paulssen R, Leirvik J, Vårtun A, Acharya G. Placental gene expression profile in intrauterine growth restriction due to placental insufficiency. Reprod Sci 2009; 16:701-11. [PMID: 19372591 DOI: 10.1177/1933719109334256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated global placental gene expression in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR; n = 8) compared to normal pregnancies (n = 8) and studied possible additional effect of preeclampsia. Placental samples were collected from IUGR pregnancies due to placental insufficiency ascertained by hemodynamic studies. Four IUGR pregnancies were associated with preeclampsia. Gene expression profile was evaluated by 30k oligonucleotide microarrays. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed good separation in terms of gene expression patterns between the groups. Pathway analysis showed upregulation of inflammation mediated by chemokine and cytokine signaling pathway in the IUGR placentas. Genes involved in placental glucocorticoid metabolism were also differentially expressed. None of the known imprinted placental genes were differentially expressed. Subgroup analysis between IUGR placentas with and without preeclampsia showed few (n = 27) differentially expressed genes. In conclusion, IUGR due to placental insufficiency appears to alter placental glucocorticoid metabolism, upregulates inflammatory response in placenta, and shares common pathogenic mechanisms with severe early-onset preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasilis Sitras
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital of Northern Norway and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway.
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74
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Lassala A, Bazer FW, Cudd TA, Li P, Li X, Satterfield MC, Spencer TE, Wu G. Intravenous administration of L-citrulline to pregnant ewes is more effective than L-arginine for increasing arginine availability in the fetus. J Nutr 2009; 139:660-5. [PMID: 19225132 PMCID: PMC2666359 DOI: 10.3945/jn.108.102020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
L-arginine administration may be useful for the treatment of intrauterine growth restriction, but concerns remain about effective precursors for administration into pregnant dams. Therefore, we used an ovine model to test the hypothesis that infusion of L-citrulline into the maternal circulation increases L-arginine availability to the fetus. On d 135 +/- 1 of gestation, ewes received an i.v. bolus dose of L-citrulline (155 micromol/kg body weight) or the same dose of L-arginine-HCl. Maternal and fetal arterial blood samples were obtained simultaneously at -120, -60, 0, 5, 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min relative to the time of amino acid administration. Concentrations of arginine in maternal plasma increased to peak values within 5 min after its injection in ewes and declined rapidly thereafter, whereas concentrations of arginine in fetal plasma increased between 15 and 30 min and returned to baseline values by 60 min. In contrast, administration of citrulline increased concentrations of citrulline and arginine in maternal and fetal plasma between 5 and 60 min and values remained elevated thereafter. The differential pharmacokinetics for arginine compared with citrulline infusion was consistent with the observation that the half-life of citrulline was twice that of arginine in ewes. We conclude that i.v. administration of citrulline is more effective than arginine in sustaining high concentrations of arginine in the maternal and fetal circulations of pregnant ewes. These novel findings provide support for studies of the clinical use of arginine and citrulline as therapeutic means to prevent or ameliorate fetal growth retardation in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arantzatzu Lassala
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Fuller W. Bazer
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Timothy A. Cudd
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Peng Li
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Xilong Li
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - M. Carey Satterfield
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Thomas E. Spencer
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Guoyao Wu
- Department of Animal Science and Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
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75
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Morrison JL, Orgeig S. Review: Antenatal Glucocorticoid Treatment of The Growth-restricted Fetus: Benefit or Cost? Reprod Sci 2009; 16:527-38. [DOI: 10.1177/1933719109332821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Janna L. Morrison
- Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia, , Early Origins of Adult Health Research Group, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Sandra Orgeig
- Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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76
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von Versen-Höynck F, Rajakumar A, Parrott MS, Powers RW. Leptin affects system A amino acid transport activity in the human placenta: evidence for STAT3 dependent mechanisms. Placenta 2009; 30:361-7. [PMID: 19203792 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2009.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2008] [Revised: 01/09/2009] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amino acids are important nutrients during fetal development, and the activity of placental amino acid transporters is crucial in the regulation of fetal growth. Leptin, an adipocyte- and placenta-derived hormone, has been proposed to act as a peripheral signal in reproduction in humans. Leptin is elevated during pregnancy and elevated further in pathologic pregnancies such as preeclampsia. However, the role of leptin in placental function has not been fully elucidated. We hypothesize that leptin plays a role in the regulation of placental amino acid transport by activation of the JAK-STAT pathway. METHODS Placental amino acid transport, specifically system A transport was studied in placental villous fragments using the amino acid analog, methylaminoisobutyric acid (MeAIB). Specific inhibitors of the JAK-STAT signal transduction pathway were used to further elucidate their role in leptin-mediated effects on amino acid transport activity. Western blotting was performed to identify STAT3 phosphorylation as a measure of leptin receptor activation. RESULTS Leptin significantly increased system A amino acid transporter activity by 22-42% after 1h of incubation. Leptin activated JAK-STAT signaling pathway as evidenced by STAT3 phosphorylation, and inhibition of STAT3 or JAK2 resulted in 36-45% reduction in system A amino acid transporter activity. Furthermore, blocking endogenously produced leptin also decreased system A transport by 45% comparable to STAT3 inhibition. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that leptin stimulates system A by JAK-STAT dependent pathway in placental villous fragments. Our findings support the autocrine/paracrine role of leptin in regulating amino acid transport in the human placenta.
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Affiliation(s)
- F von Versen-Höynck
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, USA
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77
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Robinson JM, Ackerman WE, Tewari AK, Kniss DA, Vandre DD. Isolation of highly enriched apical plasma membranes of the placental syncytiotrophoblast. Anal Biochem 2009; 387:87-94. [PMID: 19454249 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2009.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2008] [Revised: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The human placenta is a complex organ whose proper function is crucial for the development of the fetus. The placenta contains within its structure elements of the maternal and fetal circulatory systems. The interface with maternal blood is the lining of the placenta, that is a unique compartment known as the syncytiotrophoblast. This large syncytial structure is a single cell layer in thickness, and the apical plasma membrane of the syncytiotrophoblast interacts directly with maternal blood. Relatively little is known about the proteins that reside in this unique plasma membrane or how they may change in various placental diseases. Our goal was to develop methods for isolating highly enriched preparations of this apical plasma membrane compatible with high-quality proteomics analysis and herein describe the properties of these isolated membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Robinson
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Ohio State University, 1645 Neil Ave., 304 Hamilton Hall, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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78
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Oh SY, Choi SJ, Kyung Hee Kim, Cho E, Kim JH, Roh CR. Autophagy-Related Proteins, LC3 and Beclin-1, in Placentas From Pregnancies Complicated by Preeclampsia. Reprod Sci 2008; 15:912-20. [DOI: 10.1177/1933719108319159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Soo-Young Oh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea,
| | - Suk-Joo Choi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kyung Hee Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - EunYoon Cho
- Department of Pathology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jong-Hwa Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Cheong-Rae Roh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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79
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Abstract
Intrauterine programming is the process by which the structure and function of tissues are altered permanently by insults acting during early development. In mammals, the placenta controls intrauterine development by supplying oxygen and nutrients, and by regulating the bioavailability of specific hormones involved in foetal growth and development. Consequently, the placenta is likely to have a key role in mediating the programming effects of suboptimal conditions during development. This review examines placental phenotype in different environmental conditions and places particular emphasis on regulation of placental nutrient transfer capacity and endocrine function by insults known to cause intrauterine programming. More specifically, it examines the effects of a range of environmental challenges on the size, morphology, blood flow and transporter abundance of the placenta and on its rate of consumption and production of nutrients. In addition, it considers the role of hormone synthesis and metabolism by the placenta in matching intrauterine development to the prevailing environmental conditions. The adaptive responses that the placenta can make to compensate for suboptimal conditions in utero are also assessed in relation to the strategies adopted to maximise foetal growth and viability at birth. Environmentally-induced changes in placental phenotype may provide a mechanism for transmitting the memory of early events to the foetus later in gestation, which leads to intrauterine programming of tissue development long after the original insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fowden
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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80
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Jobgen WS, Ford SP, Jobgen SC, Feng CP, Hess BW, Nathanielsz PW, Li P, Wu G. Baggs ewes adapt to maternal undernutrition and maintain conceptus growth by maintaining fetal plasma concentrations of amino acids1. J Anim Sci 2008; 86:820-6. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2007-0624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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81
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Wu G, Bazer FW, Datta S, Johnson GA, Li P, Satterfield MC, Spencer TE. Proline metabolism in the conceptus: implications for fetal growth and development. Amino Acids 2008; 35:691-702. [PMID: 18330497 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-008-0052-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2007] [Accepted: 02/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Although there are published studies of proline biochemistry and nutrition in cultured cells and postnatal animals, little is known about proline metabolism and function in the conceptus (embryo/fetus, associated placental membranes, and fetal fluids). Because of the invasive nature of biochemical research on placental and fetal growth, animal models are often used to test hypotheses of biological importance. Recent evidence from studies with pigs and sheep shows that proline is a major substrate for polyamine synthesis via proline oxidase, ornithine aminotransferase, and ornithine decarboxylase in placentae. Both porcine and ovine placentae have a high capacity for proline catabolism and polyamine production. In addition, allantoic and amniotic fluids contain enzymes to convert proline into ornithine, which is delivered through the circulation to placental tissues. There is exquisite metabolic coordination among integrated pathways that support highest rates of polyamine synthesis and concentrations in placentae during early gestation when placental growth is most rapid. Interestingly, reduced placental and fetal growth are associated with reductions in placental proline transport, proline oxidase activity, and concentrations of polyamines in gestating dams with either naturally occurring or malnutrition-induced growth retardation. Conversely, increasing proline availability in maternal plasma through nutritional or pharmacological modulation in pigs and sheep enhances concentrations of proline and polyamines in placentae and fetal fluids, as well as fetal growth. These novel findings suggest an important role for proline in conceptus metabolism, growth and development, as well as a potential treatment for intrauterine growth restriction, which is a significant problem in both human medicine and animal agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Wu
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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82
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Coe BL, Kirkpatrick JR, Taylor JA, vom Saal FS. A new 'crowded uterine horn' mouse model for examining the relationship between foetal growth and adult obesity. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2008; 102:162-7. [PMID: 18226070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00195.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Obesity is an increasing health problem, not only in developed countries but also all over the world. In addition to the focus on food intake and energy expenditure, current studies suggest two other important influences on adult body weight: birth weight and postnatal rate of growth. A common procedure in laboratory animal studies to examine the relationship of low birth weight and adult obesity is maternal nutrient restriction, but maternal undernutrition is not the basis for the majority of obese individuals in developed countries. We have thus developed a new mouse model for human obesity referred to as 'the crowded uterine horn model'. By removing one ovary from a female CD-1 mouse, the female produces a litter of about 13 pups in one uterine horn, resulting in crowding and a 4-fold difference in placental blood flow among foetuses in a litter. Restricted placental blood flow results in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR); these animals show a 2-fold increase in body weight during the week after weaning, while macrosomial foetuses that go through a very small amount of growth during the same postnatal period. Male mice categorized as IUGR or macrosomic at birth both are obese in adulthood. This pattern of changes in body weight throughout life in male mice mirrors findings from epidemiological studies of human foetuses with IUGR and macrosomia who become obese, and thus may provide a new model that reflects the condition of people in developed countries who become obese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L Coe
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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83
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Limesand SW, Rozance PJ, Smith D, Hay WW. Increased insulin sensitivity and maintenance of glucose utilization rates in fetal sheep with placental insufficiency and intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007; 293:E1716-25. [PMID: 17895285 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00459.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study we determined body weight-specific fetal (umbilical) glucose uptake (UGU), utilization (GUR), and production rates (GPR) and insulin action in intrauterine growth-restricted (IUGR) fetal sheep. During basal conditions, UGU from the placenta was 33% lower in IUGR fetuses, but GUR was not different between IUGR and control fetuses. The difference between glucose utilization and UGU rates in the IUGR fetuses demonstrated the presence and rate of fetal GPR (41% of GUR). The mRNA concentrations of the gluconeogenic enzymes glucose-6-phophatase and PEPCK were higher in the livers of IUGR fetuses, perhaps in response to CREB activation, as phosphorylated CREB/total CREB was increased 4.2-fold. A hyperglycemic clamp resulted in similar rates of glucose uptake and utilization in IUGR and control fetuses. The nearly identical GURs in IUGR and control fetuses at both basal and high glucose concentrations occurred at mean plasma insulin concentrations in the IUGR fetuses that were approximately 70% lower than controls, indicating increased insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, under basal conditions, hepatic glycogen content was similar, skeletal muscle glycogen was increased 2.2-fold, the fraction of fetal GUR that was oxidized was 32% lower, and GLUT1 and GLUT4 concentrations in liver and skeletal muscle were the same in IUGR fetuses compared with controls. These results indicate that insulin-responsive fetal tissues (liver and skeletal muscle) adapt to the hypoglycemic-hypoinsulinemic IUGR environment with mechanisms that promote glucose utilization, particularly for glucose storage, including increased insulin action, glucose production, shunting of glucose utilization to glycogen production, and maintenance of glucose transporter concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean W Limesand
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Aurora, Colorado, USA.
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84
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Abstract
Successful outcome of human pregnancy not only impacts the quality of infant life and well-being, but considerable evidence now suggests that what happens during fetal development may well impact health and well-being into adulthood. Consequently, a thorough understanding of the developmental events that occur between conception and delivery is needed. For obvious ethical reasons, many of the questions remaining about the progression of human pregnancy cannot be answered directly, necessitating the use of appropriate animal models. A variety of animal models exist for the study of both normal and compromised pregnancies, including laboratory rodents, non-human primates and domestic ruminants. While all of these animal models have merit, most suffer from the inability to repetitively sample from both the maternal and fetal side of the placenta, limiting their usefulness in the study of placental or fetal physiology under non-stressed in vivo conditions. No animal model truly recapitulates human pregnancy, yet the pregnant sheep has been used extensively to investigate maternal-fetal interactions. This is due in part to the ability to surgically place and maintain catheters in both the maternal and fetal vasculature, allowing repeated sampling from non-anesthetized pregnancies. Considerable insight has been gained on placental oxygen and nutrient transfer and utilization from use of pregnant sheep. These findings were often confirmed in human pregnancies once appropriate technologies became available. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of human and sheep pregnancy, with emphasis placed on placental development and function as an organ of nutrient transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Barry
- Perinatal Research Facility, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045-0508, USA
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85
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Zhu MJ, Du M, Hess BW, Nathanielsz PW, Ford SP. Periconceptional Nutrient Restriction in the Ewe Alters MAPK/ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt Growth Signaling Pathways and Vascularity in the Placentome. Placenta 2007; 28:1192-9. [PMID: 17586041 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2007] [Revised: 04/20/2007] [Accepted: 05/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated the role of MAPK/ERK1/2 and/or PI3K/Akt signaling pathways in modulating ovine placentomal vascularity in response to periconceptional maternal nutrient restriction. Ewes were randomly assigned to be nutrient restricted (NR, 50% NRC recommendation, N=7) or control fed (CF, 100% NRC recommendation, N=7) from 60 +/- 2 days before to 30 days after conception (day 0). From day 31 of gestation, all ewes (CF and NR) were fed the control diet until necropsy on day 78. On day 78 of gestation, NR ewes exhibited greater vascularity in both caruncular (CAR) and cotyledon (COT) tissues than CF ewes. Akt or ERK1/2 content in CAR and COT arterial tissue did not differ across dietary treatment. The activated forms, phosphorylated Akt and phosphorylated ERK1/2, were significantly increased in COT but not CAR arterial tissues of NR ewes compared to those of CF ewes (P<0.05). For both CF and NR ewes, phosphorylated Akt and phosphorylated ERK1/2 content in COT are higher (P<0.05) than those in CAR arterial tissues. Immunohistochemical staining revealed cytoplasmic and nuclear localization of Akt, phosphorylated Akt, ERK1/2 and phosphorylated ERK1/2, with phosphorylated Akt and phosphorylated-ERK1/2 specifically localized in trophoblast cells, while binucleate cells remained unstained. In placentomal blood vessels, Akt, phosphorylated Akt, ERK1/2 and phosphorylated ERK1/2 were localized to both endothelium and smooth muscle cells. These findings demonstrate for the first time that periconceptional NR increases vascular density in both COT than CAR tissues of the ovine placentome, and that the MAPK/ERK1/2 and/or PI3K/Akt signaling pathways are increased in NR COT but not NR CAR arterial tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Zhu
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
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86
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Abstract
SUMMARYMalaria infection during pregnancy is associated with poor maternal and foetal outcomes including low birth weight. In malaria-endemic areas, low birth weight is primarily a consequence of foetal growth restriction. Little is known on the pathogenesis of foetal growth restriction and our understanding of the relationship between epidemiological observations and the pathogenesis or consequences of disease is incomplete. In this review, we describe these gaps in our knowledge and also try to identify goals for future research into malaria in pregnancy. Foetal growth restriction results from a complex four-dimensional interaction between the foetus, the mother and the malaria parasite over gestation, and research into its pathogenesis may be advanced by combining longitudinal studies with techniques and approaches new to the field of malaria in pregnancy. Such approaches would greatly increase our knowledge on the pathogenesis of this disease and may provide new avenues for intervention strategies.
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87
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Desai M, Gayle D, Han G, Ross MG. Programmed hyperphagia due to reduced anorexigenic mechanisms in intrauterine growth-restricted offspring. Reprod Sci 2007; 14:329-37. [PMID: 17644805 DOI: 10.1177/1933719107303983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Maternal food restriction during pregnancy results in intrauterine growth-restricted (IUGR) newborns with significantly decreased plasma leptin levels. When nursed by ad libitum-fed controls, IUGR offspring exhibit hyperphagia with adult obesity, marked by increased percentage body fat and plasma leptin, suggesting altered anorexigenic pathways. The authors examined leptin signaling pathways and food intake responses to 2 putative anorexic effectors (leptin and sibutramine, a serotonin reuptake inhibitor) in IUGR offspring. From 10 days to term gestation and through lactation, control pregnant rats received ad libitum food, whereas study rats were 50% food restricted. Following birth, litter size was standardized, and all offspring were nursed by control dams. At 3 weeks of age, offspring were weaned to ad libitum laboratory chow. At ages 1 day and 3 weeks, hypothalamic leptin receptor (Ob-Rb) mRNA and total STAT3 protein expression were determined. In addition, phosphorylated STAT3 was measured in 1-day-old offspring administered peripheral leptin. In prepubescent and adult offspring, anorexic effects of leptin and sibutramine were determined. At 1 day of age, IUGR pups showed increased hypothalamic Ob-Rb mRNA and total STAT3 protein expression though reduced leptin activated phosphorylated STAT3. At 3 weeks of age, IUGR offspring had decreased hypothalamic Ob-Rb mRNA expression, although with continued elevated STAT3 protein levels. The IUGR offspring demonstrated resistance to anorexigenic agents, leptin (6 weeks and 6 months), and sibutramine (8 months), as evidenced by less reduction in food intake and less body weight loss than controls. The IUGR offspring demonstrate suppressed leptin-induced STAT3 phosphorylation and impaired anorexigenic response to 2 factors in the central satiety pathway. This reduced anorexigenic function, together with normal or perhaps enhanced orexigenic function, contributes to the development of programmed obesity in IUGR rat offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Desai
- Perinatal Research Laboratories, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, David-Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Torrance, California 90502, USA.
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88
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Braekke K, Ueland PM, Harsem NK, Karlsen A, Blomhoff R, Staff AC. Homocysteine, cysteine, and related metabolites in maternal and fetal plasma in preeclampsia. Pediatr Res 2007; 62:319-24. [PMID: 17622947 DOI: 10.1203/pdr.0b013e318123fba2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Homocysteine is associated with endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular disease, and elevated concentrations of homocysteine have been found in preeclampsia. The purpose of this study was to investigate maternal and fetal concentrations of total homocysteine and related metabolites (including cysteine, choline, and betaine), and possible associations with infant birth weight. Women with preeclampsia (n=47) and controls (n=51), who underwent cesarean section, were included. Maternal plasma, umbilical vein, and artery plasma were analyzed. Median concentrations of homocysteine, cysteine, choline, and betaine were significantly higher in women with preeclampsia than controls, both in maternal and fetal plasma. There were no differences in folate and vitamin B12 concentrations between the groups, neither for maternal nor fetal samples. Maternal homocysteine concentration was a negative predictor for birth weight only in the preeclampsia group. Elevated homocysteine and cysteine concentration in maternal circulation in preeclampsia is reflected in the fetal circulation. The clinical significance of elevated homocysteine and cysteine concentrations in maternal and fetal compartments in preeclampsia remain to be explored, both regarding fetal growth and development of disease later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Braekke
- Department of Pediatric Intensive Care, Ulleval University Hospital, 0407 Oslo, Norway.
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89
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McDonald TJ, Nijland MJ, Nathanielsz PW. The insulin-like growth factor system and the fetal brain: effects of poor maternal nutrition. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2007; 8:71-84. [PMID: 17653868 DOI: 10.1007/s11154-007-9044-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling system plays indispensable roles in pre- and post-natal brain growth and development. A large body of studies using both in vivo null mutant and transgenic mice and in vitro neuronal culture techniques indicate that IGF-I acts directly on the brain while IGF-II effects are mediated to a large extent by IGF-II control of placental growth. It appears that all of the mechanisms, except migration, that are involved in normal brain development, e.g., proliferation, apoptosis, maturation and differentiation, are influenced by IGF-I. While IGF system members are produced in the brain, recent reports in post-natal animals indicate that normal brain health and function are dependent upon transfer of circulating IGF-I from the liver and its transfer across the blood brain barrier. Data showing that this phenomenon applies to pre-natal brain growth and development would make an important contribution to fetal physiology. A number of kinase pathways are able to participate in IGF signaling in brain with respect to nutrient restriction; among the most important are the PI3K/AKT, Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK and mTOR-nutrient sensing pathways. Both maternal and fetal IGF-I peripheral plasma concentrations are greatly reduced in nutrient restriction while IGF-II does not appear to be affected. Nutrient restriction also affects IGF binding protein concentrations while effects on the IGF-I receptor appear to vary with the paradigm. Studies on the effects of nutrient restriction on the fetal primate brain in relation to activity of the IGF system are needed to determine the applicability of rodent studies to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J McDonald
- Center for Pregnancy and Newborn Research, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78253, USA
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90
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Ventolini G, Neiger R. Placental dysfunction: pathophysiology and clinical considerations. J OBSTET GYNAECOL 2007; 26:728-30. [PMID: 17130016 DOI: 10.1080/01443610600955685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Ventolini
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA.
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91
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Rogerson SJ, Hviid L, Duffy PE, Leke RFG, Taylor DW. Malaria in pregnancy: pathogenesis and immunity. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2007; 7:105-17. [PMID: 17251081 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(07)70022-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 362] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Understanding of the biological basis for susceptibility to malaria in pregnancy was recently advanced by the discovery that erythrocytes infected with Plasmodium falciparum accumulate in the placenta through adhesion to molecules such as chondroitin sulphate A. Antibody recognition of placental infected erythrocytes is dependent on sex and gravidity, and could protect from malaria complications. Moreover, a conserved parasite gene-var2csa-has been associated with placental malaria, suggesting that its product might be an appropriate vaccine candidate. By contrast, our understanding of placental immunopathology and how this contributes to anaemia and low birthweight remains restricted, although inflammatory cytokines produced by T cells, macrophages, and other cells are clearly important. Studies that unravel the role of host response to malaria in pathology and protection in the placenta, and that dissect the relation between timing of infection and outcome, could allow improved targeting of preventive treatments and development of a vaccine for use in pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Rogerson
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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92
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Sferruzzi-Perri AN, Owens JA, Standen P, Taylor RL, Heinemann GK, Robinson JS, Roberts CT. Early treatment of the pregnant guinea pig with IGFs promotes placental transport and nutrient partitioning near term. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007; 292:E668-76. [PMID: 17062842 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00320.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Appropriate partitioning of nutrients between the mother and conceptus is a major determinant of pregnancy success, with placental transfer playing a key role. Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) increase in the maternal circulation during early pregnancy and are predictive of fetal and placental growth. We have previously shown in the guinea pig that increasing maternal IGF abundance in early to midpregnancy enhances fetal growth and viability near term. We now show that this treatment promotes placental transport to the fetus, fetal substrate utilization, and nutrient partitioning near term. Pregnant guinea pigs were infused with IGF-I, IGF-II (both 1 mg.kg-1.day-1) or vehicle subcutaneously from days 20-38 of pregnancy (term=69 days). Tissue uptake and placental transfer of the nonmetabolizable radio analogs [3H]methyl-D-glucose (MG) and [14C]aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) in vivo was measured on day 62. Early pregnancy exposure to elevated maternal IGF-I increased placental MG uptake by>70% (P=0.004), whereas each IGF increased fetal plasma MG concentrations by 40-50% (P<0.012). Both IGFs increased fetal tissue MG uptake (P<0.048), whereas IGF-I also increased AIB uptake by visceral organs (P=0.046). In the mother, earlier exposure to either IGF increased AIB uptake by visceral organs (P<0.014), whereas IGF-I also enhanced uptake of AIB by muscle (P=0.044) and MG uptake by visceral organs (P=0.016) and muscle (P=0.046). In conclusion, exogenous maternal IGFs in early pregnancy sustainedly increase maternal substrate utilization, placental transport of MG to the fetus, and fetal utilization of substrates near term. This was consistent with the previously observed increase in fetal growth and survival following IGF treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda N Sferruzzi-Perri
- Research Centre for Reproductive Health, Discipline of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia 5005
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93
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Cahill LE, Peng CYC, Bankovic-Calic N, Sankaran D, Ogborn MR, Aukema HM. Dietary soya protein during pregnancy and lactation in rats with hereditary kidney disease attenuates disease progression in offspring. Br J Nutr 2007; 97:77-84. [PMID: 17217562 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114507250470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Dietary soya protein substitution for casein initiated at weaning slows disease progression in animal models of chronic renal disease. As there is increasing evidence that fetal programming can have a significant impact on kidney physiology and function in offspring, the objective of the current study was to determine whether exposure to soya protein in the diet earlier than weaning would have further benefits. Han:SPRD-cy (cy/+) breeder rats were fed a casein-based or soya protein-based diet 2 weeks prior to mating, throughout pregnancy and during lactation. Following this maternal period, 3-week-old pups were given either the same or the alternate diet for a 7-week weaning period. Dietary soya protein compared with casein in the maternal or weaning period both independently resulted in less renal inflammation (macrophage infiltration lower by 24% (P=0.0003) and 32% (P<0.001), respectively). When soya protein was given in both feeding periods, the effect was additive. Soya protein substitution for casein resulted in less oxidative damages as indicated by 28% lower oxidized-LDL staining (P=0.013) when present in the maternal period, or in the weaning period (by 56%, P<0.0001). Renal cell proliferation was reduced by 29-33% (P<0.05) in rats given soya protein whether the exposure was during the maternal or weaning period. Soya protein compared with casein in the maternal period also resulted in 33% (P=0.0013) less proteinuria, indicating superior renal function. Dietary soya protein during pregnancy and lactation represents a potential preventative approach in treating for those with congenital kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah E Cahill
- Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
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94
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95
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Kale A, Kale E, Akdeniz N, Canoruc N. Elevated amniotic fluid amino acid levels in fetuses with gastroschisis. Braz J Med Biol Res 2006; 39:1021-5. [PMID: 16906276 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2006000800004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2005] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Our objective was to measure maternal plasma and amniotic fluid amino acid concentrations in pregnant women diagnosed as having fetuses with gastroschisis in the second trimester of pregnancy. Twenty-one pregnant women who had fetuses with gastroschisis detected by ultrasonography (gastroschisis group) in the second trimester and 32 women who had abnormal triple screenings indicating an increased risk for Down syndrome but had healthy fetuses (control group) were enrolled in the study. Amniotic fluid was obtained by amniocentesis, and maternal plasma samples were taken simultaneously. The chromosomal analysis of the study and control groups was normal. Levels of free amino acids and non-essential amino acids were measured in plasma and amniotic fluid samples using EZ:fast kits (EZ:fast GC/FID free (physiological) amino acid kit) by gas chromatography (Focus GC AI 3000 Thermo Finnigan analyzer). The mean levels of essential amino acids (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine) and non-essential amino acids (alanine, glycine, proline, and tyrosine) in amniotic fluid were found to be significantly higher in fetuses with gastroschisis than in the control group (P < 0.05). A significant positive correlation between maternal plasma and amniotic fluid concentrations of essential and nonessential amino acids was found only in the gastroschisis group (P < 0.05). The detection of significantly higher amino acid concentrations in the amniotic fluid of fetuses with a gastroschisis defect than in healthy fetuses suggests the occurrence of amino acid malabsorption or of amino acid leakage from the fetus into amniotic fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kale
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dicle University School of Medicine, Diyarbakir, Turkey.
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96
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Zhu MJ, Du M, Hess BW, Means WJ, Nathanielsz PW, Ford SP. Maternal nutrient restriction upregulates growth signaling pathways in the cotyledonary artery of cow placentomes. Placenta 2006; 28:361-8. [PMID: 16822544 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2006.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2006] [Revised: 03/30/2006] [Accepted: 04/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated the role of MAPK/ERK1/2 and/or PI3-K/Akt signaling pathways in modulating bovine placentomal vascularity in response to maternal nutrient restriction. Beef cows were randomly assigned to control fed (Control, n=15, 100% of requirements) or nutrient restricted (NR, n=15, 50% requirements) diets from day 30 to day 125 of gestation. Ten cows from each dietary group were necropsied on day 125 (approximately 45% gestation), and the remaining cows in each diet group were then fed control diets and necropsied on day 250 (approximately 90% gestation). At day 125 of gestation, NR cows exhibited increased (P=0.06) COT vascularity, improved (P<0.05) placentome efficiency (fetal weight/placentomal weight), and increased (P<0.05) phosphorylated Akt and ERK1/2 in COT arteries compared to Control cows. By day 250, however, treatment differences in COT vascularity and phosphorylated Akt and ERK1/2 in COT arteries were lost. On both gestational days, no treatment difference was observed in the levels of phosphorylated Akt or ERK1/2 in CAR arteries. CAR vascularity was similar across treatment on day 125, but tended to be greater (P<0.10) in NR than Control cows on day 250. These data suggest that conceptuses react to an early gestational nutrient restriction by up-regulating COT growth signaling pathways associated with angiogenesis, and that these compensations do not persist to term.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Zhu
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Avenue, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
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97
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Fowden AL, Sibley C, Reik W, Constancia M. Imprinted genes, placental development and fetal growth. HORMONE RESEARCH 2006; 65 Suppl 3:50-8. [PMID: 16612114 DOI: 10.1159/000091506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, imprinted genes have an important role in feto-placental development. They affect the growth, morphology and nutrient transfer capacity of the placenta and, thereby, control the nutrient supply for fetal growth. In particular, the reciprocally imprinted Igf2-H19 gene complex has a central role in these processes and matches the placental nutrient supply to the fetal nutrient demands for growth. Comparison of Igf2P0 and complete Igf2 null mice has shown that interplay between placental and fetal Igf2 regulates both placental growth and nutrient transporter abundance. In turn, epigenetic modification of imprinted genes via changes in DNA methylation may provide a mechanism linking environmental cues to placental phenotype, with consequences for development both before and after birth. Changes in expression of imprinted genes, therefore, have major implications for developmental programming and may explain the poor prognosis of the infant born small for gestational age and the wide spectrum of adult-onset diseases that originate in utero.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fowden
- Department of Physiology, Cambridge, UK.
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98
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Limesand SW, Rozance PJ, Zerbe GO, Hutton JC, Hay WW. Attenuated insulin release and storage in fetal sheep pancreatic islets with intrauterine growth restriction. Endocrinology 2006; 147:1488-97. [PMID: 16339204 DOI: 10.1210/en.2005-0900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We determined in vivo and in vitro pancreatic islet insulin secretion and glucose metabolism in fetuses with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) caused by chronic placental insufficiency to identify functional deficits in the fetal pancreas that might be caused by nutrient restriction. Plasma insulin concentrations in the IUGR fetuses were 69% lower at baseline and 76% lower after glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Similar deficits were observed with arginine-stimulated insulin secretion. Fetal islets, immunopositive for insulin and glucagon, secreted insulin in response to increasing glucose and KCl concentrations. Insulin release as a fraction of total insulin content was greater in glucose-stimulated IUGR islets, but the mass of insulin released per IUGR islet was lower because of their 82% lower insulin content. A deficiency in islet glucose metabolism was found in the rate of islet glucose oxidation at maximal stimulatory glucose concentrations (11 mmol/liter). Thus, pancreatic islets from nutritionally deprived IUGR fetuses caused by chronic placental insufficiency have impaired insulin secretion caused by reduced glucose-stimulated glucose oxidation rates, insulin biosynthesis, and insulin content. This impaired GSIS occurs despite an increased fractional rate of insulin release that results from a greater proportion of releasable insulin as a result of lower insulin stores. Because this animal model recapitulates the human pathology of chronic placental insufficiency and IUGR, the beta-cell GSIS dysfunction in this model might indicate mechanisms that are developmentally adaptive for fetal survival but in later life might predispose offspring to adult-onset diabetes that has been previously associated with IUGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean W Limesand
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210035, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0035, USA.
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99
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Fowden AL, Ward JW, Wooding FPB, Forhead AJ, Constancia M. Programming placental nutrient transport capacity. J Physiol 2006; 572:5-15. [PMID: 16439433 PMCID: PMC1779642 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2005.104141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animal studies and human epidemiological findings have shown that impaired growth in utero is associated with physiological abnormalities in later life and have linked this to tissue programming during suboptimal intrauterine conditions at critical periods of development. However, few of these studies have considered the contribution of the placenta to the ensuing adult phenotype. In mammals, the major determinant of intrauterine growth is the placental nutrient supply, which, in turn, depends on the size, morphology, blood supply and transporter abundance of the placenta and on synthesis and metabolism of nutrients and hormones by the uteroplacental tissues. This review examines the regulation of placental nutrient transfer capacity and the potential programming effects of nutrition and glucocorticoid over-exposure on placental phenotype with particular emphasis on the role of the Igf2 gene in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fowden
- Department of Physiology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK.
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