Analysis and assessment of the occurrence, the fate and the behavior of nanomaterials in the environment

Analysis of silver and gold nanoparticles in environmental water using single particle-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry

The production and use of engineering nanomaterials (ENMs) leads to the release of manufactured or engineered nanoparticles into environment. The quantification and characterization of ENMs are crucial for the assessment of their environmental fate, transport behavior and health risks to humans. To analyze the size distribution and particle number concentration of AgNPs and AuNPs in environmental water and track their stability at low number concentration, a systematic study on SP-ICPMS was presented. The Poisson statistics was used to discuss the effect of dwell time and particle number concentration theoretically on the detection of NPs in solution by SP-ICPMS. The dynamic range of SP-ICPMS is approximately two orders of magnitude. The size detection limits for silver and gold nanoparticle in ultrapure water are 20 and 19nm respectively. The detection limit of nanoparticle number concentration is 8×10(4)particlesL(-1). Size distribution of commercial silver and gold nanoparticle dispersions is determined by SP-ICP-MS, which was in accordance with the TEM results. High particle concentration recoveries of spiked AgNPs and AuNPs are obtained (80-108% and 85-107% for AgNPs and AuNPs respectively in ultrapure and filtered natural water). It indicates that SP-ICPMS can be used to detect AgNPs and AuNPs. The filtration study with different membranes showed that filtration might be a problematic pre-treatment method for the detection of AgNPs and AuNPs in environmental water. Furthermore, the stability of citrate-coated AgNPs and tannic acid-coated AuNPs spiked into filtrated natural and waste water matrix was also studied at low concentration using SP-ICP-MS measurements. Dissolution of AgNPs was observed while AuNPs was stable during a ten day incubation period. Finally SP-ICPMS was used to analyze NPs in natural water and waste water. The results indicate that SP-ICPMS can be used to size metallic nanoparticles sensitively of low concentration under realistic environmental conditions.

Environmental behavior of engineered nanomaterials in porous media: a review

A pronounced increase in the use of nanotechnology has resulted in nanomaterials being released into the environment. Environmental exposure to the most common engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), such as carbon-based and metal-based nanomaterials, can occur directly via intentional injection for remediation purposes, release during the use of nanomaterial-containing consumer goods, or indirectly via different routes. Recent reviews have outlined potential risks assessments, toxicity, and life cycle analyses regarding ENM emission. In this review, inevitable release of ENMs and their environmental behaviors in aqueous porous media are discussed with an emphasis on influencing factors, including the physicochemical properties of ENMs, solution chemistry, soil hydraulic properties, and soil matrices. Major findings of laboratory column studies and numerical approaches for the transport of ENMs are addressed, and studies on the interaction between ENMs and heavy metal ions in aqueous soil environments are examined. Future research is also presented with specific research directions and outlooks.

Effect of nanoparticles on red clover and its symbiotic microorganisms

BACKGROUND

Nanoparticles are produced and used worldwide and are released to the environment, e.g., into soil systems. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and cerium dioxide (CeO2) NPs are among the ten most produced NPs and it is therefore important to test, whether these NPs affect plants and symbiotic microorganisms that help plants to acquire nutrients. In this part of a joint companion study, we spiked an agricultural soil with TiO2 NPs, multi walled CNTs (MWCNTs), and CeO2 NPs and we examined effects of these NP on red clover, biological nitrogen fixation by rhizobia and on root colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). We also tested whether effects depended on the concentrations of the applied NPs.

RESULTS

Plant biomass and AMF root colonization were not negatively affected by NP exposure. The number of flowers was statistically lower in pots treated with 3 mg kg(-1) MWCNT, and nitrogen fixation slightly increased at 3000 mg kg(-1) MWCNT.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that red clover was more sensitive to MWCNTs than TiO2 and CeO2 NPs. Further studies are necessary for finding general patterns and investigating mechanisms behind the effects of NPs on plants and plant symbionts.

Quantitative imaging of 2 nm monolayer-protected gold nanoparticle distributions in tissues using laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)

Functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have unique properties that make them important biomedical materials. Optimal use of these materials, though, requires an understanding of their fate in vivo. Here we describe the use of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to image the biodistributions of AuNPs in tissues from mice intravenously injected with AuNPs. We demonstrate for the first time that the distributions of very small (∼2 nm core) monolayer-protected AuNPs can be imaged in animal tissues at concentrations in the low parts-per-billion range. Moreover, the LA-ICP-MS images reveal that the monolayer coatings on the injected AuNPs influence their distributions, suggesting that the AuNPs remain intact in vivo and their surface chemistry influences how they interact with different organs. We also demonstrate that quantitative images of the AuNPs can be generated when the appropriate tissue homogenates are chosen for matrix matching. Overall, these results demonstrate the utility of LA-ICP-MS for tracking the fate of biomedically-relevant AuNPs in vivo, facilitating the design of improved AuNP-based therapeutics.

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction of silver nanoparticles in water using ionic liquid 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate

Using the ionic liquid (IL) 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate as the extractant and methanol as the dispersion solvent, a dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction method was developed to extract silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from environmental water samples. Parameters that influenced the extraction efficiency such as IL concentration, pH and extraction time were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the highest extraction efficiency for AgNPs was above 90% with an enrichment factor of >90. The extracted AgNPs in the IL phase were identified by transmission electron microscopy and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry after microwave digestion, with a detection limit of 0.01μg/L. The spiked recovery of AgNPs was 84.4% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 3.8% (n=6) at a spiked level of 5μg/L, and 89.7% with a RSD of 2.2% (n=6) at a spiked level of 300μg/L, respectively. Commonly existed environmental ions had a very limited influence on the extraction efficiency. The developed method was successfully applied to the analysis of AgNPs in river water, lake water, and the influent and effluent of a wastewater treatment plant, with recoveries in the range of 71.0%-90.9% at spiking levels of 0.11-4.7μg/L.

Single and joint ecotoxicity data estimation of organic UV filters and nanomaterials toward selected aquatic organisms. Urban groundwater risk assessment

The hazardous potential of organic UV filters (UV-Fs) is becoming an issue of great concern due to the widespread application of these compounds in most daily-use goods, such as hygiene and beauty products. Nanomaterials (NMs) have also been used in personal care products (PCPs) for many years. Nowadays, both classes of chemicals are considered environmental emerging contaminants. Despite some studies performed in vitro and in vivo reported adverse effects of many UV-Fs on the normal development of organisms, there is scarce data regarding acute and chronic toxicity. The aim of the present study was to determine the EC50 values of selected UV-Fs using standardised toxicity assays on three aquatic species i.e. Daphnia magna, Raphidocelis subcapitata and Vibrio fischeri. EC50 values obtained were in the mgl(-1) range for all the species. The estimated toxicity data allowed us to assess the environmental risk posed by selected UV-Fs in urban groundwater from Barcelona (Spain). The calculated ecological risk indicated a negligible impact on the aquifer. Giving the increasing importance of studying mixtures of pollutants and due to the widespread presence of nanomaterials (NMs) in the aquatic environment, other objective of this work was to explore the response on D. magna after exposure to both binary combinations of UV-Fs among them and UV-F with NMs. In all cases but the nano-silver mixtures, joint toxicity was mitigated or even eradicated.

Nano-mineralogy of suspended sediment during the beginning of coal rejects spill

Ultrafine and nanometric sediment inputs into river systems can be a major source of nutrients and hazardous elements and have a strong impact on water quality and ecosystem functions of rivers and lakes regions. However, little is known to date about the spatial distribution of sediment sources in most large scale river basins in South America. The objective of this work was to study the coal cleaning rejects (CCRs) spill that occurred from a CCRs impoundment pond into the Tubarão River, South Brazil, provided a unique occasion to study the importance and role of incidental nanoparticles associated with pollutant dispersal from a large-scale, acute aquatic pollution event. Multifaceted geochemical research by X-ray diffraction (XRD), High Resolution-Transmission Electron microscopy (HR-TEM)/(Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) EDS/(selected-area diffraction pattern) SAED, Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM)/EDS, and Raman spectroscopy, provided an in-depth understanding of importance of a nano-mineralogy approach of Aqueous Pollution Scenarios. The electron beam studies showed the presence of a number of potentially hazardous elements (PHEs) in nanoparticles (amorphous and minerals). Some of the neoformed ultrafine/nanoparticles found in the contaminated sediments are the same as those commonly associated with oxidation/transformation of oxides, silicates, sulfides, and sulfates. These data of the secondary ultra/nanoparticles, puts in evidence their ability to control the mobility of PHEs, suggesting possible presentations in environmental technology, including recuperation of sensitive coal mine. The developed methodology facilitated the sediment transport of the catchment providing consistent results and suggesting its usefulness as a tool for temporary rivers management.

New Insights on the Influence of Organic Co-Contaminants on the Aquatic Toxicology of Carbon Nanomaterials

At present, there is a lack of understanding of the combined ecotoxicity of carbon-based nanomaterials and co-contaminants. In this paper, we report on the toxicity of three carbon nanomaterials (fullerene-soot, multiwall carbon nanotubes, and graphene). Two standardized toxicity bioassays, the immobilization of the invertebrate Daphnia magna and the bioluminescence inhibition of the marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri, have been used. Synergistic and antagonistic effects of binary mixtures composed of fullerene soot and organic co-contaminants as malathion, glyphosate, diuron, triclosan, and nonylphenol were assessed. The isobologram method was used to evaluate the concentrations producing an effect, in comparison to those effects expected by a simple additive approach. In this study, antagonism was the predominant effect. However, synergism was also observed as in the case of D. magna exposed to mixtures of malathion and fullerene soot. D. magna was shown to be the most sensitive assay when carbon nanomaterials were present. Toxicity to D. magna was as follows: fullerene soot > multiwall carbon nanotubes > graphene. These results were proportional to the size of aggregates, smaller aggregates being the most toxic. The vector function of nanomaterials aggregates and the unexpected release inside living organisms was proven for malathion. These results highlight new insights on the risks associated with the release of carbon nanomaterials into the environment.

Analytical characterisation of nanoscale zero-valent iron: A methodological review

Zero-valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI) have been widely tested as they are showing significant promise for environmental remediation. However, many recent studies have demonstrated that their mobility and reactivity in subsurface environments are significantly affected by their tendency to aggregate. Both the mobility and reactivity of nZVI mainly depends on properties such as particle size, surface chemistry and bulk composition. In order to ensure efficient remediation, it is crucial to accurately assess and understand the implications of these properties before deploying these materials into contaminated environments. Many analytical techniques are now available to determine these parameters and this paper provides a critical review of their usefulness and limitations for nZVI characterisation. These analytical techniques include microscopy and light scattering techniques for the determination of particle size, size distribution and aggregation state, and X-ray techniques for the characterisation of surface chemistry and bulk composition. Example characterisation data derived from commercial nZVI materials is used to further illustrate method strengths and limitations. Finally, some important challenges with respect to the characterisation of nZVI in groundwater samples are discussed.

Current limitations and challenges in nanowaste detection, characterisation and monitoring

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are already extensively used in diverse consumer products. Along the life cycle of a nano-enabled product, ENMs can be released and subsequently accumulate in the environment. Material flow models also indicate that a variety of ENMs may accumulate in waste streams. Therefore, a new type of waste, so-called nanowaste, is generated when end-of-life ENMs and nano-enabled products are disposed of. In terms of the precautionary principle, environmental monitoring of end-of-life ENMs is crucial to allow assessment of the potential impact of nanowaste on our ecosystem. Trace analysis and quantification of nanoparticulate species is very challenging because of the variety of ENM types that are used in products and low concentrations of nanowaste expected in complex environmental media. In the framework of this paper, challenges in nanowaste characterisation and appropriate analytical techniques which can be applied to nanowaste analysis are summarised. Recent case studies focussing on the characterisation of ENMs in waste streams are discussed. Most studies aim to investigate the fate of nanowaste during incineration, particularly considering aerosol measurements; whereas, detailed studies focusing on the potential release of nanowaste during waste recycling processes are currently not available. In terms of suitable analytical methods, separation techniques coupled to spectrometry-based methods are promising tools to detect nanowaste and determine particle size distribution in liquid waste samples. Standardised leaching protocols can be applied to generate soluble fractions stemming from solid wastes, while micro- and ultrafiltration can be used to enrich nanoparticulate species. Imaging techniques combined with X-ray-based methods are powerful tools for determining particle size, morphology and screening elemental composition. However, quantification of nanowaste is currently hampered due to the problem to differentiate engineered from naturally-occurring nanoparticles. A promising approach to face these challenges in nanowaste characterisation might be the application of nanotracers with unique optical properties, elemental or isotopic fingerprints. At present, there is also a need to develop and standardise analytical protocols regarding nanowaste sampling, separation and quantification. In general, more experimental studies are needed to examine the fate and transport of ENMs in waste streams and to deduce transfer coefficients, respectively to develop reliable material flow models.

Characterization of polymeric nanomaterials using analytical ultracentrifugation

The characterization of nanomaterials represents a complex analytical challenge due to their dynamic nature (small size, high reactivity, and instability) and the low concentrations in the environment, often below typical analytical detection limits. Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) is especially useful for the characterization of small nanoparticles (1-10 nm), which are often the most problematic for the commonly used techniques such as electron microscopy or dynamic light scattering. In this study, small polymeric nanomaterials (allospheres) that are used commercially to facilitate the distribution of pesticides in agricultural fields were characterized under a number of environmentally relevant conditions. Under most of the studied conditions, the allospheres were shown to have a constant hydrodynamic diameter (dH) of about 7.0 nm. Only small increases in diameter were observed, either at low pH or very high ionic strength or hardness, demonstrating their high physicochemical stability (and thus high mobility in soils). Furthermore, natural organic matter had little effect on the hydrodynamic diameters of the allospheres. The concentration of the nanoparticles was an important parameter influencing their agglomeration-results obtained using dynamic light scattering at high particle concentrations showed large agglomerate sizes and significant particle losses through sedimentation, clearly indicating the importance of characterizing the nanomaterials under environmentally relevant conditions.

A system-of-systems approach as a broad and integrated paradigm for sustainable engineered nanomaterials

There is an urgent need for a trans-disciplinary approach for the collective evaluation of engineered nanomaterial (ENM) benefits and risks. Currently, research studies are mostly focused on examining effects at individual endpoints with emphasis on ENM risk effects. Less research work is pursuing the integration needed to advance the science of sustainable ENMs. Therefore, the primary objective of this article is to discuss the system-of-systems (SoS) approach as a broad and integrated paradigm to examine ENM benefits and risks to society, environment, and economy (SEE) within a sustainability context. The aims are focused on: (a) current approaches in the scientific literature and the need for a broad and integrated approach, (b) documentation of ENM SoS in terms of architecture and governing rules and practices within sustainability context, and (c) implementation plan for the road ahead. In essence, the SoS architecture is a communication vehicle offering the opportunity to track benefits and risks in an integrated fashion so as to understand the implications and make decisions about advancing the science of sustainable ENMs. In support of the SoS architecture, we propose using an analytic-based decision support system consisting of a knowledge base and analytic engine along the benefit and risk informatics routes in the SEE system to build sound decisions on what constitutes sustainable and unsustainable ENMs in spite of the existing uncertainties and knowledge gaps. The work presented herein is neither a systematic review nor a critical appraisal of the scientific literature. Rather, it is a position paper that largely expresses the views of the authors based on their expert opinion drawn from industrial and academic experience.

Oxidative stress and histological changes following exposure to diamond nanoparticles in the freshwater Asian clam Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774)

Recently, the scientific community became aware of the potential ability of nanoparticles to cause toxicity in living organisms. Therefore, many of the implications for aquatic ecosystems and its effects on living organisms are still to be evaluated and fully understood. In this study, the toxicity of nanodiamonds (NDs) was assessed in the freshwater bivalve (Corbicula fluminea) following exposure to different nominal concentrations of NDs (0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 mg l(-1)) throughout 14 days. The NDs were characterized (gravimetry, pH, zeta potential, electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy) confirming manufacturer information and showing NDs with a size of 4-6 nm. Oxidative stress enzymes activities (glutathione-S-transferase, catalase) and lipid peroxidation were determined. The results show a trend to increase in GST activities after seven days of exposure in bivalves exposed to NDs concentrations (>0.1 mg l(-1)), while for catalase a significant increase was found in bivalves exposed from 0.01 to 1.0 mg l(-1) following an exposure of 14 days. The histological analysis revealed alterations in digestive gland cells, such as vacuolization and thickening. The lipid peroxidation showed a trend to increase for the different tested NDs concentrations which is compatible with the observed cellular damage.

Use of an exposure chamber to maintain aqueous phase nanoparticle dispersions for improved toxicity testing in fish

A novel chamber for maintaining aqueous phase dispersions of nanoparticles (NPs) to enable improved toxicity testing in larval zebrafish was developed. Aqueous concentrations were within 80% of initial NP concentrations, and the 96-h median lethal concentration (LC50) values were highly reproducible (coefficient of variation <0.16, n = 3 tests). Significantly lower toxicity for each NP tested (Ag, Cu, and TiO2 NPs) in static beakers suggested that traditional acute toxicity tests may underestimate aqueous phase toxicity of NPs.

Uptake and translocation of metals and nutrients in tomato grown in soil polluted with metal oxide (CeO₂, Fe₃O₄, SnO₂, TiO₂) or metallic (Ag, Co, Ni) engineered nanoparticles

The influence of exposure to engineered nanoparticles (NPs) was studied in tomato plants, grown in a soil and peat mixture and irrigated with metal oxides (CeO2, Fe3O4, SnO2, TiO2) and metallic (Ag, Co, Ni) NPs. The morphological parameters of the tomato organs, the amount of component metals taken up by the tomato plants from NPs added to the soil and the nutrient content in different tomato organs were also investigated. The fate, transport and possible toxicity of different NPs and nutrients in tomato tissues from soils were determined by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The tomato yield depended on the NPs: Fe3O4-NPs promoted the root growth, while SnO2-NP exposure reduced it (i.e. +152.6 and -63.1 % of dry matter, respectively). The NP component metal mainly accumulated in the tomato roots; however, plants treated with Ag-, Co- and Ni-NPs showed higher concentration of these elements in both above-ground and below-ground organs with respect to the untreated plants, in addition Ag-NPs also contaminated the fruits. Moreover, an imbalance of K translocation was detected in some plants exposed to Ag-, Co- and Fe3O4-NPs. The component metal concentration of soil rhizosphere polluted with NPs significantly increased compared to controls, and NPs were detected in the tissues of the tomato roots using electron microscopy (ESEM-EDS).

Nanoparticle tracking analysis characterisation and parts-per-quadrillion determination of fullerenes in river samples from Barcelona catchment area

In the present work, the analysis of seven fullerenes (C60 and C70 fullerenes and five functionalised fullerenes) has been performed in river samples collected in the vicinities of Barcelona (Catalonia, NE of Spain). The results of 48 samples (25 river waters, 12 river sediments and 11 wastewater effluents) are presented. Extracts of river water, river sediments and wastewater effluents were analysed by liquid chromatography (LC), using a pyrenylpropyl group bonded silica based column, coupled to a high-resolution mass spectrometer (HRMS), using a dual ion source, atmospheric pressure photoionisation/atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation source (APPI/APCI). The novel methodology presents good chromatographic separation, excellent selectivity and instrumental limits of quantification (ILOQ) in the femtogram order. Method limits of quantification (MLOQ) ranged from 2.9 to 17 pg/l and from 3.2 to 31 pg/l in surface waters and wastewaters, respectively. In wastewater effluents, the sums of C60 and C70 ranged from 0.5 to 9.3 ng/l. In surface waters, C60 fullerene was the most ubiquitous compound, being detected in 100% of the samples in concentrations from 31 pg/l to 4.5 ng/l, while C70 concentrations ranged from less than the method limits of detection (MLOD) to 1.5 ng/l. The presence of fullerenes in both the large particulate (diameter Ø > 450 nm) and the colloidal (Ø < 450 nm) fractions of surface waters should be noticed. In sediments, the concentrations of fullerenes were between the MLOD and 34.4 pg/g. In addition, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) was used for the characterisation of water samples in terms of nanoparticle number concentration and size distribution. As far as our knowledge is concerned, this is the first time that NTA has been used for the characterisation of complex river waters with an environmental focus.

Size-dependent reactivity of magnetite nanoparticles: a field-laboratory comparison

Logistic challenges make direct comparisons between laboratory- and field-based investigations into the size-dependent reactivity of nanomaterials difficult. This investigation sought to compare the size-dependent reactivity of nanoparticles in a field setting to a laboratory analog using the specific example of magnetite dissolution. Synthetic magnetite nanoparticles of three size intervals, ∼ 6 nm, ∼ 44 nm, and ∼ 90 nm were emplaced in the subsurface of the USGS research site at the Norman Landfill for up to 30 days using custom-made subsurface nanoparticle holders. Laboratory analog dissolution experiments were conducted using synthetic groundwater. Reaction products were analyzed via TEM and SEM and compared to initial particle characterizations. Field results indicated that an organic coating developed on the particle surfaces largely inhibiting reactivity. Limited dissolution occurred, with the amount of dissolution decreasing as particle size decreased. Conversely, the laboratory analogs without organics revealed greater dissolution of the smaller particles. These results showed that the presence of dissolved organics led to a nearly complete reversal in the size-dependent reactivity trends displayed between the field and laboratory experiments indicating that size-dependent trends observed in laboratory investigations may not be relevant in organic-rich natural systems.

Evaluation of carbon nanotubes network toxicity in zebrafish (Danio rerio) model

This is a detailed in vivo study of the biological response to carbon nanotubes network as probed by the zebrafish model. First, we prepared pristine carbon nanotubes (CNTs) by methanol chemical vapor deposition in the presence of Mn and Co as catalysts, followed by purification in acid, which furnished curved tubes with diameters lying between 10 and 130 nm. The CNT network consisted of pristine CNTs dispersed in water in the presence of a surfactant. The CNT network pellets corresponded to agglomerated multi-walled CNTs with an average diameter of about 500 nm. Although the same pristine CNTs had been previously found to exert genotoxic effects in vitro, here we verified that the CNT network was not genotoxic in vivo. Indeed, Raman spectroscopy and microscopy conducted in the intestine of the zebrafish revealed complete clearance of the CNT network as well as minimal disturbances, such as aneurysms, hyperemia, and reversible inflammatory focus in the zebrafish gills.

Ionic-liquid-micelle-functionalized mesoporous Fe3O4 microspheres for ultraperformance liquid chromatography determination of anthraquinones in dietary supplements

A magnetic solid-phase extraction method using ionic liquid (IL)-micelle-functionalized mesoporous Fe3O4 microspheres (MFMs) was proposed for the preconcentration of anthraquinones in dietary supplements. The analytes were then determined by ultraperformance liquid chromatography combined with an ultraviolet detector. The extraction parameters, such as the choice of ILs, the concentrations of ILs and MFMs, the pH of diluent, and the concentration of acetic acid in the eluent, were presented. Under the optimized conditions, the limits of detection and limits of quantitation were 0.4-2.8 ng mL(-1) and 1.4-9.4 ng mL(-1), respectively. The accuracy of the proposed method was investigated by recovery in herb and granules of Radix et Rhizoma Rhei, yielding values between 89.25% and 96.48%. The use of the proposed method in the sample pretreatment of complex dietary supplements is feasible due to the high surface area and excellent adsorption capacity of MFMs after modification with IL.

Behavior of TiO(2) released from Nano-TiO(2)-containing paint and comparison to pristine Nano-TiO(2)

In the assessment of the fate and effects of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), the current focus is on studying the pristine, unaltered materials. However, ENM are incorporated into products and are released over the whole product life cycle, though mainly during the use and disposal phases. So far, released ENMs have only been characterized to a limited extent and almost nothing is known about the behavior of these materials under natural conditions. In this work we obtained material that was released from aged paint containing nano-TiO2, characterized the particulate materials, and studied their colloidal stability in media with different pH and ionic composition. A stable suspension was obtained from aged paint powder by gentle shaking in water, producing a dilute suspension of 580 μg/L TiO2 with an average particle size of 200-300 nm. Most particles in this suspension were small pieces of paint matrix that also contained nano-TiO2. Some free nano-TiO2 particles were observed by electron microscopy, but the majority was enclosed by the organic paint binder. The pristine nano-TiO2 showed the expected colloidal behavior with increasing stability with increasing pH and strong agglomeration above the isoelectric point and settling in the presence of Ca. The released TiO2 showed very small variations in particle size, ζ potential, and colloidal stability, even in the presence of 3 mM Ca. The results show that the behavior of released ENM may not necessarily be predicted by studying the pristine materials. Additionally, effect studies need to focus more on the particles that are actually released as we can expect that the toxic effect will also be markedly different between pristine and product released materials.

A preliminary investigation on nanohorn toxicity in marine mussels and polychaetes

Single walled carbon nanohorns (SWCNHs) are a black nanoscale spherical aggregate of cylindrical tubes of graphitic carbon which differ from nanotubes in their "horn-like" shape. Their peculiar structure makes them one of the best electronconductors at a nanoscale level. Although not commercially exploited, their rapid environmental diffusion is expected to rise significantly in the next few years. Therefore, we appraised the ecotoxicology of SWCNH powders by taking into account the ecological role of the two species that were deployed in exposure experiments: polychaetes, Hediste diversicolor, and mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis. Adult mussels and polychaetes were exposed to three SWCNH concentrations: 1, 5, and 10 mg L(-1) and acute effects were measured after 24 and 48 h. Sub-lethal effects were estimated at level of physiological functions such as digestion in mussels (i.e. variations in lysosomal parameters and lipofuscin content) and the antioxidant system in both species (i.e. glutathione peroxidase activity and malondialdehyde content). SWCNH suspension in sea water was also characterised, highlighting the formation of aggregates the size of which was related to SWCNH concentrations and their resident time in the medium. The results showed that SWCNH affected the oxidative and lysosomal systems on the hepatopancreas and led to lysosomal alterations on haemocytes in mussels. The biological responses were less clear in polychaetes. This preliminary investigation highlighted the need of focusing future research efforts on possible physiological impairments caused by long-term exposure to SWCNHs in marine species.

Fabricated nanoparticles: current status and potential phytotoxic threats

Nanotechnology offers unique attributes to various industrial and consumer sectors, and has become a topic of high interest to scientific communities across the world. Our society has greatly benefitted from nanotechnology already, in that many products with novel properties and wide applicability have been developed and commercialized. However, the increased production and use of nanomaterials have raised concerns about the environmental fate and toxicological implications of nanoparticles and nanomaterials. Research has revealed that various nanomaterials may be hazardous to living organisms. Among biota, plants are widely exposed to released nanomaterials and are sensitive to their effects. The accumulation of nannmaterials in the environment is a potential threat, not only because of potential damage to plants hut also because nanoparticles may enter the food chain. Although the literature that addresses the safety of nanoproducts is growing, little is known about the mechanisms by which these materials produce toxicity on natural species, including humans. In this paper, we have reviewed the literature relevant to what phytotoxic impact fabricated nanoparticles (e.g., carbon nanotubes, metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles, and certain other nanomaterials) have on plants. Nanoparticles produce several effects on plant physiology and morphology. Nanoparticles are known to affect root structure, seed germination, and cellular metabolism. Nanoparticles inhibit growth, induce oxidative stress, morphogenetic abnormalities and produce clastogenic disturbances in several plant species. The size, shape and surface coating of NPs play an important role in determining their level of toxicity. Of course, the dose, route of administration, type of dispersion media, and environmental exposure also contribute to how toxic nanoparticles are to plants. Currently, nanotoxicity studies are only in their initial phases of development and more research will be required to identify the actual threat nanoproducts pose to the plant system. To date, data show that there is a large variation in the phytotoxicity caused by different NPs. Moreover, the studies conducted thus far have mostly relied on microscopy to detect effects. Studies that incorporate measures and analyses undertaken with more modern tools are needed. Among new data that are most urgently needed on NPs is how fabricated NPs behave once released into the environment, and how exposure to them may affect plant resistance, metabolic pathways, and plant genetic responses. In this review, we have attempted to collect, present and summarize recent findings from the literature on nanoparticle toxicity in plants. To strengthen the analysis, we propose a scheme for accessing NP toxicity. We also recommend how the potential challenges presented by increased production and release of NPs should be addressed. It is our belief and recommendation that every nanomaterial-based product be subjected to appropriate toxicity and associated assessment before being commercialized.

Extraction and analysis of silver and gold nanoparticles from biological tissues using single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

Expanded use of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in consumer products increases the potential for environmental release and unintended biological exposures. As a result, measurement techniques are needed to accurately quantify ENP size, mass, and particle number distributions in biological matrices. This work combines single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICPMS) with tissue extraction to quantify and characterize metallic ENPs in environmentally relevant biological tissues for the first time. ENPs were extracted from tissues via alkaline digestion using tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH). Method development was performed using ground beef and was verified in Daphnia magna and Lumbriculus variegatus . ENPs investigated include 100 and 60 nm Au and Ag stabilized by polyvynylpyrrolidone (PVP). Mass- and number-based recovery of spiked Au and Ag ENPs was high (83-121%) from all tissues tested. Additional experiments suggested ENP mixtures (60 and 100 nm Ag ENPs) could be extracted and quantitatively analyzed. Biological exposures were also conducted to verify the applicability of the method for aquatic organisms. Size distributions and particle number concentrations were determined for ENPs extracted from D. magna exposed to 98 μg/L 100 nm Au and 4.8 μg/L 100 nm Ag ENPs. The D. magna nanoparticulate body burden for Au ENP uptake was 613 ± 230 μg/kgww, while the measured nanoparticulate body burden for D. magna exposed to Ag ENPs was 59 ± 52 μg/kgww. Notably, the particle size distributions determined from D. magna tissues suggested minimal shifts in the size distributions of ENPs accumulated, as compared to the exposure media.

Release of TiO2 from paints containing pigment-TiO2 or nano-TiO2 by weathering

The release of nanomaterials from products and applications that are used by industry and consumers has only been studied to a very limited extent. The amount and the characteristics of the released particles determine the potential environmental exposure. In this work we investigated the release of Ti from paints containing pigment-TiO2 and nano-TiO2. Panels covered with paint with and without nano-TiO2 were exposed to simulated weathering by sunlight and rain in climate chambers. The same paints were also studied in small-scale leaching tests to elucidate the influence of various parameters on the release such as composition of water, type of support and UV-light. Under all conditions we only observed a very low release close to background values, less than 1.5 μg l(-1) in the climate chamber over 113 irrigations per drying cycle and between 0.5 and 14 μg l(-1) in the leaching tests, with the highest concentrations observed after prolonged UV-exposure. The actual release of Ti over the 113 weathering cycles was only 0.007% of the total Ti, indicating that TiO2 was strongly bound in the paint. Extraction of UV-exposed and then milled paint resulted in about 100-times larger release of Ti from the nano-TiO2 containing paint whereas the paint with only pigment-TiO2 did not show this increase. This indicated that the release of Ti from the paints is an effect of the addition of nano-TiO2, either by photocatalytic degradation of the organic paint matrix (observed by electron microscopic imaging of the paint surface) or by direct release of nano-TiO2. Our work suggests that paints containing nano-TiO2 may release only very limited amounts of materials into the environment, at least over the time-scales investigated in this work.

Synthesis and characterization of polyvinylpyrrolidone coated cerium oxide nanoparticles

There is a pressing need for the development of standard and reference nanomaterials for environmental nanoscience and nanotoxicology. To that aim, suspensions of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-coated ceria nanoparticles (NPs) were produced. Four differently sized monodispersed samples were produced by using different PVP chain lengths. The chemical and physical properties of these NPs were characterized as prepared and in different ecotoxicology exposure media. Dynamic light scattering analysis showed that the samples were monodispersed, with an unchanged size when suspended in the different media over a 72 h period. Electron microscopy confirmed this and revealed that the larger (ca. 20 nm) particles were aggregates composed of the smaller individual particles (4-5 nm). Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) showed that the smallest and largest samples were composed almost entirely of cerium(III) oxide, with only small amounts of cerium(IV) present in the largest sample. Dissolved cerium concentrations in media were low and constant, showing that the NPs did not dissolve over time. The simple synthesis of the these NPs and their physical and chemical stability in different environmental conditions make them potentially suitable for use as reference materials for (eco)toxicology and surface water environmental studies.

Evaluation of engineered nanoparticle toxic effect on wastewater microorganisms: current status and challenges

The use of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in a wide range of products is associated with an increased concern for environmental safety due to their potential toxicological and adverse effects. ENPs exert antimicrobial properties through different mechanisms such as the formation of reactive oxygen species, disruption of physiological and metabolic processes. Although there are little empirical evidences on environmental fate and transport of ENPs, biosolids in wastewater most likely would be a sink for ENPs. However, there are still many uncertainties in relation to ENPs impact on the biological processes during wastewater treatment. This review provides an overview of the available data on the plausible effects of ENPs on AS and AD processes, two key biologically relevant environments for understanding ENPs-microbial interactions. It indicates that the impact of ENPs is not fully understood and few evidences suggest that ENPs could augment microbial-mediated processes such as AS and AD. Further to this, wastewater components can enhance or attenuate ENPs effects. Meanwhile it is still difficult to determine effective doses and establish toxicological guidelines, which is in part due to variable wastewater composition and inadequacy of current analytical procedures. Challenges associated with toxicity evaluation and data interpretation highlight areas in need for further research studies.

Toxicological effects induced by the nanomaterials fullerene and nanosilver in the polychaeta Laeonereis acuta (Nereididae) and in the bacteria communities living at their surface

Fullerene (nC60) and nanosilver (nAg) are nanomaterials with bactericide properties. The increments in their use raise questions about their potential environmental impacts, including estuarine ones. The polychaete Laeonereis acuta (Nereididae) secretes mucus that is colonized by bacteria communities. We analyzed the antioxidant and oxidative damage responses of anterior, middle and posterior region of L. acuta and bacteria communities after nC60 or nAg exposure during 24 h. Molecular analysis showed a prevalence of Vibrio genera in the communities. Bacteria biomass was lowered in worms exposed to 1.0 mg/L of nAg. nC60 reduced total antioxidant capacity of bacteria from worms exposed to 0.1 mg/L. Worms anterior region presented lower antioxidant capacity after exposure to 1.0 mg nC60/L, and the same was observed in the posterior region of worms exposed to 1.0 mg nAg/L. Lipid peroxidation was reduced in the anterior region of worms exposed to nC60 and the opposite was observed in the posterior region.

Increased adsorption of sulfamethoxazole on suspended carbon nanotubes by dissolved humic acid

Although dissolved organic matter (DOM) could effectively disperse carbon nanotubes (CNTs), sorption characteristics of DOM-suspended CNTs are unclear. In this study, we evaluated the relative contribution to the overall sorption from dissolved humic acid (DHA) coating (decreased sorption) and CNT dispersion (increased sorption). We observed that the sorption coefficients of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) on DHA-suspended CNTs were up to 2 orders of magnitude higher than that on aggregated CNTs. Although the mass percent of suspended CNTs were low (generally less than 1%), their contributions to SMX adsorption were up to 20%. Because DHA and SMX did not interact with each other due to their negative charges, the suspended CNTs may not be completely coated by DHA and they had considerable hydrophobic surface exposed. Importantly, this study provided the first evidence in aqueous phase of the significantly increased surface area of DHA-suspended CNTs relative to the aggregated ones based on (1)H NMR relaxometry measurements. This study emphasizes that in comparison to aggregated CNTs, the suspended ones have amply exposed surface area and thus have greater environmental impacts, such as enhancing the mobility, transport, and possibly exposure of organic contaminants.

Graphene oxide-facilitated reduction of nitrobenzene in sulfide-containing aqueous solutions

The main objective of this study was to test the possibility that graphene-based nanomaterials can mediate environmentally relevant abiotic redox reactions of organic contaminants. We investigated the effect of graphene oxide (GO) on the reduction of nitrobenzene by Na2S in aqueous solutions. With the presence of GO (typically 5 mg/L), the observed pseudofirst-order rate constant (kobs) for the reduction of nitrobenzene was raised by nearly 2 orders of magnitude (from 7.83 × 10(-5) h(-1) to 7.77 × 10(-3) h(-1)), strongly suggesting reaction mediation by GO. As reflected by the combined spectroscopic analyses, GO was reduced in the beginning of the reaction, and hence the reduced GO (RGO) mediated the reduction of nitrobenzene. It was proposed that the zigzag edges of RGO acted as the catalytic active sites, while the basal plane of RGO served as the conductor for the electron transfer during the catalytic process. Furthermore, changing the pH (5.9-9.1) and the presence of dissolved humic acid (10 mg TOC/L) were found to greatly influence the catalytic activity of RGO. The results imply that graphene-based nanomaterials may effectively mediate the reductive transformation of nitroaromatic compounds and can contribute to the natural attenuation and remediation of these chemicals.

Advanced Analytical Techniques for the Measurement of Nanomaterials in Food and Agricultural Samples: A Review

Nanotechnology offers substantial prospects for the development of state-of-the-art products and applications for agriculture, water treatment, and food industry. Profuse use of nanoproducts will bring potential benefits to farmers, the food industry, and consumers, equally. However, after end-user applications, these products and residues will find their way into the environment. Therefore, discharged nanomaterials (NMs) need to be identified and quantified to determine their ecotoxicity and the levels of exposure. Detection and characterization of NMs and their residues in the environment, particularly in food and agricultural products, have been limited, as no single technique or method is suitable to identify and quantify NMs. In this review, we have discussed the available literature concerning detection, characterization, and measurement techniques for NMs in food and agricultural matrices, which include chromatography, flow field fractionation, electron microscopy, light scattering, and autofluorescence techniques, among others.